Technical Report Writing

Technical Report Writing
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS
PAGE
1.0 COURSE DESCRIPTION: 4

1.1 RATIONALE: 4
1.1.1 COURSE OBJECTIVES: 4
1.2 INTRODUCTION 7
1.2.0.Types of Technical Reports 10
1.2.1. Technical-background report 10
1.2.2. Instructions 10
1.2.3. Feasibility, recommendation, and evaluation reports 10
1.2.4. Technical specifications 10
1.2.5. Report-length proposal 11
1.2.6. Business proposed 11
1.2.7. Audience and Situation in Technical Reports 11
1.3. Primary research report 12
1.4 General Characteristics of Technical Reports 12
1.4.1. Graphics 13
1.4.2. Accurate detail 13
1.4.3. Documentation 13
1.4.4. Information sources 13
1.5 Format of pages 13
1.5.1 Paper and margins 13
1.5.2 Page numbering 14
1.5.3 Headers and footers 14
1.5.3 Format of type and headings 14
2.0 REPORT ORGANIZATION. 19
2.1 REPORT STYLE. 21
2.2 REPORT MECHANICS. 22
2.2.1 Choose your words carefully. 23
2.2.2 Avoid modifiers. 23
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Zimbabwe School of Mines – National Diploma
2.2.3 Clarify the logical relationships between your ideas. 23

2.3. Making a visual aid truly visual 25
k 2.3.1 Selecting the best type of visual aid in a given situation 25
2.4 Some types of visual aids and their uses 28
2.4.1 LINEGRAPHS 28
2.4.2 BAR GRAPHS 28
2.4.3 HISTOGRAMS 28
2.4.4 PIE DIAGRAMS. 29
2.4.5 TABLES 30
2.4.6 PHOTOGRAPHS 30
2.4.7 LINE DRAWINGS 31
3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 31
3.1 SECTION DESCRIPTIONS 31
4.0 MISCELLANEOUS DESCRIPTIONS 36
4.1 How to Write a Report 39
4.2 Sections of the Lab Report 40
4.3 Planning and writing 41
5.0 The writing process 42
5.1 Starting the planning 42
5.2. Asking questions and brainstorming 43
5.3 Mindmapping 44
5.4 Developing a Contents page 44
6.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 45
6.1 Recommendations 46
REFERENCES 47
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LIST OF TABLES
CONTENTS PAGE
Table 1 Course Objectives/Assessment Measures 5

Table 2 Report writing process and resources 9
Table 3 Size and style of headings 16
Table 4 Proportion of occupational groups who would choose similar
work again 24
Table 5 Alternate arrangement for proportion of occupational groups
who would choose similar work Again 27
Table 6 Example of generating ideas 43

Table 7Purpose for link 45
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Histogram for failure records 29

Figure 2 Distribution of fatalities in 181 fatal mine trucks accidents in 2011 30
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TITLE: Technical Report Writing

1.0 COURSE DESCRIPTION:
The student who completes training at the Zimbabwe school of mines continues to learn how to
prepare and deliver reports using primary and secondary research. Integral to this course are the
student’s abilities to recognize problems and determine causes, propose solutions, evaluate
various courses of action, and present this information in written and oral reports.
1.1 RATIONALE:
In many technical and business areas, employees and employers need to be able to recognize and
define problems, determine causes and possible solutions, propose particular courses of action to
solve the problems, evaluate the feasibility of such courses of action, and present this
information, discovered through primary and secondary research, in clear, concise written and
effective oral reports.
1.1.1 COURSE OBJECTIVES:
Upon completion of this course, the student will be able to:
1. Conduct primary and secondary research.
2. Recognize and define problems that might occur in the work place.
3. Identify and evaluate causes and possible solutions.
4. Propose particular courses of action.
5. Evaluate the feasibility of such courses of action.
6. Prepare clear, concise written reports.
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7. Plan and deliver effective oral reports.

Table 1 Course Objectives/Assessment Measures
COURSE OBJECTIVES/ASSESSMENT MEASURES

COURSE OBJECTIVES ASSESSMENT MEASURES
1. Recognize and define 1. Write a topic worksheet, proposal, or journal
situations in the workplace entry an/or participate in group discussion and/or
that might require written confer with class/instructor about assignment
and/or oral presentations plans.
based on research (examples;
proposals, feasibility studies,
formal analytical or problem
solving studies).
2. Locate, examine, and 2. After touring library facilities, participating in
evaluate possible sources library staff presentation, discuss bibliography
(primary and secondary); elements and formats and/or compile
then compile and record bibliography and/or record sources of data
bibliographic information in (Works Cited) section in report and/or confer
an orderly and systematic with instructor about bibliography.
way.
3. Examine and/or read 3. Record notes/note cards and/or write summaries

collected sources; recognize of selected sources and/or compare/contrast and
and extract information evaluate print, radio, TV newscasts for
appropriate to the topic; objectivity; write critique and/or confer with
formulate and record notes in instructor about note taking.
an orderly and systematic
way.
4. Identify criteria, analyze and 4. Write purpose statement/thesis and/or writer
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evaluate researched criteria in introduction of reports and/or complete

information, then compose mid-term/final exam and/or confer with
purpose statement.. instructor about purpose statements.
5. Identify characteristics 5. Participate in question/answer session or class

distinguishing between discussion and/or take quiz and/or give oral
written and oral presentation. presentation/write report and/or confer with
instructor.
6. Identify the 6. Write audience and use profile an/or compose

needs/knowledge of memo, report, letter (s) to identified audience
audience; then select, design, and/or give oral presentation (s) and/or confer
and organize format and with instructor about assignment plans/drafts.
content for presentations
(oral and written) for that
audience.
7. Use appropriate graphic 7. Select, label, and incorporate visuals and graphic
an/or audiovisual aids and statistical information in written report and/or
statistical data in use appropriate audio-visual aids in oral
presentations (written and presentations.
oral).
8. Compose, revise, and edit 8. Write, rewrite, and proofread written reports
written presentations. and/or participate in peer editing and/or confer
with instructor about drafts of written
assignment.
9. Use appropriate 9. Use APA or other documentation methods in
documentation style in written presentations appropriate to topic and
written presentation. audience and/or write Works Cited page.
10. Deliver oral presentations 10. Give oral presentations in a variety of modes.
demonstrating effective
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skills
12. Interact as a member of a 12. Participate in problem-solving or decision
group, demonstrating making or analytical group and/or write a
appropriate group collaborative report and/or give a collaborative
leadership-membership oral presentation.
styles and producing a
collaborative presentation
(written and oral).
1.2 INTRODUCTION
Report writing is an essential skill for engineering students. Engineering reports analyse data,
present results and conclusions, and make recommendations in a logical, precise and accessible
manner. Report writing is both a requirement for completing an engineering qualification at
university and a central part of succeeding in future employment. The ability to prepare
professional engineering reports is one of the competency standards specified by The Institution
of Engineers, Zimbabwe As a practicing engineer, you will need to write reports, proposals,
scientific papers, and electronic messages. Writing is perhaps the most important way in which
you will convey your ideas to managers, other engineers, and customers. Your communication
skills will therefore determine how successful you are as an engineer, perhaps even more so than
your technical expertise!
The major focus of many technical writing courses is the technical report. Just about everything
you study, everything you write is geared toward preparing you to write this final report. The
early, short assignment involving instructions or descriptions and the like give you practice using
headings, lists, notices, and graphics; in handling numbers and abbreviations; and of course in
producing good, clear, well-organized writing. For many students, the technical report is the
longest document they've ever written. It normally involves some research; often the information
comes not only from published sources in the library, but also sources outside the library,
including nonpublished things such as interviews, correspondence, and video tapes. It may also
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be the fanciest document: it uses binding and covers and has special elements such as a table
contents, title page, and graphics. As you think about what you want to write about for this
project, don't shy away from topics you are curious about or interested in, but don't know much
about. You don't need to do exhaustive research; normally, you can pull together information for
an excellent report from several books and half-dozen articles. Your real focus is the writing:
how well adapted to a specific audience it is, how clear and readable it is, how it flows, how it's
organized, how much detail it provides. You are also focused on format: how well you use
headings, lists, notices; how well you incorporate graphics; how well you handle the front- and
back-matter elements; and how nice a job you do of turning out the final copy of the report. You
don't need to be a trained graphic designer to produce a fine-looking report. Basic word-
processing skills and a decent printer and access to nice (but inexpensive) binding are all you
need. Plan on doing a first-rate job on the report; remember that past students have shown
prospective employers their reports and have benefited by doing so. If you are planning a
technical report, your job in this unit then is define the following:
 Report topic: Decide what subject you are going to write on; narrow it as much as possible.
 Report audience: Define a specific person or group of people for whom you are going to write
the report. Define the circumstances in which this report is needed.
 Report purpose: Define what the report will accomplish—what needs of the audience it is
going to fufill.
 Report type: Decide on the type of report—for example, technical background report,
feasibility report, instructions, or some other.
You can do these in any order: for some people, it helps to start by defining an audience or a
report type first. For others, beginning by picking a topic is more stimulating. Once you have
defined these elements, you can start testing your report-project ideas by asking yourself these
questions:
 Is there hard, specific, factual data for this topic?
 Will there be at least one or two graphics?
 Is there some realistic need for this report?
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This module describes briefly how to write an effective engineering report. As you read this
booklet, keep in mind that there is always more than one way to convey the same idea. In many
situations, there is not necessarily a “right way” and a “wrong way.” Contrary to current layman
thinking that engineering works only involve working with machineries, many tasks perform by
an engineer involve writing. Written communication, in fact, is an integral part of engineering
tasks. The ability to write a technical report in a clear and concise manner is a mark of a good
engineer. An engineer must be able to translate the formulae, numbers, and other engineering
abstractions into an understandable written form.
There are uncountable variations in engineering report format. Each group, institution, company
may have its own “standard” format to follow. This report is being offered as an example of the
kind of information and progression order that should be present in a sound technical report.
There are certain elements common in most engineering writings. These elements can be seen in
any typical engineering report. A technical report must inform readers of the reasons, means,
results, and conclusions of the subject matter being reported. The mechanics and format of
writing a report may vary but the content is always similar. In the writing process the planning,
writing and revising stages often need to be repeated to achieve a quality document.
Table 2 Report writing process and resources
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1.2.0.Types of Technical Reports

