University College of Borås - Robotics

Group
http://www.ing.hb.se

An Introduction to Machine Vision

IPWS
n.n@hb.se

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The Problem
• The process of interpreting 2D images of 3D scenes.
(i.e many to one mapping)

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The Problem
• The process of interpreting 2D images of 3D scenes.
(i.e many to one mapping)

• The process has given time constraints

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The Problem
• The process of interpreting 2D images of 3D scenes.
(i.e many to one mapping)

• The process has given time constraints

• The set of features for interpretation is usually know before hand

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A Classification of the
Stages within the Process

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Sensing
The process of acquiring and quantising the image of the scene

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Sensing
The process of acquiring and quantising the image of the scene

• The most important variables in this process are

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Sensing
The process of acquiring and quantising the image of the scene

• The most important variables in this process are

 Resolution of the image measured in terms of
∗ the number of pixels within the image plane and
∗ the number of bits used to represent a pixel

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Sensing
The process of acquiring and quantising the image of the scene

• The most important variables in this process are

 Resolution of the image measured in terms of
∗ the number of pixels within the image plane and
∗ the number of bits used to represent a pixel
 Illumination

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Sensing
The process of acquiring and quantising the image of the scene

• The most important variables in this process are

 Resolution of the image measured in terms of
∗ the number of pixels within the image plane and
∗ the number of bits used to represent a pixel
 Illumination

• These determine the fundamental limits on what can be achieved

in later stages

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5/120 2 3 L2 3M 3 2

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Preprocessing
This usually performs of two functions

• Noise Reduction -removal of what is unwanted

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Preprocessing
This usually performs of two functions

• Noise Reduction -removal of what is unwanted

• Enhancement - emphasising what is required for later stages

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Preprocessing
This usually performs of two functions

• Noise Reduction -removal of what is unwanted

• Enhancement - emphasising what is required for later stages

Both effective selectively change the signal-to-noise ratio of compo-

nents in the image

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Segmentation
• This process groups the pixels in the image into ’related’ regions.

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Segmentation
• This process groups the pixels in the image into ’related’ regions.

• This groups often correspond to areas of the image with similar

physical 3D characteristics i.e
 edges

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Segmentation
• This process groups the pixels in the image into ’related’ regions.

• This groups often correspond to areas of the image with similar

physical 3D characteristics i.e
 edges
 colour

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Segmentation
• This process groups the pixels in the image into ’related’ regions.

• This groups often correspond to areas of the image with similar

physical 3D characteristics i.e
 edges
 colour
 texture

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9/120 2 3 L2 3M 3 2

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Feature Extraction
• This process represents the segmented region using some form
of abstraction

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Feature Extraction
• This process represents the segmented region using some form
of abstraction

• Often in the form of vectors of numbers called feature vectors

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Feature Extraction
• This process represents the segmented region using some form
of abstraction

• Often in the form of vectors of numbers called feature vectors

• There is a loss of information at this point and the features repre-

sent only the chosen characteristic.

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Matching
• This process associates the feature vectors with know or ex-
pected regions in the 3D scene.

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Matching
• This process associates the feature vectors with know or ex-
pected regions in the 3D scene.

• This often involves a local model of the expected scene

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Interpretation
• Assigns a globally consistent match to all the individually matched
regions region to produce an interpretation of the entire scene.

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Interpretation
• Assigns a globally consistent match to all the individually matched
regions region to produce an interpretation of the entire scene.

• Often with the help of a global model of the expected scene.

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Note
• These individual stages are not independent.

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Note
• These individual stages are not independent.

• In the implementation of a time efficient system they often overlap

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Illumination

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• This is the most critical aspect of the machine vision problem.

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• This is the most critical aspect of the machine vision problem.

• A badly chosen illumination scheme can make what is a tractable

problem intractable.

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• This is the most critical aspect of the machine vision problem.

• A badly chosen illumination scheme can make what is a tractable

problem intractable.

• The illumination scheme must be suitable for the features which

are to be measured.

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• This is the most critical aspect of the machine vision problem.

• A badly chosen illumination scheme can make what is a tractable

problem intractable.

• The illumination scheme must be suitable for the features which

are to be measured.

• There are 4 basic schemes

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Diffuse Lighting

Diffusing
Surface
Object

Shadow Light
source

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Often used

• to enhance the surface characteristics when the employed with

smooth or regular surfaces.

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Often used

• to enhance the surface characteristics when the employed with

smooth or regular surfaces.

