Table of Contents

Experiment # 04.........................................................................................................................1
Title:.......................................................................................................................................1
Objective:...............................................................................................................................1
Problem statement:.................................................................................................................1
Apparatus:..............................................................................................................................1
Theory:...................................................................................................................................1
Shaft:..................................................................................................................................1
Torsion:..............................................................................................................................3
Shear modulus:...................................................................................................................3
Polar moment of inertia:.....................................................................................................4
Procedure:...............................................................................................................................4
Observation & calculation:.....................................................................................................5
Graphical method:..................................................................................................................5
Conclusion:.............................................................................................................................6
Comments:..............................................................................................................................6
References..................................................................................................................................6

Table of Figures
Figure 1: Apparatus....................................................................................................................2
Figure 2: Transmission shaft [2]................................................................................................3
Figure 3: Axle shaft [3]..............................................................................................................3
Figure 4: Spindle shaft in lathe machine [4]..............................................................................3
Figure 5: Crank shaft in car [5]..................................................................................................4
Figure 6: Torsion due to torque [8]............................................................................................4
Figure 7: Shear modulus [9].......................................................................................................5
Figure 8: Polar moment of inertia [10].......................................................................................5
Figure 9: Load vs. Angle of Twist.............................................................................................6
Figure 10: Torque vs. Angle of Twist........................................................................................7

List of Tables
Table 1: Readings and calculations............................................................................................6

1|Page
 Experiment # 04
Title:
To Determine the Modulus of Rigidity of the given material of circular shaft using
torsion of shaft apparatus
Objective:
 To find out the Modulus of Rigidity of Shaft (Shear Stress within the Elastic Limit).
 To understand the concept of torsion in shaft.
 To verify the experimental results with graphical method
Problem statement:
The shafts have vast applications based on industrial scale as well as domestic
applications. They are used to transmit the power between source and the absorbing unit.
In the example of crank shaft in I.C Engine it transmit the rotational motion from
connecting rod to the driving axle or wheels. In these scenarios the loading is shear in
nature and causes the working shaft to deform by producing twists due to torsion. The
desired working is to be performed in the elastic limit of the wires. In case the load limit
exceeds the elastic limit then, the risk of failure will increase. Also to select the nature of
material to be used in particular application, the determination of modulus of elasticity is
necessary to choose the best material in sense of availability and cost.
Apparatus:
 Torsion of shaft apparatus
 Hangers
 Weights
 Vernier Calipers
 Micrometer Dial 1
 Steel rule
Dial 2 Hanger

Weights

Pulley Shaft

Figure 1: Apparatus

Theory:
Shaft:
Shaft is basically the rotating component of any machine, which is round in the cross
section and is used for passing the power from one part to another or from the power
producing machine to the power absorbing machine. For the transmission of power, one
end of the shaft are connected with power source and the other end of the shaft are
connected with the machine. [1]

2|Page
Types of shafts:
1) Transmission Shaft
These shafts are stepped shafts which are used for transmitting power between
one sources to the other machine absorbing power. On stepped portion of shaft
gear, hub or pulley are mounted for transferring motion. Example: Overhead
shafts, line shafts, counter shafts and all factory shafts. [1]

Figure 2: Transmission shaft [2]

2) Axle Shaft
These shafts supports rotating element such as wheel and can fit in the housing
with bearing but the axle is a non-rotating element. These are mostly used in
vehicles. Example: Axle in automobiles. [1]

Figure 3: Axle shaft [3]

3) Spindle Shaft
These are the rotating part of machine; it holds the tool or workspace. They are
short shaft which is used in machines. Example: Spindle in lathe machine. [1]

Figure 4: Spindle shaft in lathe machine [4]

4) Machine Shaft

3|Page
 These shafts are inside part of the assembly and they are integral part of machine.
Example: Crankshaft in car engine is a machine shaft. [1]

Figure 5: Crank shaft in car [5]