In this course you can choose to write one of the following types of reports
1.2.1. Technical-background report
The background report is the hardest to define but the most commonly written. This type of technical
report provides background on a topic—for example, solar energy, global warming, CD-ROM
technology, a medical problem, or U.S. recycling activity. However, the information on the topic is
not just for anybody who might be interested in the topic, but for some individual or group that has
specific needs for it and is even willing to pay for that information. For example, imagine an
engineering firm bidding on a portion of the work to build a hemodialysis clinic. The engineers need
to know general knowledge about renal disease and the technologies used to treat it, but they don't
want to have to go digging in the library to find it. What they need is a technical background report
on the subject.
1.2.2. Instructions
These are probably the most familiar of all the types of reports. Students often write backup
procedures for the jobs they do at their work. Others write short user manuals for an appliance,
equipment, or program. If there is too much to write about, they write about some smaller segment—
for example, instead of instructions on using all of MS-Word, just a guide on writing macros in MS-
Word.
1.2.3. Feasibility, recommendation, and evaluation reports
Another useful type of report is one that studies a problem or opportunity and then makes a
recommendation. A feasibility report tells whether a project is "feasible"—that is, whether it is
practical and technologically possible. A recommendation report compares two or more alternatives
and recommends one (or, if necessary, none). An evaluation or assessment report studies something
in terms of its worth or value For example, a college might investigate the feasibility of giving every
student an e-mail address and putting many of the college functions online. The same college might
also seek recommendations on the best hardware and software to use (after the feasibility report had
determined it was a good idea). In practice, however, it's hard to keep these two kinds of reports
distinct. Elements of the feasibility and recommendation report intermingle in specific reports—but
the main thing is to get the job done!
1.2.4. Technical specifications
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In this report type, you discuss some new product design in terms of its construction, materials,
functions, features, operation, and market potential. True specifications are not much on writing - the
text is dense, fragmented; tables, lists, and graphics replace regular sentences and paragraphs
whenever possible. Thus, specifications are not a good exercise of your writing abilities. However,
you can write a more high-level version - one that might be read by marketing and planning
executives.
1.2.5. Report-length proposal
As you may be aware, proposals can be monster documents of hundreds or even thousands of pages.
(Please, not this semester.) Most of the elements are the same, just bigger. Plus elements from other
kinds of reports get imported—such as feasibility discussion, review of literature, and qualifications;
these become much more elaborate. The problem with writing a proposal in our technical-writing
class is coordinating it with the proposal you write at the beginning of the semester (a proposal to
write a proposal, come on!). Several students have set up scenarios in which they proposed internally
to write an external proposal, in which they went after some contract or grant.
1.2.6. Business proposed
If you are ambitious to run your own business, you can write a business plan, which is a plan or
proposal to start a new business or to expand an existing one. It is aimed primarily at potential
investors. Therefore, it describes the proposed business, explores the marketplace and the
competition, projects revenues, and describes the operation and output of the proposed business.
Don't feel constrained by this list; if there is a type of technical document you want to write not listed
here, talk to your instructor. It may be that we are using different names for the same thing.
1.2.7. Audience and Situation in Technical Reports

A critical step in your early report planning is to define a specific audience and situation in which to
write the report. For example, if you wanted to write about CD audio players, the audience cannot be
this vague sort of "anybody who is considering purchasing a CD player." You have to define the
audience in terms of its knowledge, background, and need for the information.
 Why does the audience need this information?
 How will readers get access to this information?
You also have to define the audience in terms of who they are specifically: that means things like
names, organization or company, street address and phone numbers, and occupation or position. Just
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as critical to the planning process is defining the situation. When you define audience, you define
who the readers are, what they know or don't know in relation to the topic, what experience or
background they have in relation to the topic, and why they want or might need the information.
Sometimes this leaves out a critical element: just what are the circumstances that bring about the
need for the information.
1.3. Primary research report
Primary research refers to the actual work someone does in a laboratory or in the field—in other
words, experiments and surveys. You may have written a "lab report," as they are commonly called,
for one of your previous courses. This is a perfectly good possibility for the technical report as well.
In this type of report, you not only present your data and draw conclusions about it, but also explain
your methodology, describe the equipment and facilities you used, and give some background on the
problem. You can modify this type by summarizing other primary research reports. For example, you
could report on the research that has been done on saccharine. Project reports
Primarily this Style Guide will be useful to undergraduate engineering students who are writing
project reports. Project reports must be presented in a well structured and visually attractive
manner; the competent use of technical language and accurate referencing of all sources is also a
requirement.
To logically structure a report, students should understand the purpose of each component. The
preliminary pages of a report include an Abstract that summarises the purpose, methods, results
and conclusions of the project. The Introduction provides the background, objective(s),
approach, scope and limitations of the report. The main sections of the report include the work or
research undertaken and the associated information. This must be arranged logically with
headings to guide the reader. Visual aids such as figures and tables can assist with the clear
communication of material. The Conclusion summarises and identifies the important findings,
placing them in context. Recommendations may be included indicating future directions. A
report ends with a list of references, and any required appendices.
1.4 General Characteristics of Technical Reports
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You're probably wondering what this technical report is supposed to look like. Ask your instructor to
show you a few example reports. In addition to that, here is a brief review of some of the chief
characteristics of the technical report:
1.4.1. Graphics
The report should have graphics. Graphics include all kinds of possibilities, as a later chapter in this
book will show. If you can't think of any graphics for your report project, you may not have a good
topic. Get in touch with your instructor, who can help you brainstorm for graphics.
1.4.2. Accurate detail
The report should be very detailed and accurate. The point of the report is to go into details, the kind
of details your specific audience needs.
1.4.3. Documentation
When you use borrowed information in your technical report, be sure to cite your sources. The style
of citing your sources (also called "documenting" your sources). One style commonly used in science
and engineering is called the number system.
1.4.4. Information sources
Your report should make use of information sources. These may include not only books and articles
that can be found in libraries but also technical brochures, interviews or correspondence with experts,
as well as first-hand inspections. If you don't believe any information sources are necessary for your
report project, contact your instructor.
1.5 Format of pages
1.5.1 Paper and margins
􀂃 White A4 paper is appropriate, and printing on one side only is often preferred for assessment
purposes.
􀂃 Each major section of the report begins on a new page; this may be inappropriate for very
short sections or short reports.
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􀂃 Wide margins are recommended; for example, allowing 2.5 cm on all sides.
􀂃 Bound reports have a left-hand margin of at least 3.5 cm, and 1.5 on the other three sides.
1.5.2 Page numbering
􀂃 The title page should not be numbered