• to remove shadows

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Directional Lighting







































































































































































































































































































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• Used to enhance the scattering properties of the scene, when
observed from the camera’s perspective

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• Used to enhance the scattering properties of the scene, when
observed from the camera’s perspective

• This can be used to identify defects in a smooth surface, which

may appear as bright spots on a dark background.

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• Used to enhance the scattering properties of the scene, when
observed from the camera’s perspective

• This can be used to identify defects in a smooth surface, which

may appear as bright spots on a dark background.

• The angle of reflectance is chosen to reflect light away from the

camera for a smooth surface

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Back lighting






































































































Collimated Light Source

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• This is used to enhance the object boundaries.

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• This is used to enhance the object boundaries.

• It produces a silhouette of the object without the need for prepro-

cessing

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• This is used to enhance the object boundaries.

• It produces a silhouette of the object without the need for prepro-

cessing

• Suits quantitative measurement

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Structured Lighting

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• This is a group of techniques which identifies variation in an ex-
pected pattern of illumination.

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• This is a group of techniques which identifies variation in an ex-
pected pattern of illumination.

• The pattern of illumination is chosen based on the features to be

extracted.

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• This is a group of techniques which identifies variation in an ex-
pected pattern of illumination.

• The pattern of illumination is chosen based on the features to be

extracted.

• Suitable for quantitative measurement.

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Connectivity

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• Used to define the neighbours or those pixels belonging to a re-
lated set such as a connected boundary

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• Used to define the neighbours or those pixels belonging to a re-
lated set such as a connected boundary

• Various kinds of connectivity can be defined (given quantisation of

a square pixel grid)

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• Used to define the neighbours or those pixels belonging to a re-
lated set such as a connected boundary

• Various kinds of connectivity can be defined (given quantisation of

a square pixel grid)

 N4 (p) those pixels a unit distance away from p

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• Used to define the neighbours or those pixels belonging to a re-
lated set such as a connected boundary

• Various kinds of connectivity can be defined (given quantisation of

a square pixel grid)

 N4 (p) those pixels a unit distance away from p

√
 ND (p) those pixels at 2 from p

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• Used to define the neighbours or those pixels belonging to a re-
lated set such as a connected boundary

• Various kinds of connectivity can be defined (given quantisation of

a square pixel grid)

 N4 (p) those pixels a unit distance away from p

√
 ND (p) those pixels at 2 from p
 N8 (p) the set of all adjacent pixels

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• Used to define the neighbours or those pixels belonging to a re-
lated set such as a connected boundary

• Various kinds of connectivity can be defined (given quantisation of

a square pixel grid)

 N4 (p) those pixels a unit distance away from p

√
 ND (p) those pixels at 2 from p
 N8 (p) the set of all adjacent pixels

• Note Square pixel grids are not the usual case.

Typically they have an aspect ratio of 4 : 3

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N4(p)

q
q p q
q

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ND(p)

q q
p
q q

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N8(p)

q q q
q p q
q q q

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Mixed Connectivity

0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 1 0

0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0

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Ambiguity
• The edge of the hole is not connected if we apply N4 connectivity

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Ambiguity
• The edge of the hole is not connected if we apply N4 connectivity

• The hole and background are connected if we simply apply N8 con-

nectivity to both background and edge

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Ambiguity
• The edge of the hole is not connected if we apply N4 connectivity

• The hole and background are connected if we simply apply N8 con-

nectivity to both background and edge

• Neither definition gives a unique definition of connectedness

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Ambiguity
• The edge of the hole is not connected if we apply N4 connectivity

• The hole and background are connected if we simply apply N8 con-

nectivity to both background and edge

• Neither definition gives a unique definition of connectedness

=⇒ M-connectivity

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M-Connectivity
M-connectivity is said to exist for the pixels q and p
(where p, q ∈ V the set of interest)

• If q ∈ N4 (p)

• Or

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M-Connectivity
M-connectivity is said to exist for the pixels q and p
(where p, q ∈ V the set of interest)

• If q ∈ N4 (p)

• Or

• If q ∈ ND (p) And N4 (p) ∩ N4 (q) = 0/

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M-Connectivity
M-connectivity is said to exist for the pixels q and p
(where p, q ∈ V the set of interest)

• If q ∈ N4 (p)

• Or

• If q ∈ ND (p) And N4 (p) ∩ N4 (q) = 0/

Note: this may not be implemented directly but can be implicitly achieved
by choosing an appropriate search order.