Materials Used for Shaft:

Generally mild steel is the material which is used for shafts. If high strength is required
then alloy steel like nickel chromium, nickel, chromium vanadium steel is used. They are
usually formed by hot rolling and cold drawing and grinding.
Properties of Material for shaft:
 Material should possess high strength.
 Material should have high wear resistance.
 Material should possess heat treatment properties.
 Material should possess good mechanization.
 Material must have low notch sensitivity factor. [1]
Torsion:
A torsion force is a load that is a applied to a material through torque. The torque that is
applied creates a shear stress. If a torsion force is large enough, it can cause a material to
undergo a twisting motion during elastic and plastic deformation. Torsion force is
commonly measured in foot-pounds or Newton-meters. The bending deflection due to
torsion force is measured in degrees. [6]
Torque:
Torque can be defined as the rotational equivalent of linear force. The point where the
object rotates is called the axis of rotation. Torque is simply the tendency of a force to
turn or twist.
Its SI units are Newton meters. [7]

Figure 6: Torsion due to torque [8]

Shear modulus:
In materials science, modulus of rigidity or shear modulus is defined as the ratio of shear
stress to the shear strain. The rigidity modulus is one of several quantities for measuring
the strength of materials.

4|Page
 In materials science, shear modulus or modulus of rigidity, denoted by G, or
sometimes S or μ, is a measure of the elastic shear stiffness of a material and is defined as
the ratio of shear stress to the shear strain.
G = T L/J ɸ

Figure 7: Shear modulus [9]

Polar moment of inertia:

The Polar Moment of Inertia is a geometric property of a cross section. Physically, it is a
measure of how difficult it is to turn a cross-section about an axis perpendicular to it (the
inherent rotational stiffness of the cross-section). This means that greater the Polar
Moment of Inertia, the more torque is require to turn the shaft by a certain angle.

Ic = π d4 / 64, if the bar is used as a beam

J = π d4 / 32, if the bar is used as a shaft

Figure 8: Polar moment of inertia [10]

Procedure:
1. Place the apparatus on a smooth horizontal surface.
2. Measure the effective length of the shaft using steel rule.
3. Measure the diameter of the shaft using micrometer.
4. Adjust the Zeros at 1st and 2nd measuring arms.
5. Put a load of 2N in the hanger.
6. Measure the 1st and 2nd angle of twist of the shaft.
7. Take a set of six readings of increasing value of load and then take readings on
unloading.
8. Calculate the “Modulus of Rigidity (G)” of the material of the shaft.

5|Page
 Observation & calculation:
Effective Length of shaft (L) = 260mm
Diameter of shaft (d) = 4mm
Diameter of Torque Pulley (D) = 127mm
Radius of torque pulley (R=D/2) = 58.42mm
Polar moment of inertia of the shaft (J=πd4/32) = 25.1327mm4

Table 1: Readings and calculations

No. Load Torque Angle Of 1st Degree Twist Angle Of 1st Degree Twist ɸ = θ1- Modulus of
of θ2 Rigidity
Obs. W WR θ1 θ2
(Degree) G = T L/J
(N) (Nm) (Degree) (Degree) ɸ
( N/m2)

loading Unloading Avg Loading Unloading Avg

1. 2 116.84 2 3.5 2.75 0.5 1 0.75 2 345.35

2. 4 233.68 6.5 6 6.25 1.5 1.5 1.5 4.75 508.93

3. 6 350.5 9.5 10 9.75 2.5 2.5 2.5 7.25 500

4. 8 467.36 12.5 14 13.25 3 3.2 3.1 10.15 476.34

5. 10 584.2 16 16 16 4 4 4 12 503.63

Graphical method:
Load (Newton) vs. Angle of Twist (Degrees)
14

12

10
Load (Newton)

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Angle of Twist (Degrees)