􀂃 All other pages may be numbered either in the right-hand upper corner, or in the centre at the
bottom of the page.
􀂃 Roman numerals — i, ii, iii, iv etc. — are usually used to number the preliminary pages
(Abstract, Contents etc.).
􀂃 Arabic numerals — 1, 2, 3, 4 etc. — are used to number the text from the Introduction page to
the end of the Appendices.
􀂃 Alternatively, pages in the Appendices can be numbered internally, according to the letter of
the individual appendix and the number of pages within each appendix — A1, A2, B1, C1,
C2, C3 etc. (where Appendix A has two pages; Appendix B has one page, and so on).
1.5.3 Headers and footers
􀂃 Headers or footers position page numbers automatically.
􀂃 Two different headers or footers must be created so that the preliminary pages are numbered
separately from the text of the report.
􀂃 Student name(s) and ID number(s) can appear in a footer placed against the right margin in 9
point size (see the bottom of this page).
1.5.3 Format of type and headings
Font
􀂃 A serif font (such as Times or Palatino) is usually chosen for the text of a report, as serif fonts
tend to be easier to read.
􀂃 A different font (such as the sans serif fonts, Helvetica or Arial) may be used for headings and
tables.
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􀂃 The same font should be used throughout the whole report, unless a second font is chosen for
headings and tables.
To change these features using MSWord 2000, go to the Format menu and access Font.
Size and style of type

􀂃 11 or 12 point type are the normal sizes for the text of a report.
􀂃 For long, indented quotations, figures and tables, it is acceptable to use a point size one point
smaller than the main font.
􀂃 Table 2 suggests a style of headings with specific sizes.
􀂃 Italics can be used to emphasise text where necessary (but it should not be overused,
particularly as there may be confusion with italicised titles).
􀂃 Underlining or bold is avoided in emphasis of text as it is distracting.
􀂃 The use of precise words may be sufficient to create the required emphasis.
Headings
􀂃 Headings are numbered according to their importance, using the decimal numbering system.
􀂃 Some writers do not use numbering, but differentiate between levels of headings through size
and style. (Readability and access to information are the key considerations.)
􀂃 Headings without text should never appear on the bottom line of a page.
􀂃 Size and style of headings should vary according to the importance of the heading; the
suggested style in Table 2 may prove helpful. (To change the style of headings, go to the
Format menu and access Style.)
􀂃 Headings can be differentiated using bold type, size and italics. (Overuse of underlining
should be avoided as it makes reading more difficult.)
􀂃 Capital letters are for the first letter of the first word only in each heading; except for any
acronyms (e.g. IEEE), trade names, or personal names and places, which may require more
than one capital. Aim for minimal capitalization in headings as overuse of capital letters
slows reading.
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Table 3 Size and style of headings
The best headings are:
􀂃 Summary statements rather than questions

􀂃 Not too brief (e.g. ‘Inspection of contaminated site’ is more explicit than ‘Results’)
􀂃 Not judgmental (e.g. ‘Equipment for review’ is more neutral than ‘Poor equipment’)
􀂃 Not too long (e.g. ‘The equipment on the Whyalla factory floor’ is unhelpfully long)
Decimal numbering system

􀂃 Decimal numbering of headings is normally used throughout the text up to and including the
reference list (excluding the preliminaries).
􀂃 Introduction is numbered 1; References have the final number (e.g. 8).
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􀂃 Too many levels of subheadings should be avoided: third-level headings are the preferred limit
(e.g. 7.2.1).
􀂃 Fourth-level headings (e.g. 7.2.1.1 ) should only be used if necessary, but not if there is only
one heading at that fourth-level.
􀂃 Decimal points are placed between numerals, but not after them (e.g. 7.2).
􀂃 Appendices are not numbered using the decimal system; they can be internally labelled with
letters
􀂃 Omission of decimal numbering in shorter reports or where there are multiple subheadings
may increase readability.
Format of text
Justification
􀂃 All text and headings can be aligned against the left margin except for where indentation is
appropriate (see 2.3.3 Indentation and centring).
􀂃 Text may also be justified on the right-hand margin, and full justification (right and left
margins) is often preferred for formal documents and theses.
Line spacing
􀂃 1.5 or double line spacing is generally used for work submitted for assessment; automatic line
spacing (as provided with word processing) may be acceptable.
􀂃 Line spacing should be greater at the end of a section so it assists in separating sections.
􀂃 Line spacing may be decreased between headings and text so it assists in grouping
information; the smallest line space (i.e. a four point space) may be appropriate before text
such as a list of bullet points.
􀂃 Extra line spacing should be used in the following cases:
– to separate paragraphs
– to separate figures, tables, equations and long quotations from the text
– to separate a main heading from the section of text which comes before.
To change line spacing using MSWord 2000, go to the Format menu and access Paragraph.
Alternatively, place the cursor in the text to be changed, and press CTRL + 2 for double spacing,
CTRL + 5 for 1.5 line spacing, and CTRL + 1 for single spacing.
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Indentation and centering

􀂃 Indenting text at the beginning of a paragraph is unnecessary when an extra line space is being
allowed between paragraphs.
􀂃 Indentation is appropriate for long quotations, complex mathematical expressions, lists with
bullet points (dots •) and the list of headings on the contents page.
􀂃 Long quotations are usually indented from both the left and right margins.
􀂃 Figures and tables may be centred in the text.
􀂃 Students may choose to indent each subheading with its associated text, as shorter lines of text
are easier to read; overall length is then affected.
To change indentation using MSWord 2000, go to the Format menu and access Paragraph.
Figures and tables