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 p q is not a member of N (p)
1 1 4
q
1 q is a member of N (p)
D
1








 

    


 1  



 1
p
N (p) intersect N (q) is empty
q 4 4
1













  









1

 


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Measures of Distance
• Metrics are distance measures with defined properties

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Measures of Distance
• Metrics are distance measures with defined properties

• A Metrics d is a real valued function

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Measures of Distance
• Metrics are distance measures with defined properties

• A Metrics d is a real valued function

• Metrics can be used to measure the distance between

pixels or features

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Properties of a Metric
Positivity

d(p, q) ≥ 0

d(p, q) = 0 i f f p = q

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Symmetry

d(p, q) = d(q, p)

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Symmetry

d(p, q) = d(q, p)

Triangle Inequality

d(p, z) + d(q, z) ≥ d(p, q)

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 q=(xq , yq )

d(p,q) d(z,q)

z=(x ,y )
p=(xp , yp ) d(p,z) z z

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Some Metrics

Euclidean Metric
q
de(p, q) = (x p − xq)2 + (y p − yq)2

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Absolute Metric

da =| x p − xq | + | y p − yq |

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Absolute Metric

da =| x p − xq | + | y p − yq |

Maximum Value Metric

dm(p, q) = max(| x p − xq |, | y p − yq |)

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Observations
• de (p, q)2 is not a metric since the triangle inequality does not
hold.

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Observations
• de (p, q)2 is not a metric since the triangle inequality does not
hold.

• Truncated or rounded version of de (.) also violate the triangle

inequality

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Observations
• de (p, q)2 is not a metric since the triangle inequality does not
hold.

• Truncated or rounded version of de (.) also violate the triangle

inequality

• Area A is a metric.

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Observations
• de (p, q)2 is not a metric since the triangle inequality does not
hold.

• Truncated or rounded version of de (.) also violate the triangle

inequality

• Area A is a metric.

• Perimeter P is a metric

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 • =⇒Thinness T is a metric
 
A
T = 4π 0≤T ≤1
P2

for a circle T =1

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• Aspect ratio AR is a metric
length
AR =
breadth

Length

Breadth

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Approaches to Preprocessing
A simple categorisation of approaches

• Spatial Domain
Use the spatial relationships between pixels and their values i.e.
changes in intensity in a local neighbourhood of pixels

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Approaches to Preprocessing
A simple categorisation of approaches

• Spatial Domain
Use the spatial relationships between pixels and their values i.e.
changes in intensity in a local neighbourhood of pixels

• Frequency domain
The relationships of quantities after transformation with
an orthonormal function. i.e. 2D Fourier transform

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Approaches to Preprocessing
A simple categorisation of approaches

• Spatial Domain
Use the spatial relationships between pixels and their values i.e.
changes in intensity in a local neighbourhood of pixels

• Frequency domain
The relationships of quantities after transformation with
an orthonormal function. i.e. 2D Fourier transform

• Statical distributions
The statistical distribution of pixel intensities in the image

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Spatial Domain Methods
• Often based upon the passing a small mask of constant values
(i.e. 3 × 3 ) over the image.

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Spatial Domain Methods
• Often based upon the passing a small mask of constant values
(i.e. 3 × 3 ) over the image.

• Each mask is chosen to perform a particular function and prepro-

cessing involves several passes.

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Spatial Domain Methods
• Often based upon the passing a small mask of constant values
(i.e. 3 × 3 ) over the image.

• Each mask is chosen to perform a particular function and prepro-

cessing involves several passes.

• Since the processing with the mask is equivalent to convolution

of the image

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Spatial Domain Methods
• Often based upon the passing a small mask of constant values
(i.e. 3 × 3 ) over the image.

• Each mask is chosen to perform a particular function and prepro-

cessing involves several passes.

• Since the processing with the mask is equivalent to convolution

of the image

• there is a direct relationship between spatial and frequency do-

main techniques

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Spatial Domain Methods
• Often based upon the passing a small mask of constant values
(i.e. 3 × 3 ) over the image.

• Each mask is chosen to perform a particular function and prepro-

cessing involves several passes.

• Since the processing with the mask is equivalent to convolution

of the image

• there is a direct relationship between spatial and frequency do-

main techniques

• Spatial methods are often a more efficient method of process-

ing except for very large images.

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Convolution by a Mask

(0,0) x
0,0 1,0 2,0 ...
0,1 ... ... ...
0,2 ... ... ...
...

