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AIR ENGINEERING TRAINING INSTITUTE

AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING SCHOOL

MODULE 20
PROPELLER SYSTEM

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO.

1. INTRODUCTION TO PROPELLER 1-1 to 1-8

2. TYPES OF PROPELLER 2-1 to 2-9

3. PROPELLER BLADE THEORY 3-1 TO 3-13

4. PROPELLER CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS 4-1 TO 4-6

5 CONSTANT SPEED PROPELLER 5-1 TO 5-8

6. REDUCTION GEAR AND COMPONENTS 6-1 TO 6-11

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO PROPELLER

1. INTRODUCTION

A propeller normally consists of two or more blades attached to a central hub,

which is mounted on an engine crankshaft, as shown in Fig 1.1. The purpose of the
propeller is to convert engine horsepower to useful thrust.

Fig 1.1 Propeller Fitment

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Before starting any discussion about propellers, it is necessary to define the use in
discussing propeller to avoid confusion.
The blades are like rotating wings, consists of a leading edge, trailing edge, tip, shank,
face, and back as shown in Figs. 1.2 and 1.3.

2. VARIOUS PARTS OF A PROPELLER BLADE

Fig. 1.2 Cross-Sectional View

Fig 1.3 Plan View

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Many people have trouble with the terms blade face and blade back so it is helpful
to visualize the flat side of the blade as facing the pilot when he is in the cockpit as shown
in Fig. 1.4

Fig. 1.4 Identification of Blade face and back

A fixed propeller blade as shown in Fig. 1.5 has a Blade shank and Blade Butt.
However along the blade there are some parts which contribute little or no thrust at all.

Fig.1.5 Parts that contribute least thrust

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3. VARIATION OF THRUST ALONG THE BLADE

Fig 1.6 Thrust Distributions

Fig. 1.6 shows that thrust varies along the propeller blade. There are thrust losses
near the hub and tip of the propeller. For the hub, it must provide structural strength. But
this design causes aerodynamic inefficiency. At the tip, there is Vortices due to the
pressure different between the back and the face of the propeller blade. Hence only a
small portion of the propeller blades is really effective. Fig 1.6, illustrates the changes in
thrust from the root to tip of the blade. The highest amount of thrust is created by the
section of the blade between two-third and three quarter of the radius.

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Due to the inefficiency of the propeller blade, an addition component was added. A
blade cuff was introduced to increase the efficiency of the propeller blade. These are the
thin sheets of metal or other materials that are placed around the cylindrical portions of
the blades (blade shank) as shown in Fig 1.7. Due to their aerofoil shape, it aid in
generate thrust at the shank area.

Fig 1.7 Blade Cuff

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4. VARIOUS ANGLE IN PROPELLER SYSTEM

A term that will be used throughout this text is blade angle. This is the angle
between the propeller plane of rotation and the chord line of a propeller airfoil section.
From the blade angle there is another two angles which we could discuss- Angle of Attack
and Helix Angle.

4.1 Angle of Attack is defined as the angle between the chord line of the blade
section and the direction of the relative airflow. Relative airflow is the direction of the air
with respect to the movement of the aerofoil. When aircraft is in flight, relative airflow
results from the forward motion of the aircraft plus the circular motion of the propeller. For
stationary aircraft, relative airflow is only from the motion of the propeller.

4.2 Helix angle is an angle between the plane of rotation and the relative airflow. From
Fig. 1.8 a blade angle mainly make up of Helix Angle and Angle of Attack. As such any
changes in Helix angle will alter the blade angle.

When aircraft is in-flight, other than the fixed pitch and ground adjusted propeller, the
blade angle will be higher. This will decrease the engine speed, which is good, as the fuel
consumption and engine wear will be reduced. However, during take-off, blade angle is
set small. This keeps the angle of attack small and efficient with respect to the relative
airflow.