􀂃 Figures include diagrams, graphs, sketches, photographs and maps.
􀂃 Tables summarise data in rows and columns; a dash (—) indicates no data.
􀂃 All figures and tables may be centred.
􀂃 All should be labelled in bold with the appropriate consecutive number (figures are generally
labelled at the bottom, and tables at the top)
􀂃 Another method of labelling figures and tables is to number them according to the major
section where they appear.
􀂃 Each should have a simple, descriptive caption which explains the figure or table; arrows,
symbols, or abbreviations should be explained in the text.
􀂃 All figures and tables must be referred to in the text avoid using words such as ‘Figure above’
or ‘Table below’.
􀂃 All should be referenced (either author-date or numerical) if copied or adapted from another
source.
􀂃 Figures and tables can be separated from the text with extra line spacing; labels and captions
can be separated using four point spacing.
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2.0 REPORT ORGANIZATION.
Good report organization should promote readability and reflect the scientific method of attack,
which proceeds with objective, method, results, and conclusions. It is logical to report a project
in the sequence in which it is done, and many engineering reports are organized on this basis.
Two improvements to the logical sequence
are the addition of an abstract or executive summary and the insertion of headlines. These two
features facilitate “scanning” of the report. Thus, a busy executive or engineer may quickly
assess the major findings and conclusions of the report, and then easily find further details as
required.
In writing a full-length engineering report, you should start with a report outline, then proceed to
a rough draft. The outline defines the organization of the report, and the rough draft serves to
avoid omissions. Once the content is established, the rough draft is refined for clarity and
conciseness. After proofreading and correction of minor mistakes, the finished product is
produced. This entire writing process is most easily done using a word processor. “Spell
checkers” are particularly useful in removing spelling or typographical mistakes.
The outline for a general full-length engineering report contains the following items:
1. Title
2. Summary or Abstract (Executive Summary)
3. Introduction
4. Theory and Analysis
5. Experimental Procedures
6. Results and Discussion
7. Conclusions and Recommendations
8. Acknowledgments
9. Literature Cited
10. Appendix
The individual sections of the report will have headings, which are made to stand out with
underlined, bold, italic, or large size print. The names of the sections may be more descriptive
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than the generic names listed above. Headings may be numbered, especially in longer reports,
theses or books. Longer documents may also have subheadings within sections.
A title page should be used with full identification including names and dates. If the report is
long, a table of contents should follow the title page.
The abstract should summarize the major points in the report in concise manner and should allow
the reader to make a decision on whether or not to read the full paper. The first sentence should
state what was accomplished. The abstract is not a condensation of the entire paper, but rather a
clear statement of the project scope, results achieved, and the conclusions and recommendations
drawn from the results.
An introduction is desirable to indicate the background of the project and the reasons for
undertaking it. Some information on previous work is usually included.
In the theory and analysis section, pertinent principles, laws, and equations should be stated and
unfamiliar terms should be defined. Analytical diagrams such as theoretical cycles or flow and
field patterns should be shown here. Be sure to include all necessary supporting theory without
adding deadwood.
The experimental procedures section should describe apparatus and materials. Instrument types,
ranges, and identification numbers should be indicated. A sketch of the test setup showing
relative positions, connections, and flows should be included. Preliminary results, equalizing
periods, duration of runs, and frequency of readings should be indicated. Special precautions for
obtaining accuracy and for controlling conditions should be described. Conformity with or
divergence from standard test codes or procedures should be clearly stated.
The results and discussion section should summarize the important findings with supporting
tables, graphs, and figures. Original data or extensive data tables should be included in
appendices. Graphical representation is very important in conveying quantitative results. The use
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of logarithmic or other special scales should be considered. Deviations from smooth curves
should be carefully checked. Apparent discrepancies should be pointed out
and explained.
The discussion should describe the accuracy and importance of the results. Sources of
measurement error should be evaluated. Results should be critically compared with theory, and
differences greater than the experimental errors should be explained. Limitations of the theory
and tolerances in engineering values should be considered. Conclusions should be supported by
specific references to data and results, quoting numerical values, and guiding the reader from
facts to conclusions. Conclusions should follow directly from the numerical results quoted,
without the need for mental arithmetic by the reader. Omit any part of the discussion which
could be written without performing the experiment.
The conclusions and recommendations section should summarize the conclusions which have
been drawn. These conclusions may be supported by brief reference to data or results.
Recommendations are often more important than conclusions. Few experimental projects are an
end in themselves. Either the results are to be used for a purpose, or the experimenter sees more
work that could be done. In student reports, recommendations on improving the laboratory
experiments, equipment or procedures are accepted gratefully.
Acknowledgments are usually unnecessary in a student report. They are very important in theses,
journal articles, or company reports. Always acknowledge all other contributors to the work,
people who have contributed ideas or materials, and sources of financial support. The
bibliography must list sources to which direct reference was made in the text. Other general
references may also be given. Numbered footnotes, or preferably endnotes, are used to list
sources in the order of reference.
2.1 REPORT STYLE.

For many years, it was customary to write scientific papers in the third person, passive voice,
past tense. Even today, this style is preferred by many. More and more, however, the first person,
active voice, past tense is becoming the preferred style. Consider some examples:
22
Not Recommended: Clean the gallium arsenide substrates by boiling them in trichloroethylene.
Not Recommended: I clean the gallium arsenide substrates by boiling them in trichloroethylene.
Acceptable: The gallium arsenide substrates were cleaned by boiling in trichloroethylene.

Recommended: We cleaned the gallium arsenide substrates by boiling them in trichloroethylene.
Simple technical English should be used. Engineering and trade terms may be used, but the style
should be dignified. Short sentences are preferred. Acronyms may be used but only if they are
defined at the first appearance.
2.2 REPORT MECHANICS.

Graphs should be numbered and completely labelled and titled. The title should be brief and
descriptive, such as “Motor Speed as a function of Torque.” The independent variable should be
shown on the abscissa (horizontal axis) and the dependent variable should be shown on the
ordinate (vertical axis). Scales should be labelled with
the name, symbol, and units of the quantity involved. Each of the curves on a sheet should be
clearly identified, and all of the experimental points shown.
Graph scales should be chosen for easy reading but with due regard to the accuracy of observed
and computed quantities, so that variations are neither concealed nor exaggerated. For instance,
if temperatures can be read only to the nearest degree, the smallest subdivision on the graph
paper should be one degree or greater.
Major scale divisions should be hosen so that interpolation is easy. The subdivisions should
preferably represent 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 etc. Most scales should start from zero; if they do not,
a broken axis must be used. Smooth curves should be drawn with no extrapolation beyond the
experimental points. Any discontinuities or points of inflection should be examined with
suspicion. Methods of plotting that give straight lines are preferred.
23
2.2.1 Choose your words carefully.

Some factors you should consider in choosing words are their connotation, tone, and level of
formality.
a. Connotation. While the dictionary meaning of a word is its denotation, the suggestive
implication of a word is its connotation.
For example, although pretty means “having conventionally accepted elements of beauty,” the
connotation is generally feminine. Most men would prefer to be called “handsome.”
b. Tone. The tone of a word expresses something about your attitude toward the person or thing
being described.
c. Level of Formality. Most dictionaries will describe words as formal, informal, vulgar, or
obscene. However, your own judgment may be sufficient to guide you in making the appropriate
choice for a given context. In engineering reports, slang, vulgar, or obscene words or phrases are
usually inappropriate and the style should be
dignified. Be aware, however, that it is a mistake to be too formal at the expense of conciseness.
As Joseph Williams writes,
When we pick the ordinary word over the one that sounds more impressive, we rarely lose
anything important, and we gain the simplicity and directness that most effective writing
demands.
2.2.2 Avoid modifiers.
Avoid overusing adjectives and adverbs. Instead, select words that don’t require adjectives or
adverbs to supplement their meaning.
2.2.3 Clarify the logical relationships between your ideas.
In order to make your writing clear and the transitions between ideas smooth, clearly express the
logical relationships between ideas.
Here are some suggested words for expressing the eight logical relationships.
a. Addition: moreover, further, furthermore, besides, and, and then, likewise, also, nor, too,
again, in addition, equally important, next, first, second, third, in the first place, in the second
place, finally, last
b. Comparison: similarly, likewise, in like manner
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c. Contrast: but, yet, and yet, however, still, nevertheless, on the other hand, on the contrary,
even so, notwithstanding, for all that, in contrast to this, at the same time, although this may be
true, otherwise
d. Place: here, beyond, nearby, opposite to, adjacent to, on the opposite side
e. Purpose: to this end, for this purpose, with this object
f. Result: hence, therefore, accordingly, consequently, thus, thereupon, as a result, then
g. Summary, repetition, exemplification, intensification: to sum up, in brief, on the whole, in
sum, in short, as I have said, in other words, that is, to be sure, as has been noted, for example,
for instance, in fact, indeed, to tell the truth, in any event
h. Time: meanwhile, at length, soon, after a few days, in the meantime, afterward, later, now, in
the past
Prune deadwood.
Deadwood is material that adds no meaning to the sentence or paragraph. Eliminate all
deadwood to make your writing more concise.
Avoid redundancy.
Redundancy is the unnecessary repetition of information.
Use metaphor to illustrate.
Metaphor is imaginative comparison, expressed or implied, between two generally unlike things.
Metaphors, though infrequently used in engineering reports, can illustrate abstract ideas:
When two atoms approach each other at great speeds they go through one another, while at
moderate speeds
they bound off each other like two billiard balls.”
Sir William Bragg
However, you should avoid cliches.
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Visual Elements
There are times when words alone are not the best way to transfer information or points of view.
Also, sometimes words need to be combined with visual aids, formatting (the use of white space and
indenting), or other visual elements. For example, appropriate formatting can make a technical report
much easier to read, so much easier that the formatting becomes necessary given the limitations on
the time and attention of an audience. The same can often be said of other visual elements, such as
drawings, figures, charts, or graphs, which can quickly summarize an important point or present it in
a different way. It is known that you can increase the strength and memorability of a message simply
by repeating it or, even better, by repeating it in a different form. Thus, when a visual presentation is
added to a verbal one, the combination can produce a much stronger and more easily remembered
message than either presentation alone. Further, a visual aid can present a compact summary of the
main points of a verbal text. (Have you ever heard the expression "a picture is worth a thousand
words"?) Finally, a visual element can often summarize in a more memorable form than words alone
can. Given these advantages of visual aids, a communicator ought to be able to use them effectively.
This involves knowing
1. How to make a visual aid effective
2. When to use the visual aid
3. How to select the best type of visual element in a given situation (e.g., pie chart, bar graph, line
graph)
4. How to integrate the visual aid into the text
2.1. Making a visual aid truly visual