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 input image output image




 


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If the pixels are p1, . . . , p9 and the weights in the mask are w1 . . . w9
i.e

w1 w2 w3
w2 w5 w6
w7 w8 w9
then the new output pixel value is

0
p = Σi=1wi pi
9

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Frequency domain Methods
• For smaller images frequency based methods are usually more
time consuming than spatial methods

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Frequency domain Methods
• For smaller images frequency based methods are usually more
time consuming than spatial methods

• However, certain operations which are difficult to achieve using

spatial methods are easier in the frequency domain
 i.e. the frequency spectrum of the image is invariant under
translation and rotation

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Frequency domain Methods
• For smaller images frequency based methods are usually more
time consuming than spatial methods

• However, certain operations which are difficult to achieve using

spatial methods are easier in the frequency domain
 i.e. the frequency spectrum of the image is invariant under
translation and rotation

• Usually the transformation used is separable i.e 2D FFT

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Frequency domain Methods
• For smaller images frequency based methods are usually more
time consuming than spatial methods

• However, certain operations which are difficult to achieve using

spatial methods are easier in the frequency domain
 i.e. the frequency spectrum of the image is invariant under
translation and rotation

• Usually the transformation used is separable i.e 2D FFT

• NOTE: the 1D FFT can be used to produce and invariant feature

vector of a boundary

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Computing the 2D FFT of an Image
1. Compute the 1D FFT transformation for each row producing an ar-
ray of coefficients

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Computing the 2D FFT of an Image
1. Compute the 1D FFT transformation for each row producing an ar-
ray of coefficients

1. Multiply these by N the dimension of the row

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Computing the 2D FFT of an Image
1. Compute the 1D FFT transformation for each row producing an ar-
ray of coefficients

1. Multiply these by N the dimension of the row

1. Take the 1D FFT of these values

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Statistical Methods
These form of methods depends on which stage they are used in the
processing of the image

• Preprocessing
where they are often used to generate a description of the
intensities of a region of an image

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Statistical Methods
These form of methods depends on which stage they are used in the
processing of the image

• Preprocessing
where they are often used to generate a description of the
intensities of a region of an image

• Segmentation
where they used to form a texture description

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Statistical Methods
These form of methods depends on which stage they are used in the
processing of the image

• Preprocessing
where they are often used to generate a description of the
intensities of a region of an image

• Segmentation
where they used to form a texture description

• Matching and Interpretation

Bayesian classifiers.

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 0 255

Background
Pawn

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Preprocessing of Grey Scale Images

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Noise Reduction- Neighbourhood Averaging
Let

f be the input image

g be the output image

n be the number of pixels in the neighbourhood about and

including f (x, y)

Σi=n
i=1 f i
g(x, y) =
n

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For a 3 × 3 neighbourhood n = 9 and the mask

1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1 1
the result would then be divided by n

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 Raw 3x3 5x5

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 Raw 3x3 5x5
N. Smoothed N. Smoothed

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• The assumption for the noise reduction is that any noise in the
image is randomly distributed according to a zero mean Gaussian
distribution

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• The assumption for the noise reduction is that any noise in the
image is randomly distributed according to a zero mean Gaussian
distribution

• This has the effect of blurring the image

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• The assumption for the noise reduction is that any noise in the
image is randomly distributed according to a zero mean Gaussian
distribution

• This has the effect of blurring the image

• The larger the neighbourhood the larger the blurring effect

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Noise Reduction - Median Filtering
Median filtering requires

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Noise Reduction - Median Filtering
Median filtering requires

• that the pixels be sorted according to their intensity values.

(i.e. lowest to highest)

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Noise Reduction - Median Filtering
Median filtering requires

• that the pixels be sorted according to their intensity values.

(i.e. lowest to highest)

• then the value for which half the members are less and half the
values are larger is taken

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Noise Reduction - Median Filtering
Median filtering requires

• that the pixels be sorted according to their intensity values.

(i.e. lowest to highest)

• then the value for which half the members are less and half the
values are larger is taken

For a 3 × 3 neighbourhood this corresponds to the 5th values

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• This approach is slower than Neighbourhood averaging but does
not blur the image.

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• This approach is slower than Neighbourhood averaging but does
not blur the image.

• Thus is its appropriate for cases where quantitative

edge measurements are require.

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• This approach is slower than Neighbourhood averaging but does
not blur the image.

• Thus is its appropriate for cases where quantitative

edge measurements are require.