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Helix Angle

Relative Airflow

Fig 1.8 Types of angle

With the rotation of the propeller blade, every part of it must be fully utilized to
produce optimum thrust. Hence, its angle of attack should be about 3 to 4 degrees. With
this requirement for the optimum thrust production, propeller blade is twisted from the
blade root to blade tip in order to maintain the angle of attack at 3 to 4 degrees as shown
in Fig 1.9.

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Fig 1.9 Blade Twist

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CHAPTER 2
TYPES OF PROPELLER

1. INTRODUCTION
Since the beginning of powered flight, many unique designs of propeller
have appeared with only a few becoming widely accepted. The following are brief
descriptions of the more commonly accepted designs used in aviation.

2. FIXED-PITCH PROPELLER

Fig 2.1 Fitment of a fixed pitch propeller Fig 2.1a Material for propeller

The fixed-pitch propeller figure 2.1 is the most commonly used propeller
designed in aviation. A fixed-pitch propeller may be made of wood, aluminum or
steel as shown in fig 2.1a, and is considered to be of one-piece construction with
a blade angle that cannot normally be changed. Fixed-pitch propellers are
usually found on light single-engine aircraft.

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3. GROUND-ADJUSTABLE PROPELLERS

Ground-adjustable propellers are similar to fixed-pitch propellers in that

their blade angles cannot be changed in flight.

Fig 2.2 Adjustment of Ground adjustable propeller

However, since the propeller is designed so that the blade angles can be
changed on the ground, the propeller can be adjusted to give the desired
propeller characteristics for a flight (i.e., low blade angles for taking off from a
short field or high blade angle for more speed in cross-country flight). This type of
propeller was widely used on aircraft built in the 1920’s, 30’s and 40’s.

The propeller is designed so that the blades can be rotated in the hub to
change the blade angles. The hub is in two halves that must be separated slightly
so that the blades can be rotated. The hub is held together with clamps or bolts
as shown in Fig 2.3 and its purpose is to prevent the blade from rotating during
operation.

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Fig 2.3 Different types of hub Fig 2.4 Insertion of propeller blade

The hub of the propeller is mainly made of aluminum of steel, with the two
halves machined as a matched pair. As shown in Fig 2.4, grooves in the hub will
mate with the shoulders on the blade.
Normally when steel blades are used, the hub will be held together with bolts. If
wood or aluminum blades are used, the hub halves will be held together with
bolts or clamp rings.

4. TWO-POSITION PROPELLER

Fig 2.5 Two-position propeller control lever

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The two-position propeller is a design that allows the pilot to select one
of two blade angles using the lever that is shown in Fig 2.5.
While in flight, low blade angle is for takeoff and a high blade angle for cruise.
With this guideline the pilot will select the appropriate blade angle through the
level in the cockpit. This is something like a two-speed transmission in an
automobile. The two-position propeller was used on some of the more
sophisticated designs in the late 1920’s and 30’s.

Fig 2.6 Counterweight propeller Fig 2.7 Propeller Cylinder

For this type of propellers, two forces are used to change the blade angle –
engine oil pressure in the propeller cylinder and centrifugal force acting on the
counter weights. The counter weighs on the propeller is shown in Fig 2.6.
When it is required to increase blade angle, oil is released from the propeller
cylinder. To decrease the blade angle, oil is channeled back to the propeller
cylinder as shown in Fig 2.7.

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5. CONTROLLABLE PITCH PROPELLERS

Fig 2.8a Crank Handle Fig 2.8b Drive Gear

Controllable-pitch propellers were designed to give the pilot the ability

to set the blades at any angle in the propeller’s range while in flight, giving the
pilot more control over the propeller than the two-position design. This style of
propeller was more popular on light aircraft in the 1940’s due to its low weight
and simple mechanism.