Take about 2 to 5 seconds to look at Table 2-1 and then cover it up. Do not look at any of the
following tables or discussions. Now try to write .down the main points made by the table. When you
have finished this, look at the presentation of the same information in Table 2-2 and see if you can
quickly add any more main points to your list. Do this before you continue. Typically, people who
read only Table 2-1 note (1) that job satisfaction declines in each of the two main groups of
occupations. These readers will sometimes notice (2) that there is a large difference in job
satisfaction between the two groups-that is, that most of the first group is relatively satisfied (93 to 82
percent satisfied) whereas most of the second group is much less satisfied (only 52 to 16 percent
satisfied). Very few readers of only Table 2-1 will notice (3) that the job satisfaction of skilled
printers is higher than that of nonprofessional white-collar workers. These last two observations
(points 2 and 3) are very hard to "see" in the format used in Table 2-1. In contrast, most readers of
26
Table 2-2 easily and quickly note all three observations, as well as a few other, more subtle ones,
simply because of the format of the table. Notice that Table 2-2 makes it visually quite clear that the
job satisfaction ratings of the two groups overlap and that the skilled trade and factory workers as a
group are less satisfied than the professionals.
Table 4 Proportion of occupational groups who would choose similar work again
27
Table 5 Alternate arrangement for proportion of occupational groups who would choose similar work
again
Deciding when to use a visual aid

Communicators often wonder when they should use a visual aid in a communication. Three
suggested principles for deciding this are to use a visual aid
1. Where words alone would be either impossible or quite inefficient for describing a concept or
an object
2. Where a visual aid is needed to underscore an important point, especially a summary
3. Where a visual element is conventionally or easily used to present data
2.3. Selecting the best type of visual aid in a given situation

When you design a particular visual aid, you are consciously or unconsciously making
certain decisions. You are deciding-that the particular type of aid yon choose (a line
graph, bar chart, pie diagram, and photograph) is the best type to make your point and
that the arrangement and highlighting of material on the page is, again, the best to make
28
your point. Unfortunately, there is little information available on which to base such
decisions. If you are like most writers, you probably choose one type of visual aid over
another simply because it is the first thing you think of using. The purpose of this section
is to sketch out some better or more conscious reasons for choosing. The section will first
identify some conventions of visual perception and then examine several common types
of visual -aids to see what they do and do not show well.
2.4 Some types of visual aids and their uses

There are six main types of visual aids with which a scientist or engineer should be familiar: (1) line
graphs, (2) bar graphs, (3) pie charts, (4) tables, (5) photographs, and (6) line drawings. Each of these
types has particular strengths and weaknesses, and to use any one appropriately, you must decide
what point you are trying to make and then select the type of visual aid which makes that kind of
point well.
2.4.1 LINEGRAPHS
Line graphs, show well continuity and direction as opposed to individual or discrete points, direction
as opposed to volume, and the importance of a nodal point, if there is one. These characteristics are
illustrated in Figure2-3. Line graphs do not show well them importance of one particular point which
falls of a node, the relationship of many lines, or the inter section of three or more lines, lf its
important to be able to trace each line on a graph, you should probably not put more than three or
four on a single graph, especially if they intersect frequently.
2.4.2 BAR GRAPHS

Bar graphs show relatively well the discreteness or separateness of points as opposed to their
continuity, volume as opposed to direction, the relationships among more than three or four items at
a time, the contrast between large and small numbers, and the similarities and differences between
similar numbers. Bar graphs can be arranged with either horizontal or vertical bars, depending on the
type of information they represent. The bars are normally separated by spaces.
2.4.3 HISTOGRAMS
A histogram looks like a bar chart, but functionally it is similar to a graph because it deals
with two continuous variables (functions that can be shown on a scale' to be decreasing or
29
increasing). It is usually plotted like a bar chart, as shown in Figure 2-7. The chief visible
difference between a histogram and a bar chart is that there are no spaces between the
bars of a histogram.
Failure
Time /hours
Figure 1 Histogram for failure records
2.4.4 PIE DIAGRAMS
Pie diagrams show relatively well the relationship among three or four items which total 100 percent,
the contrast between large and small percentages, and the similarities between relatively similar
percentage (they show that well that 27 percent and 29 percent are about equal). Pie diagrams do not
show well the small differences between two similar percentages (you can not usually see the
differences between 27 and 29 percent). They also do not show well absolute values (unless you label
the parts of the pie) or the relationship among more than five or six parts; with too many parts it is
hard to see relationships of part to part and part to whole.
30
Figure 2 Distribution of fatalities in 181 fatal mine trucks accidents in 2011
2.4.5 TABLES
Tables are convenient for presenting lots of data and for giving absolute values where precision is
very important. However, since they present items one at a time in columns, they emphasize the
discrete rather than the continuous and make it very difficult to show trends or direction in. the data.
Tables are not predominantly visual: the reader's mind must translate each number into a relationship
with each other number, as already described in the job satisfaction example at the beginning of this
chapter. Thus, for maximum visual impact, tables should probably be a last choice as a visual aid and
used only when it is important to provide a great deal of information with precision in a very small
space.
2.4.6 PHOTOGRAPHS
Photographs are useful when you do not have the time, the money, or the expertise to produce a
complicated line drawing; when you are trying to produce immediate visual recognition of an item;
when you are emphasizing the item's external appearance (as opposed to its internal structure or a
cross section); and when you are not concerned with eliminating the abundant detail a photograph
provides. While photographs can be air-brushed to eliminate some undesired detail, they still are not
31
preferred when you need to focus on some one aspect by eliminating a lot of detail and when you
have the time and resources to produce a good line drawing.
2.4.7 LINE DRAWINGS

The term line drawing includes several types of drawings which focus on external appearance,
physical shape, function, or relationship. These include "simplified photos," maps, anatomical
drawings, parts charts, and drawings of models (such as atomic or molecular models) or objects from
any field of science or engineering. Also included are flow charts, organizational charts, schematic
charts, block diagrams, , architectural plans, and blueprints. While there are many types of line
drawings, all of them share certain functions. They allow you to show things which you can't
normally see in a photograph because of size, location, or excessive detail. They also allow you to
easily highlight a particular shape, part, or function.
3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Since this report is not a real report, there is no result to report. Table 2 list the “no result” that
would have been in an actual report. Figure 2 shows the plot of Quantity 1 versus Quantity
2. Graphs and figures should be used as necessary. Results can be reported separately before they
are discussed or they can be reported as they are being discussed. Choose whichever way that is
more suitable to the nature of the data being reported.
3.1 SECTION DESCRIPTIONS

The following is a section-by-section description of the parts in a technical report. As mentioned
previously, not all of the parts may be needed in a given report.
Letter of transmittal
A letter of transmittal is an optional part of a report. It is a matter of courtesy to include one if the
report is being submitted for an official purpose. A letter of transmittal is addressed to the person
the report is intent to reach. It should include the name of the author, affiliation, title of the report
and purpose for its submittal. If included, a letter of transmittal will be on a separated sheet of
paper not bounded to the actual report.
32
Abstract
An abstract of a technical report briefly summarizes the report. It should describe motivations,
methods, results, and conclusions. Be concise in the abstract. Think of an abstract as a one-
paragraph summary of the report. Ideally, an abstract is one paragraph long. Have a words limit,
e.g., maximum 500 words, in mind when writing an abstract.
Table of Contents
As the name implies, Table of Contents is the list of what is in the report. Major sections of the
report must be listed with page numbers. Second and third level headings may also be listed as
appropriated. Think of revising the structure of the report if fourth level heading is important
enough to be listed in the Table of Contents.
“Index and Tables…” feature in a word processor is the quickest way to automatically build the
Table of Contents in a report.
List of Figures and Tables