• The median is a non-parametric statistic and so makes

no assumption about the noise distribution

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Noise Reduction - Integration
If we assume the noise distribution is ’salt and pepper’ noise

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Noise Reduction - Integration
If we assume the noise distribution is ’salt and pepper’ noise

• has zero mean

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Noise Reduction - Integration
If we assume the noise distribution is ’salt and pepper’ noise

• has zero mean

• is additive

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Noise Reduction - Integration
If we assume the noise distribution is ’salt and pepper’ noise

• has zero mean

• is additive

• is uncorrelated with the image

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Noise Reduction - Integration
If we assume the noise distribution is ’salt and pepper’ noise

• has zero mean

• is additive

• is uncorrelated with the image

Simply averaging images of the same scene over time will reduce
the noise

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Edge Enhancement
in Grey Scale Images

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• Edges in an image are rapid changes in intensity.

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• Edges in an image are rapid changes in intensity.

• These correspond, in the 3D world to,

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• Edges in an image are rapid changes in intensity.

• These correspond, in the 3D world to,

• surface discontinuities

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• Edges in an image are rapid changes in intensity.

• These correspond, in the 3D world to,

• surface discontinuities

• reflectance boundaries

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• Edges in an image are rapid changes in intensity.

• These correspond, in the 3D world to,

• surface discontinuities

• reflectance boundaries

• illumination boundaries

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In order to distinguish between the cause of an edge we require

• a model of illumination in our scene

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In order to distinguish between the cause of an edge we require

• a model of illumination in our scene

• a geometric model of the poses other objects within the scene

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In order to distinguish between the cause of an edge we require

• a model of illumination in our scene

• a geometric model of the poses other objects within the scene

• This is not usually the case

 Therefore all edges are processed similarly

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The principle of edge enhancement
• Since an edge is a rapid change in intensity between adjacent
pixels in an image

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The principle of edge enhancement
• Since an edge is a rapid change in intensity between adjacent
pixels in an image

• The most obvious process would be to take the difference be-

tween pixels.

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• Producing a local approximation to the rate of change of inten-
sity

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• Producing a local approximation to the rate of change of inten-
sity

• The edge could be emphasised further by taking the second

difference

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• Producing a local approximation to the rate of change of inten-
sity

• The edge could be emphasised further by taking the second

difference

• However, in both cases the images must be filtered to reduce the

noise prior to using these methods

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 Image

Intensity
Profile

First
Derivative

Second
Derivative

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    
δf
Gx δx
Gradient[ f (x, y)] =  = 
δf
Gy δy

Gradient is a vector and points in the direction of the maximum rate

of change.

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The magnitude is often sufficient for the characterisation of edges

 2 1
2 2
magnitude = Gx + Gy

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The magnitude is often sufficient for the characterisation of edges

1
magnitude = Gx + G2y 2
 2 

often another metric is chosen to reduce the computation required

such as

magnitude ≈| Gx | + | Gy |

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 δf δf
The first order partial derivatives δx and δy can be obtained in a number
of ways

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Forward difference

δf
Gx = = f (x, y) − f (x − 1, y)
δx

δf
Gy = = f (x, y) − f (x, y − 1)
δy

The masks which follow are all discrete approximations of the first
or second derivative

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2 × 2 Roberts Cross Operator
The simplest approximation to the gradient

1 -1 a b
1 -1 c d

R(a) =| a − d | + | b − c |

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Laplacian ∇2

• This implements an approximation to the second derivative for a

N4 connected neighbourhood or N8.

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Laplacian ∇2

• This implements an approximation to the second derivative for a

N4 connected neighbourhood or N8.
• It has a larger neighbourhood and thus is less susceptible to the
effect of noise that the simple Roberts Cross operator

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Laplacian ∇2

• This implements an approximation to the second derivative for a

N4 connected neighbourhood or N8.
• It has a larger neighbourhood and thus is less susceptible to the
effect of noise that the simple Roberts Cross operator

• However, it use requires significant noise reduction.

0 1 0 1 1 1
1 -4 1 1 -8 1
0 1 0 1 1 1

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Sobel Operators
• This a weighted first difference using two masks.

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Sobel Operators
• This a weighted first difference using two masks.

• One for change in the x direction and the other the y

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Sobel Operators
• This a weighted first difference using two masks.

• One for change in the x direction and the other the y

• The result is usually an approximation to the the magnitude of the
vector sum.