One such control is operated from the cockpit by a crank handle mounted
on the instrumental panel as shown in Fig 2.8a. When the crank is turned, a
flexible cable rotates and turns a pinion gear mounted in a bracket directly behind
the propeller. The pinion meshes with a drive gear which fits around the case.
The drive gear can rotate through a limited range on its mount. The drive gear is
grooved internally with spiral slots which mate with the outer race of the actuator
as shown in Fig 2.8b. When the drive gear is rotated by the pinion gear, the
actuator moves forward or rearward as the lugs move in the drive gear slots.
The inner race of the actuator rotates with the propeller and incorporates two
arms which extend forward into the hub. These arms are connected to an

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actuating pin in the base of each blade through a set of control fingers. As the
outer race of the actuator moves forward or rearward, the inner race moves with
it, causing the blade angle to change through the connection between the arm
and the actuator pin.

6. AUTOMATIC PITCH PROPELLER

Fig 2.9 Cutaway of a typical automatic pitch change propeller

The most imaginative propeller design to come into existence has been the
automatic pitch changing propeller. This propeller is not controllable by the
pilot. Instead, it will theoretically set the propeller blades at the most efficient

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angle by reacting to the forces generated by engine thrust, torque, and airspeed.
This style propeller was used on aircraft produced between the late1930’s and
1950’s. While designing engines up to 450hp, most aircraft using these propellers
today have engines of 150hp or less.

In general, the blade angle will change in response to operational forces

providing the desirable load on the engine as flight conditions change. At high
power setting and low airspeeds, as in climb, the blade angle will decrease to
provide good climb performance.
At high air speeds and moderate power settings, the blade angle will increase to
provide good cruise performance. There is no cockpit control to cause this
change; the propeller is an independent and automatic unit.

Although this type of propeller is not widely used, this style of propeller is covered
because its principles of operation are similar to those used on modern constant
speed designs and it is not complicated by the use of cockpit controls and
governor.

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7. CONSTANT SPEED PROPELLER

Fig 2.10
Most medium and high performance aircraft produced today are equipped
with constant speed propeller systems. This propeller system uses a controllable
propeller which the pilot indirectly controls by adjusting a constant-speed control
unit, commonly called the governor as shown in Fig 2.10. Propeller blade angle
is adjusted by this governor to maintain the engine speed (RPM) which the pilot
has set on the governor. Due to this controllability, coupled with the relatively
lightweight and low cost of modern constant speed systems, some earlier
propeller designs have become less popular.

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Most multi-engine aircraft equipped with constant-speed propeller systems

also have the capability of feathering the propeller. When a propeller is feathered,
the propeller blades are rotated to present an edge to the wind, eliminating the
drag associated with a wind milling propeller when an engine fails.

Reversing propeller systems are refinements of the constant-speed

feathering systems. The propeller blades can be rotated to a negative angle to
create negative thrust. This forces air forward instead of backward permitting a
shorter landing roll and improved ground maneuvering. Reversing propeller
systems are usually found on the more sophisticated multi-engine aircraft.

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CHAPTER 3
PROPELLER BLADE THEORY

1. INTRODUCTION

A jet engine produces its thrust by accelerating a mass of air but a piston
engine needs a propeller to convert the power output to thrust. The
aerodynamics of a propeller blade section can be studied in the same way as an
aerofoil in producing lift.

2. THE BLADE ELEMENT THEORY

A more realistic interpretation of the propeller operation is the use of sectional

aerofoil data to derive integral quantities for the entire propeller.

The blade element, or strip theory, provides a means to determine forces and
moments by assuming the blade as composed of a number of aerodynamically
independent cross-sections whose characteristics are the same as a blade at a
proper angle of attack.

Each element may be considered as a rotating wing. When the blade started to
rotate, air flows around the element just as it flows around the wing of an aircraft.

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Fig 3.1 Streamline diagram

Fig 3.1 shows a streamline and a diagram of an aerofoil. Such a diagram

shows the flow of streamlines in the flow field and one of the main observations
from this picture is the streamlines are closer toward the back of the element and
wider at the face of the element.