This section contains two related but separate lists. List of Figures contains the listing of all the
figures (drawings and graphs) that appear in the report. They are listed in consecutive order that
they appear in the report with figure captions and page number. List of Tables is similar to the
List of Figures but for all the tables that appear in the report.
List of Symbols
This list is optional. It can be used if the report contains a lot of formulae and symbols. The
readers often appreciate a list explaining the sympols used in the report.
Acknowledgements
The author(s) must acknowledge every person or agency involved in funding, guiding, advising,
and working on the projects that are not part of the authoring team. Failure to acknowledge
someone contributing to the project is a serious breach of etiquette and may be construed as
plagiarism, a very serious offense. Traditionally, editor, proof-reader, and fact checkers are not
included among those acknowledged.
33
Introduction
The beginning of the introduction should quickly explain the importance of the experiment being
reported. Simply say that something is important is not adequate. The author must make a case
for it. If there is no separate “Technical Background” section in the report, this section is where
the necessary concepts that were applied in order to obtain the results are explained. An
assumption must be made regarding the technical level of the readers. Assume that the readers
already possess technical ability to understand the material then present the technical information
accordingly. Do not attempt to write an introductory text on the subject. Nor should the writer
assume that the readers are experts in the subject.
Experimental Details
This is the section where details of the experiments or research conducted are discussed.
The descriptions maybe in paragraph form, list form, or a combination of both. Think of
experimental details section as a recipe in a cookbook. The description must contain enough
details to enable someone else to duplicate the experiment. Engineering and scientific
experiment must be repeatable and verifyable.
Results and Discussions

Had this been an actual report, the results should be reported in table or graph format. Report
only the final results. Raw data and intermediate results that are not central to the topic of the
report can be placed in the Appendix if needed. The Results and Discussion section should be the
most substantial part of the report. This
is where the results of the experiment are reported and discussed. Any significance in the work
reported here must be made clear by detailed discussions. Consider this section to be the “meat”
of the report while other sections constitute the rest of the “ingredients”.
Conclusions and Recommendations

Conclude what was discussed in the Results and Discussion section. Do not conclude anything
that had not been discussed. Think of the conclusion as a short restatement of important points
being presented in the report. Once conclusions are made, make some recommendations as to the
utilities of those conclusions. Explain how useful the methodology and the results are. Mention
34
restrictions or limits pertaining to the use of the results. For example, “The results reported here
only apply to the second full-moon night a month (blue corn moon) and not any other night.”
Suggest what the next step in the study should be to overcome the limitation or advance the
study further.
Both conclusions and recommendations may be in the form of descriptive paragraphs or running
lists. Whichever the format is chosen, apply it consistently for both the conclusions and the
recommendations.
References
Giving proper credit to originator of an idea is very important. Any idea, formula, etc., not
originating from the author must be cited. It is unlikely that a report is so original that it is not
built upon any previously discovered knowledge. A reference section is a required component in
any technical report. Failure to reference prior works may be interpreted as claiming those works
to be your own. Plagiarism is one of the most serious offences for
engineering and scientific professions. A sanction from your colleagues for this offence is
enough to end one’s professional career.
References must be attached to specific formulae, pages, or passages in the report. They are
numbered consecutively according to the order that they appear in the report. Use superscript
numbering or square bracket to denote a reference. Part of the source material being referenced
must also be specific. It must refer to specific formula, page, passage, or idea in the source
material being cited.
Any work, formulae, or discussion that is a common knowledge in the field does not need to be
referenced. For example, it is a common knowledge for engineers that F = ma. There is no need
to reference Newton for this. This rule applies to common formulae that can be derived or are
well known by people in the field also.
See References section for the format of references from books, essays, journals, World Wide
Web, and personal communications.[1,2,3,4,5] A particular technical journal may have its own
35
format for the authors to follow. The information to be included in the references, however, is
always of the same nature as what is presented.
Alphabetical reference list

When using the author-date system of referencing, you must include an alphabetical reference
list at the end of the report (before the Appendices) listing all sources cited. Personal
communications such as conversations or personal email messages need not be included in the
reference list, as they cannot be checked. When writing the reference list you must take care to
include the correct elements, and to use the correct punctuation.
The elements required for a book are: the author’s surname(s) and initials, year of publication,
title, publisher, and place of publication (other elements may also be relevant — see Appendix
E). The correct order of these elements is indicated by this example:
Book in author-date reference list

The elements required for a journal article are: the author’s surname(s) and initials, year of
publication, title of the article, title of the journal, volume number, issue number, and page
numbers. Some elements will not always apply, and sometimes others will be relevant — see
Appendix E.
Journal article in author-date reference list
36
The elements for electronic sources are the author’s surname(s) and initials or organisation
responsible for the source, date of publication, title, type of medium (e.g.[online] or [CD-ROM],
except for Internet source), edition, place of update/revision, date of viewing, location (may
include: a host document; availability and access number), notes
Electronic source in author-date reference list
Appendices
In is imperative that the way you determine the result from the raw data be made clear. Others
should be able to duplicate the experiment according the instruction provided in the
“Experimental Details” section and reduce the data according to the “Sample Calculations” in
the Appendix to obtain results similar to what is reported. Other supporting information that is
not central to the main points to be made in the report is placed in separate appendices as needed.
Consider carefully the necessity of including the raw data in your report. Include one set of the
raw data for example calculation is adequate for most purpose. Listing pages and pages of
numbers that nobody can decipher is excessive and likely not count as a good credit to the
author. Photocopied text and references are also inappropriate since doing so may be a copyright
violation. Retracing drawings from other sources is not acceptable for the same reason. Direct
copy of materials from other sources must be accompanied by explicit permission from the
copyright holders of those materials.
4.0 MISCELLANEOUS DESCRIPTIONS

There are many other points that should be considered in writing a technical report that apply to
the whole report. The points presented here are, by no means, exhaustive nor authoritative. They
are merely suggestions. Major or first level headings should start on a new page unless two or
37
more headings can fit on a single page. Think of a heading as a start of a new chapter in a book.
A new chapter always starts on a new page. That being said, this pseudo-report does not follow
the stated guideline too rigidly.
12 points, serif typeface such as Times is standard for report writing. Keep color usage to a
minimum if at all. Black text and black or gray-scale figures are adequate for most technical
reports. Do not use san serif font such as Arial or fancy font such as Script in writing the body of
a technical report. Serif fonts are best for long text in a book format. San serif fonts are designed
for headlines or presentation composing of short phrases or lists. Try to avoid all capital letters in
the body of the report. It is an equivalent to “shouting” in writing.
Contractions are not used in formal writing. For example, use “It cannot be said that …” instead
of “It can’t be said that …” Similar line of reasoning applies to the use of abbreviation. Consider
using it sparingly. Fully type of “versus” instead of “vs.” does not require extraordinary effort
with the use of a computer yet will keep the writing easily readable. Use “Figure” instead of
“Fig.” and “Table” instead of “Tab.” will spare the reader of having to translate the abbreviations
while reading. If abbreviations were used, use them consistently through out the report. For
example, do not switch among “versus”, “vs.” and “vs”. Note that an abbreviation is followed by
a period, e.g., “vs.” not “vs”.
Many engineers and scientists use acronyms in their writing without giving it a second thought.
If the target audience were definitely people in the exact field, acronyms would present no
difficulties. As a matter of courtesy though, consider writing out the full name with acronym in
parenthesis the first time that name appears in the report. Then use the acronym in any
subsequent occurrences. For example, “My corporate counsel wants to talk to you about your
intellectual property (IP) violation.” Following this convention will prevent any confusion that
may arise when one acronym having more than one possible meanings, e.g., “intellectual
property (IP)” versus “internet protocol (IP).” 1-inch on all sides is standard for margins in a
loose-leaf report. Use 1.25 to 1.5 inch left margin for a bounded report. If the report is to be
graded, type on one side of the page only and use double space for line spacing. This leaves
room for instructor’s comments.
38
A formal report is written in third person. For example, “An experiment on something was
conducted…” instead of “We did this experiment on…” Avoid overly complicated or doubly
passive sentences. Many modern authors of technical reports forgo third person narrative
altogether.
Equations and formulae are numbered consecutively in the order that they appear in the report.
Equation is centered on the page with equation number on the side followed by the explanation
of the symbols used in the equation. Think of the equation and the explanation as
one sentence. For example,
V = 4/3 πr3 [1]
where, V = volume of a sphere