-1 -2 -1 -1 0 1
Gy : 0 0 0 Gx : -2 0 2
1 2 1 -1 0 1

magintude =| Gx | + | Gy |

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 Edge

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Segmentation
Given a

• primal sketch
an image in which the features to be used for segmentation are
enhanced.

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Segmentation
Given a

• primal sketch
an image in which the features to be used for segmentation are
enhanced.

• Segmentation
subdivides the image into regions which have similar proper-
ties

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• Thus similarity and discontinuity play are the basis for segmentation
techniques

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• Thus similarity and discontinuity play are the basis for segmentation
techniques

• One quantity on which to base a measure of similarity is pixel

intensity

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Thresholding
Binary Thresholding classifies each pixel individually as belonging to
one of two classes based upon a threshold value T


 ↑ f (x, y) > T
g(x, y) =
 ↓ f (x, y) ≤ T

where (↑, ↓) can be suitable values such as (255, 0) or (1, 0)

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Thresholding techniques are said to be

• Global

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Thresholding techniques are said to be

• Global

• Variable or

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Thresholding techniques are said to be

• Global

• Variable or

• Dynamic

in nature depending on the method used to calculate T

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Global
• The values T is calculated using the statistics derived from the
entire image

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Global
• The values T is calculated using the statistics derived from the
entire image

• This single value T is used to classify all pixels in the image

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Variable
• Also known as local threshold techniques

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Variable
• Also known as local threshold techniques

• Use local neighbourhoods of pixels to generate a local thresh-

old for the neighbourhood.

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Variable
• Also known as local threshold techniques

• Use local neighbourhoods of pixels to generate a local thresh-

old for the neighbourhood.

• Thus there a number of thresholds T1 , . . . Tn are used to classify

an entire image

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Variable
• Also known as local threshold techniques

• Use local neighbourhoods of pixels to generate a local thresh-

old for the neighbourhood.

• Thus there a number of thresholds T1 , . . . Tn are used to classify

an entire image

• Most often these the neighbourhoods do not overlap

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Variable
• Also known as local threshold techniques

• Use local neighbourhoods of pixels to generate a local thresh-

old for the neighbourhood.

• Thus there a number of thresholds T1 , . . . Tn are used to classify

an entire image

• Most often these the neighbourhoods do not overlap

• Variable threshold techniques can adapt to variations in illumina-

tion (i.e. shadows)

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 32

















 



 



  



















 

























































  



 




 



  

  



 


 

 


 

 

 






















 



 



  










  



  



   










  



  



  
T00 T10 .. 32 















 





 



 
 



 

 


 

 


  





 

 


 

 


  













  



  



  



 

 



 

 



 

 

 
.. 









 




 




  


 


  


  


  

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Dynamic
• In principle each pixel is classified according to its own threshold
which is based on the pixels neighbourhood.

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Dynamic
• In principle each pixel is classified according to its own threshold
which is based on the pixels neighbourhood.

• For most applications this is impractical

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Calculation of Threshold values
based upon Statistical Analysis

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• These techniques often sample the neighbourhood and create a
histogram of pixel intensities representing their distribution.

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• These techniques often sample the neighbourhood and create a
histogram of pixel intensities representing their distribution.

• In the idea case the histogram will be be bi-modal where one mode
represents

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• These techniques often sample the neighbourhood and create a
histogram of pixel intensities representing their distribution.

• In the idea case the histogram will be be bi-modal where one mode
represents
 the object (i.e. what we wish to isolate) and the other

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• These techniques often sample the neighbourhood and create a
histogram of pixel intensities representing their distribution.

• In the idea case the histogram will be be bi-modal where one mode
represents
 the object (i.e. what we wish to isolate) and the other
 the background(i.e. everything else)

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However, often the image constrains

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However, often the image constrains

• more than one object,

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However, often the image constrains

• more than one object,

• more than one background or shadows and

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However, often the image constrains

• more than one object,

• more than one background or shadows and

• thus the histogram is multi-modal

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However, often the image constrains

• more than one object,

• more than one background or shadows and

• thus the histogram is multi-modal

• Multiple thresholding techniques do exist but are by their nature

less robust.