Figure 9: Load vs. Angle of Twist

6|Page
 Torque Vs. Angle of Twist
14

12

Torque (Newton-Meter) 10

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Angle of Twist(Degrees)

Figure 10: Torque vs. Angle of Twist

Conclusion:
The experiment was performed carefully and we have observed the relation of applied
load to angle of twist of a shaft clamped at one end. The modulus of rigidity is very
important to be calculated before applying a material in a certain application. The shaft
was loaded and unloaded by some loads attached with the pulley gradually. The ratio of
load to angle of twist was quite uniform but it has some error due to:
 The instrument was supported initially by setting its value to zero but after
performing experiment it does not came back to zero.
 The maximum load was applied on the end of shaft so that its grain structure
may got affected.
 The loading and unloading values have some difference due to lack of setting
time in which material utilizes all of the residual stresses.
 The twisting of a same shaft over a series of loadings repeatedly affected it
modulus of rigidity over each set of load due to increase in residual stresses
per loading.
Comments:
The evaluation of modulus of elasticity of any beam can be determined by this set of
apparatus. However, to reduce the probability of error we should have to perform the
experiment more carefully. The deflection value has to be measured manually and having
least count of 1 degree. By observing the readings the eye contact must be in one line so
that the readings must be accurate.

7|Page
 References
[ "engineering learn," [Online]. Available: https://engineeringlearn.com/shafts-
1 definition-types-application-materials-size-used-design-advantages-disadvantages/.
] [Accessed 10 Oct 2021].

[ [Online]. Available: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F

2 %2Fwww.indiamart.com%2Fproddetail%2Fss-transmission-shaft-
] 21479678497.html&psig=AOvVaw0g2U_pbpidhekpbqYV3AQG&ust=1637073941
358000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAwQjhxqFwoTCODylOvNmvQCFQAA
AAAdAAAAABAD. [Accessed 15 10 2021].
[ [Online]. Available: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F
3 %2Fwww.indiamart.com%2Fproddetail%2Frear-axle-shaft-
] 20301174873.html&psig=AOvVaw3B2ohRkhllBdBCbkU8Wi3I&ust=1637074057
511000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAwQjhxqFwoTCICyj6HOmvQCFQAA
AAAdAAAAABAD. [Accessed 15 10 2021].
[ [Online]. Available: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F
4 %2Fwww.indiamart.com%2Fproddetail%2Flathe-machine-spindle-
] 11266799597.html&psig=AOvVaw2yuQgXpRD7cRK5I9xoTF-
C&ust=1637074151274000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAwQjhxqFwoTCIjS
sc7OmvQCFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD. [Accessed 15 10 2021].
[ [Online]. Available:
5 https://5.imimg.com/data5/WV/YH/BG/SELLER-86884562/crank-shaft-
] 500x500.jpg. [Accessed 15 oct 2021].

[ "corrosionpedia," [Online]. Available:

6 https://www.corrosionpedia.com/definition/6235/torsion-force. [Accessed 2021 oct
] 10].

[ "Byjus," [Online]. Available: https://byjus.com/physics/torque/. [Accessed 11 Oct

7 2021].
]

[ [Online]. Available: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F

8 %2Fwww.designworldonline.com%2Ftop-10-linear-motion-articles-
] 2020%2F7%2F&psig=AOvVaw1V96J4XhJSeZaArZX4LGTa&ust=163707371148
1000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAwQjhxqFwoTCIjsxYLNmvQCFQAAAA
AdAAAAABAD. [Accessed 15 10 2021].
[ unknown, "free articles".
9
]

[ [Online]. Available: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F

1 %2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Ffigure%2FDefinitions-of-polar-moment-of-inertia-
0 section-modulus-and-SSI-A-schematic-view-of-
] a_fig1_12171703&psig=AOvVaw3KjnOVWhFTQ1baGjg9_ajn&ust=16370734224
52000&source=images&cd=vf. [Accessed 11 10 2021].

8|Page
9|Page