When streamlines are closer to each other, they implied that the velocity
has increased and the opposite occur when they are wider apart. When velocity
increases the pressure decreases vice versa.

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Fig 3.2 Illustration of Resultant force

The net difference between the pressure at the back and pressure at the
face of the element produces a force acting perpendicular to the relative airflow.
This is known as the Lift force. Drag forces are also produced due to the
resistance to motion of the element. The resultant of these two forces is known
as the Total Reaction as shown in Fig 3.2.

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3. THRUST FORCE

The total reaction can be resolved into two directions; one is the direction of the
aircraft flight path and the other is the direction of rotation of the propeller.

Fig 3.3 Total Reaction

The force acting in the direction of the aircraft flight path is known as the thrust
and it is this thrust that propels the aircraft through the air.

The other force acting in the plane of rotation of the element is known as the
positive torque force. This is the force that the engine torque has to overcome.

4. NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION

Instead of using the blade theory to explain how a propeller produces

thrust, we could also use Newton’s law of motion. The thrust developed by a
propeller is in accordance with Newton’s 3rd Law of Motion: i.e. for every action,
there is an equal but opposite reaction, and the two are directly along the same
straight line.

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Fig 3.4 Newton 3 Law (Action and Reaction)

In the case of a propeller, the first action is the acceleration of a mass of
air to the rear of the aircraft. The result is a reactive force that acts in the opposite
direction of the air flow.

With the understanding of Newton’s law we could calculate the magnitude of this
force by using the formula for Newton’s 2nd law; F = ma, where F = force
produced, m = mass of air and a = acceleration imparted to air.

5. BLADE DESIGN

One criteria that a propeller must have is to absorb the power given to it by
the engine and this ability may be varied by:

a. Changing the blade angle and thus the AOA.

b. Changing the length of the blades.
c. Changing the RPM of the propeller.
d. Changing the camber of the aerofoil section of the blade.
e. Changing the chord of the blade
f. Changing the number of blades

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.
6. VARIOUS FORCES A PROPELLER

Thought the propeller blade may be able to absorb the power given to it,
there are forces which the propeller blade may subject to.

6.1 Centrifugal Force

Fig 3.5 Centrifugal Force

The force which causes the greatest stress on a propeller is centrifugal

force. Centrifugal force can best be described as the force which tries to pull the
blades out of the hub as shown in Fig 3.5. The amount of stress created by
centrifugal force may be greater than 7500 times the weight of the propeller
blade.

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6.2 Thrust bending force

Fig 3.6 Thrust Bending Force

Thrust bending force tends to bend the propeller blades forward at the tips
because the lift toward the tip of the blade flexes the thin blade sections forward.
Thrust bending force opposes centrifugal force to some degree. By tilting the
blades forward to the operational position during manufacture, this opposition in
forces can be used in some propeller designs to reduce operational stress.

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6.3 Torque Bending Force

Fig 3.7 Torque Bending Force

Torque bending force is a force which tends to bend the propeller blade
back in the direction opposite to the direction of rotation as shown in Fig 3.7.

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6.4 Aerodynamic Twisting Moment

Fig 3.8 Aerodynamic twisting moment

Aerodynamic twisting moment tries to twist a blade to a higher angle by

aerodynamic action.
This results from the center of rotation of the blade being at the mid-point of the
chord line while the center of lift (also called center of pressure) is more toward
the leading edge of the blade. This tends to cause an increase in blade angle.
Aerodynamic twisting moment is more apparent in higher blade angles of attack
and is used in some designs to aid in feathering the propeller.

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6.5 Centrifugal Twisting Moment

Fig 3.9 Centrifugal twisting moment

Centrifugal twisting moment tends to decrease the blade angle and

opposes aerodynamic twisting moment. The tendency to decrease blade angle is
caused by all parts of a rotating propeller trying to move in the same plane of
rotation as the blade centerline. This force is greater than the aerodynamic
twisting moment at operational RPM and is used in some designs to cause a
decrease in blade angle.