r = radius of a sphere.
Define all symbols immediately after they are first used.
Note a period marking the end of a sentence after the second “sphere” but not the first one. A
particular figure, table, equation, or heading is treated as proper noun and is referred to as such in
the report. When a figure is being referred to, consider that it is being called upon by its name.
For example, “As can be seen in Figure 5…” not “As can be seen in figure 5…” Tables and
figures are listed separately in the table of contents. Each group is numbered consecutively in
order appearance in the report. In any case, a table or a figure must come after the text that refers
to it. Tables are always at the bottom of the page but figures may appear any where on the page
with or without text on that same page. For a short report or a journal article, it is acceptable to
put the tables and figures at the end of the report.
All tables and figures must include captions. A caption is a description explaining the table or the
figure. A caption must be self-explanatory. For example, “Table 4 Test parameters for dust balls
collection experiment” is acceptable but “Table 4 Test parameters” is not. Engineering report
39
normally uses only horizontal lines to denote sections in a table. The use of vertical lines is
avoided since they may be misinterpreted as engineering markings.
Figures may include schematic diagrams, pictures, or graphs. The main type of graphs used in
reporting engineering test results is scatter plot. A scatter plot treats both x and y data as values.
A similar looking graph type, a line plot, is not normally used to report scientific data. In line
plot, the x data are treated as names or categories not values. Data presented as a graph are
plotted without lines connecting the data points. A line connecting two data points on a graph
implies that intermediate values can be read directly off the line. Use curve-fitting line to show a
trend in the data instead of connecting points. When using a curve fit, the fitting equation and the
R2 (indication of how good the fit is) must be included. A curve fit line without the information
underlining the curve fit does not have any scientific meaning.
The breakdown of a report into sections helps organize the information into logical sections.
There is no “standard” convention dictating the number of sections in a report. The sections used
in this report follow a more common breakdown of technical writing reporting results of an
engineering experiment. Appropriate adjustment should be made for other type of reports.
Regardless of the number of sections, the logical flow of the information in the report will be
similar.
4.1 How to Write a Report

All engineers must report their work, usually in writing. Skilled writers impress their readers
favorably. Clear writing helps in preparing oral presentations. Follow the three rules given below
for all reports, oral and written.
1. Imagine your audience.. Your reader relies on you for clear explanations.
2. Be thorough and brief. Include all the required sections (discussed below) and
informative tables, equations, etc. Write a first draft, then edit carefully for redundancy,
wordiness, clutter, etc.
3. Organize for readability. The question "Is the reader ready for this material?" guides the
structure of the report. Overly detailed material, such as calculations, belong in the appendix.
40
4.2 Sections of the Lab Report

1. Title Page. Include the title of the lab, the author’s name, the names of all lab partners, and the
date. See the “Good Lab Report” in your ME 360 Manual for an example.
2. Objective. Describe in one or two sentences the purpose of the laboratory exercise: the “why.”
Be specific. Possible objectives are “to evaluate,” “to verify,” “to measure,” “to compare,” etc.
Avoid non-engineering objectives, such as “to teach us” or “to show the student.” In general, you
will write a technical report where experimental results are compared to theory. The Objective
section is written in the present tense.
3. Background. This section gives the reader information necessary to understand or appreciate
the balance of the report. It puts things in focus by providing background and perspective. It
should answer such questions as: Why was this done? How does this effort fit into the overall
scope of things? The Background section is also used to relate your efforts to previous work
done by yourself or others. For example, if your report covers electrical filters, then you should
discuss a few (three to four) applications of filters. Applications that relate to mechanical
engineering are preferred over generic engineering, technical, or consumer applications.
In a lab report, the Background section should also briefly describe the engineering theory used
in the experiment and the analysis of its results. Any theoretically predicted results Formal
Report Writing 48.2 of your experiment would also be included. Commonly used engineering
equations (such as Newton's 2nd law, S F = ma) can be presented without attributing a source.
However, equations taken directly from a textbook must be given proper reference. The
Background section is written in the present tense.
4. Experiment. Write what was done in the lab and how it was accomplished in chronological
order. Imagine your group performing the experiment and describe what you did and what
happened. Describe the experimental apparatus (including manufacturer and model numbers for
equipment used) and include a diagram, sketch, or scanned photograph with any relevant
dimensions. If you have built or used an electrical circuit in your experiment, show the schematic
with resistor, capacitor, op-amp, etc., values used. This section should be complete enough for
someone to duplicate the results of your efforts. Write the Experiment section in the past tense,
since the experiment has already been done.
41
Note that “raw” data does not belong in the Experiment section – it belongs in the Appendix!
5. Results. Present the results in words, tables, and figures. Include a comparison of actual results
to theory, if appropriate, and an analysis of sources of error in your experimental technique.
Discuss the results from an uncertainty analysis and use it to guide your discussion. Think
carefully: Do the sources of error you have defined adequately explain your experimental
results? Cite "human error" only if you discuss exactly what is meant.
Remember that you never really know the exact source of error. Always address any specific
questions asked in your lab handout. Write the Results section in the present tense.
6. Conclusions. Restate and interpret the major results using numerical values when possible.
Were the objectives of the lab or design project met? What can you conclude from the lab? Write
the Conclusions section in the present tense.
7. References. Any material taken directly from another author must be referenced. See the
section on References in the Writing Style and Format Requirements section.
8. Appendix. All portions of the appendix should be specifically mentioned somewhere in the
main part of the lab report. The appendix should include
¨ an outline of your appendix (continue page numbering from the main report),
¨ a clear listing of your assumptions about uncertainty values,
¨ an example / sample of each calculation required to generate your results - all
necessary unit conversions required (these sample calc’s are usually handwritten),
¨ an uncertainty analysis for all results computed from a formula (including both
experimental values and theoretical values that use measured values in a formula),
¨ raw data sheets.
4.3 Planning and writing
Writing a quality report requires careful planning, drafting and several revisions. It also requires
effective use of appropriate technical language. Planning techniques are suggested and technical
language is considered in terms of sentence structure, grammar, vocabulary and punctuation.
(The use of punctuation in technical writing is detailed in Appendix D.)
42
A quality engineering report exhibits the following characteristics:
􀂃 clear statement of aim or purpose

􀂃 concise and accurate presentation of detail
􀂃 cohesive, logically organised development of data and ideas
􀂃 considered objective separation of fact and opinion
􀂃 categorised layout of well-spaced headings, paragraphs and visuals.
5.0 The writing process
The process of writing a report involves planning and gathering information, reading, noting, and
sorting that information into logically sequenced sections. The planning and noting leads to the
writing of the first draft which is revised several times to meet the required standard. There is no
prescribed order for these activities, for example locating information might ned to reoccur after
the completion of the first draft. This process of development is facilitated by using many
resources, as summarised in Table 1 (page 1). Students may also find it useful to refer to report
writing resources available from their university library (see Appendix F).
5.1 Starting the planning
The planning stage of a report should include clarifying expectations about the purpose of the
report and who will read it. The purpose of a report or a section of a report may be to:
􀂃 analyse data/literature is investigated; gaps are identified

􀂃 inform information or research is outlined; results are presented
􀂃 instruct procedures are explained; strategies are provided
􀂃 persuade conclusions are discussed; recommendations are made
􀂃 document written record is created and filed.
For example, the purpose of a report might be to analyse ‘Solar cells’, document their operation,
and recommend one application. The report must also be written appropriately for its intended
readers or audience who, for engineers, are often other engineers. Once it is clear why a report is
being written and for whom, then how to write will become more evident.
43
5.2.1. Planning techniques

Once the expectations of purpose and audience have been clarified, each section can be planned.
Useful initial techniques are asking questions, brainstorming, mind mapping and developing a
Contents page.
5.2. Asking questions and brainstorming
One technique to start is to ask yourself questions. These may be: What? Where? When? Why?
and How? For example, the planning of an engineering report on solar energy may be assisted by
asking such questions as:
􀂃 What is solar energy?