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• The approach then is to either to

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• The approach then is to either to

• control the scene (i.e. backlighting) or

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• The approach then is to either to

• control the scene (i.e. backlighting) or

• choose the pixel intensity selectively for the image

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• Given that we are often concerned with edges

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• Given that we are often concerned with edges

• It is possible to form a distribution of only those pixels which have a

larger gradient and thus lie near on a edge

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 1

Gy 1 −1

−1

Gx

Gx + Gy > ε

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• If we assume that the relevant regions of the image can be distin-
guished in the histogram (i.e. separable distribution)

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• If we assume that the relevant regions of the image can be distin-
guished in the histogram (i.e. separable distribution)

• then suitable thresholds will correspond to the troughs or dips in

the histogram

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• If we assume that the relevant regions of the image can be distin-
guished in the histogram (i.e. separable distribution)

• then suitable thresholds will correspond to the troughs or dips in

the histogram

• the method chosen for the selection of a particular point for the
trough contains assumptions about the underlying distribution.

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Piecewise Approximation
• This approach makes and piece wise linear approximation to the
distribution

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Piecewise Approximation
• This approach makes and piece wise linear approximation to the
distribution

• The troughs and thus the threshold values are a subset of the
points of intersection.

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Piecewise Approximation
• This approach makes and piece wise linear approximation to the
distribution

• The troughs and thus the threshold values are a subset of the
points of intersection.

• This approach can be simply extended to multiple thresholds

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 T
Intensity

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Class Separation
Iterative technique which attempts to optimise

B(T ) = N1N2(M1 − M2)2

N1 the number of pixels with intensities< T

N2 the number of pixels with intensities ≥ T

M1 the mean intensity of the pixels whose values are < T

M2 the mean intensity of the pixels whose values are ≥ T

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• The value (M1 − M2 )2 corresponds to a measure of separation
of the two means

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• The value (M1 − M2 )2 corresponds to a measure of separation
of the two means

• The value N1 N2 corresponds to a measure of symmetry

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• The value (M1 − M2 )2 corresponds to a measure of separation
of the two means

• The value N1 N2 corresponds to a measure of symmetry

• The value B(T ) is a maximum for r the optimal T for a bi-modal

distribution

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 2
(M − M )
1 2
M1 N1 M N
2 2

Intensity Intensity

Global Mean

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Optimal Threshold Selection
The calculation of the optimal threshold requires that we know

Po(z) the probability density function of the pixel intensity for the
object

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Optimal Threshold Selection
The calculation of the optimal threshold requires that we know

Po(z) the probability density function of the pixel intensity for the
object

Pb(z) the probability density function of the pixel intensity for the
background

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Optimal Threshold Selection
The calculation of the optimal threshold requires that we know

Po(z) the probability density function of the pixel intensity for the
object

Pb(z) the probability density function of the pixel intensity for the
background

pb , po the a priori probabilities of there being background and ob-

ject respectively in the image

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That the image consists of only object and background so

po + pb = 1

so that the probability density function for the image P(z) is given by

P(z) = po.Po(z) + pb.Pb(z)

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Thus the optimal threshold is at the point at which the two distri-
butions intersect

po.Po(T ) = pb.Pb(T )

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Thus the optimal threshold is at the point at which the two distri-
butions intersect

po.Po(T ) = pb.Pb(T )

if we assume that both pixel distributions are Gaussian distributions

i.e for the object

 
(z−mo )2
1 − 2
Po(z) = √ exp 2σo
2πσo

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• then assuming σo = σb = σ and substituting Po (z) and Pb (z)
and into

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• then assuming σo = σb = σ and substituting Po (z) and Pb (z)
and into

po.Po(T ) = pb.Pb(T )

• solving for T gives

mo + mb σ2 po
T= + ln
2 (mo − mb) pb

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• If σ = 0 or Po = Pb then T then simply becomes the average of
the means mo , mb

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• If σ = 0 or Po = Pb then T then simply becomes the average of
the means mo , mb

• For most practical cases the assumptions are not realisable

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The Pyramidal Threshold Technique
• The approach is to partition the image in to a set of non-overlapping
quad-tree like regions R

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The Pyramidal Threshold Technique
• The approach is to partition the image in to a set of non-overlapping
quad-tree like regions R

• Determine if there is sufficient variability in each region r to be

able to determine a local threshold
Often based upon the variance of the histogram for the region

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The Pyramidal Threshold Technique
• The approach is to partition the image in to a set of non-overlapping
quad-tree like regions R

• Determine if there is sufficient variability in each region r to be

able to determine a local threshold
Often based upon the variance of the histogram for the region

• If not, determine a histogram from adjacent regions and re-calculate

the variability

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The Pyramidal Threshold Technique
• The approach is to partition the image in to a set of non-overlapping
quad-tree like regions R

• Determine if there is sufficient variability in each region r to be

able to determine a local threshold
Often based upon the variance of the histogram for the region

• If not, determine a histogram from adjacent regions and re-calculate

the variability
 if the variability is sufficient use the threshold of this large region
for r

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The Pyramidal Threshold Technique
• The approach is to partition the image in to a set of non-overlapping
quad-tree like regions R

• Determine if there is sufficient variability in each region r to be

able to determine a local threshold
Often based upon the variance of the histogram for the region

• If not, determine a histogram from adjacent regions and re-calculate

the variability
 if the variability is sufficient use the threshold of this large region
for r
 if not enlarge the region and continue

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 T00 T10 T20 T30

T01 T11 T21 T31 T’ T’

TGlobal

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A Distance Weighted Variation
• This approach does not create the entire pyramid but only the
first layer.

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A Distance Weighted Variation
• This approach does not create the entire pyramid but only the
first layer.

• The regions with insufficient variability calculate their thresholds as

a weighted mean of those neighbouring regions with a thresh-
old.

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A Distance Weighted Variation
• This approach does not create the entire pyramid but only the
first layer.

• The regions with insufficient variability calculate their thresholds as

a weighted mean of those neighbouring regions with a thresh-
old.

• The thresholds of the neighbouring regions are inversely weighted

by the distance to the unassigned region

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 T T T1 T
2 2

T T T
1 ? 1

T T T T
2 1 2
T T T T

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Binary Image Processing
• The sequence of previous stages result in binary image i.e. where
each pixel may have only one of two values

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Binary Image Processing
• The sequence of previous stages result in binary image i.e. where
each pixel may have only one of two values

• The transformation to a binary image often results in

 broken lines

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Binary Image Processing
• The sequence of previous stages result in binary image i.e. where
each pixel may have only one of two values

• The transformation to a binary image often results in

 broken lines
 isolated pixels

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Binary Image Processing
• The sequence of previous stages result in binary image i.e. where
each pixel may have only one of two values

• The transformation to a binary image often results in

 broken lines
 isolated pixels
 missing corners

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Binary Image Processing
• The sequence of previous stages result in binary image i.e. where
each pixel may have only one of two values

• The transformation to a binary image often results in

 broken lines
 isolated pixels
 missing corners

• Binary Image Morphology provides a general theory to tackle

these problems.We will look at these later.

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Removal of Isolated pixels

a b c 0 0 0
d p e 0 1 0
f g h 0 0 0

a+b+c+d + p+e+ f +g+h

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Look Up Table Implementation

Form an index i

i = 512.a+256.b+64.c+32.d +16.p+8.e+4. f +2.g+h

or

i = 2(2(2(2(2(2(2(2(2a+b)+c)+d)+ p)+e)+ f )+g)+h

in to an array of 512 elements containing the Boolean function repre-

sented as

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 Index a b c d p e f g h output

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
... ...
511

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Boundary Isolation
There various definitions of exactly what constitutes a boundary

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 0 0

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

0 0

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  4  4  4
1 0 [ 1 1 [ 1 1
B=     
0 0 0 0 1 0

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Chain Code
Chain code is a standardised form used to encode connected se-
quences of pixels

3 2 1

4 p 0

5 6 7
114/120 2 3 L2 3M 3 2

3 2 ? i  P
 First point found after raster
search

115/120 2 3 L2 3M 3 2

3 2 ? i  P
116/120 2 3 L2 3M 3 2

3 2 ? i  P
 0 0
1 7
2
3− +1
2 6
4− + 0
4
6
3 +
5 − 7
4 4 6

117/120 2 3 L2 3M 3 2

3 2 ? i  P
 

























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+ 0



























































































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118/120 2 3 L2 3M 3 2

3 2 ? i  P
 0 5 2
y y

Area=1 x y Area=(y x 1) −0.5 Area=0

119/120 2 3 L2 3M 3 2

3 2 ? i  P
 D IRECTION A REA T WICE THE A REA
0 y 2y
1 y+0.5 2y+1
2 0 0
3 y+0.5 2y+1
4 y 2y
5 y-0.5 2y-1
6 0 0
7 y-0.5 2y-1

120/120 2 3 L2 3M 3 2

3 2 ? i  P
 Last −> First

7 0 7
0 0
1 7 2 +
7
7 3 1
2 6
4 6 4 0
7 2
3 6
4 4 5 7
7 0 6
6

121/120 2 3 L2 3M 3 2

3 2 ? i  P