􀂃 Where and when is solar energy predominantly used?
􀂃 Why is usage of solar energy currently limited?
􀂃 How is solar energy utilised in engineering contexts?
Asking questions helps to generate ideas and key words for the structure of sections and
paragraphs, and for the associated headings.
Another technique for planning is to “storm” or generate ideas in a random way. List all the ideas
or keywords that come to mind, as shown in the example below. Do not attempt to organize
these ideas at this stage.
Table 6 Example of generating ideas
44
5.3 Mindmapping
The lists of questions and key words must be logically organized. One way is to make logical
lists or keep logically sorted information on different cards. Another way is to develop a
mindmap or diagram that links all the ideas. The shape of a mindmap will depend on how you
see the connections between items of the information – it may be a flow chart, a spider’s web, a
cycle or some other figure. The use of colour helps to link the information visually and suggests
possible sizes of headings and sub-headings to be used.
Mindmap showing logical organisation of ideas relating to solar energy.
5.4 Developing a Contents page

The organisation of a logical list, sets of notes on cards or a mind map will suggest ways to
priorities different sections of the information and generate a series of headings and
subheadings. Once three levels of headings and subheadings have been developed, the sections
start to develop a logical argument. Contents
1 Solar energy
1.1 Sunshine
1.1.1 Amount
1.1.2 Location
1.1.3 Conversion
1.2 Meteorological variables
1.2.1 Cloud cover
1.2.2 Wind
1.2.3 Rain
1.2.4 Seasons
45
Paragraph should begin with a general overview or summary statement before the specific or
exemplifying information is given. Exemplifying information may include examples,
illustrations, descriptions, explanations and evidence which expand the ideas. A paragraph is
often structured with:
􀂃 a key sentence (introducing main idea and/or giving context)

􀂃 concept development (expanding main idea/giving specifications etc.)
􀂃 a summary statement (concluding with main idea/linking to what follows)
Connectors or linking words help create cohesion within the paragraph and between paragraphs.
Information should be organised systematically and one way of achieving this is to use
connectors or linking expressions (see Table below)
Table 7Purpose for link
(Adapted from Marshall & Rowland 2003, p. 174)
6.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Report writing takes more planning than simply sitting down in front of the computer and start
typing. Information in the report must be divided into appropriate sections. This “pseudo report”
serves only as a guideline to writing a technical report. The format and the number of sections
are not rigidly set. Adjustment to the report should be made depending on the nature of the
report. It is up to the writer to analyze and adapt the format to suit the situation. While this
46
document was not developed to be an inflexible set of rules, it is however intended to assist
university engineering students in producing professional, well organised reports. Student report
writing skills can be enhanced by the application of these guidelines in relation to formatting of
documents, components, and referencing, planning and writing reports.
Students are encouraged to write with attention to the contents of this Style Guide, but where
students instructed should follow the directions given by their lecturers or school. Many
resources, such as the library, are available to assist students in their report writing. The use of a
specific format or style must be followed consistently throughout a report. With careful initial
planning of the presentation of their material, students can concentrate on the content being
presented in the report. During the writing and editing process students may find it useful to refer
to the Report writing checklist (Appendix H). A well written and logically structured report will
result in a quality document which effectively conveys precise information to the reader.
6.1 Recommendations
With regard to the conclusions detailed above, the following recommendations have been
formulated. Students are recommended to:
􀂃 identify and follow instructions from particular Schools or employers — particularly where
such instructions vary from common practice
􀂃 read and use the information in this Style Guide
􀂃 ensure internal consistency in formatting (particularly of numbering and headings)
􀂃 give attention to visual impact and readability
􀂃 acknowledge sources by referencing both in the text and in a list at the end
􀂃 proofread and edit thoroughly all written work.
Students should remember that excellent content in a report needs to be supported by high
quality presentation, and an accurate use of technical language.
47
REFERENCES
BAYLIS, P 1991, Report writing for engineers, Engineering Education Zimbabwe, Milson’s
Point.
EISENBERG, A 1992, Guide to technical editing: discussion dictionary & exercises, Oxford
University Press, New York.
Equal Opportunity Unit 1991, How to communicate in gender neutral language, University of
South Zimbabwe, Adelaide.
HADGRAFT, R, ROBERTSON, HD & EAVES, D 1994, Writing engineering reports, Monash

University.
LAWRENCE, CD 2003, Laboratory studies of concrete expansion arising from delayed

Ettringite formation, British Cement Association, UK.
LI, X & CRANE, NB 1993, Electronic style: a guide to citing electronic information, Meckler,
London.
MARSHALL, LA & ROWLAND, F 1993, A guide to learning independently, Longman

Cheshire, Melbourne.
MICHAELSON, HB 1990, How to write and publish engineering papers and reports, 3rd edn,
Oryx Press, Canada.
National competency standards for professional engineers (stages 1 and 2) 1993, 1st edn, The
Institution of Engineers, ACT.
Research student information guide 1996, compiler Research Office, University of South
Zimbabwe, Adelaide.
Style manual for authors, editors and printers 2002, 6th edn, revised by Snooks & Co. John
Wiley & sons Zimbabwe Ltd. Canberra.
SCHWARZ, SE & OLDHAM, WG 1984, Electrical engineering: an introduction, Holt, Rinehart

and Winston, New York.
WINDSCHUTTLE, J & ELLIOTT, E 1990 Writing, Researching and Communicating:

Communication skills for the Information Age, McGrawHill Companies Inc., Sydney
48

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1.0 COURSE DESCRIPTION: 4

2.2.3 Clarify the logical relationships between your ideas. 23

Table 1 Course Objectives/Assessment Measures 5

Table 6 Example of generating ideas 43

Figure 1 Histogram for failure records 29

TITLE: Technical Report Writing

1.1.1 COURSE OBJECTIVES:

Upon completion of this course, the student will be able to:

1. Conduct primary and secondary research.

3. Identify and evaluate causes and possible solutions.

4. Propose particular courses of action.

5. Evaluate the feasibility of such courses of action.

6. Prepare clear, concise written reports.

7. Plan and deliver effective oral reports.

COURSE OBJECTIVES/ASSESSMENT MEASURES

3. Examine and/or read 3. Record notes/note cards and/or write summaries

4. Identify criteria, analyze and 4. Write purpose statement/thesis and/or writer

evaluate researched criteria in introduction of reports and/or complete

5. Identify characteristics 5. Participate in question/answer session or class

6. Identify the 6. Write audience and use profile an/or compose

 Will there be at least one or two graphics?

 Is there some realistic need for this report?

1.2.0.Types of Technical Reports

1.2.7. Audience and Situation in Technical Reports

 How will readers get access to this information?

1.3. Primary research report

1.5 Format of pages

1.5.1 Paper and margins

1.5.2 Page numbering

􀂃 The title page should not be numbered

1.5.3 Format of type and headings

Size and style of type

Table 3 Size and style of headings

The best headings are:

􀂃 Summary statements rather than questions

Decimal numbering system

Indentation and centering

Figures and tables

2.0 REPORT ORGANIZATION.

2.1 REPORT STYLE.

Acceptable: The gallium arsenide substrates were cleaned by boiling in trichloroethylene.

2.2 REPORT MECHANICS.

2.2.1 Choose your words carefully.

However, you should avoid cliches.

2.1. Making a visual aid truly visual

Deciding when to use a visual aid

2.3. Selecting the best type of visual aid in a given situation

2.4 Some types of visual aids and their uses

2.4.2 BAR GRAPHS

Figure 2 Distribution of fatalities in 181 fatal mine trucks accidents in 2011

2.4.7 LINE DRAWINGS

3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1 SECTION DESCRIPTIONS

List of Figures and Tables

Results and Discussions

Conclusions and Recommendations

Alphabetical reference list

Book in author-date reference list

Journal article in author-date reference list

Electronic source in author-date reference list

4.0 MISCELLANEOUS DESCRIPTIONS

V = 4/3 πr3 [1]