7. PROPELLER PITCH

Propeller pitch is defined as the distance in inches that a propeller will move
forward in one revolution.

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Fig 3.10 Propeller pitch

This is based on the propeller blade at the 75% angle station as defined;
propeller pitch is more properly called geometric pitch and is theoretical in that it
does not take into account any losses due to inefficiency.

Effective pitch is the distance that an aircraft actually moves forward in one
revolution of the propeller. Effective pitch may vary from zero, when the aircraft is
stationed on the ground, to about 85% during the most efficient flight conditions.

The difference between geometric pitch and effective pitch is called slip.

As an example: if a propeller is said to have a pitch of 50 inches, in theory it will

move forward 50 inches in one revolution, then the effective pitch is 35 inches
and its pitch efficiency is 70%. Slip then, is 15 inches or a 30% loss of efficiency.

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8. PROPELLER EFFICIENCY

Thrust horsepower
Propeller efficiency = ________________
Torque horsepower

The efficiency of a propeller in any flight condition is the ratio of the thrust
power delivered to the Torque horsepower/shaft power required to turn it which
could be found on the bottom of the formula.

Basically, propeller efficiency will never be 100% as some of the work

performed by the engine is lost in the slip-stream of the propeller or lost through
the noise production of the propeller blade. In addition, the effects of tip speed
also contribute lost in the propeller efficiency.

Overall, the maximum propeller efficiency that can be obtained in practice

under the most ideal conditions has been only about 92 percent.

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9. SOLIDITY

Solidity simply refers to the area of the propeller disk that is occupied by
solid components (the blades) versus that area open to the air flow. As solidity
increases, a propeller can transfer more power to the air.
Hence, a solidity of the propeller is defined as the ratio between the propeller
disc which is solid and the circumference at that radius.

Under the mathematical expression it will be:

Number of blades x chord

Solidity = ________________________
Circumference at chord radius

BC
= _______________
2 r Where B is assuming the number of
blades
C = chord
r = chord radius

Note: r is normally TAKEN at 0.7 x tip RADIUS.

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CHAPTER 4
PROPELLER CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

In general, propeller control system consists of a few main components.

Propeller control levers in the cockpit must be arranged to allow easy operation
of all controls at the same time, but not to restrict the movement of individual
controls. Under this chapter we will discuss two common components which
could be

Found in the general propeller aircraft – Throttle and Condition lever.

Fig 4.1 Typical Propeller Control System

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2. THROTTLE

The pilot controls the engine’s power output with the throttle. By means of
linkages, the throttle is connected to a fuel control unit to regulate the amount of
fuel-air mixture supplied to the engine, thereby controlling the power developed.

Fig 4.2 Typical Propeller Throttle Control

The throttle has four operating positions; they are marked on the control
quadrant as “Max Reverse”, “Ground Idle”, “Flight Idle”, and “Take Off”. From
“Flight Idle” to “Take Off” is known as Alpha or flight range, sometimes known as
governing range. From “Flight Idle” to “Max Reverse”, this range is known as taxi
or beta range.

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Fig 4.3 Mode in Propeller Throttle Control

During the transition from the Flight Idle it has a lift through position stop.
This keeps anyone from moving the throttle aft of the gate accidentally.
Arrangement for the throttles must be arranged in such a way that forward thrust
is increased by forward movement of the control and reverse thrust is obtained
by aft movement of the throttle. In addition, throttles are used to place the
propeller blades at a negative angle in reverse mode operation.

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3. CONDITION LEVER

Fig 4.4 Condition Control Lever

Generally, a condition lever has four operation modes. They are “Feather”,
“Stop”, and “Run” and “Air Start”, each of these modes is marked on the control
quadrant.

The function of the four condition levers controls the following things:

a. Fuel shutoff valves

b. Feathering operation of the propellers
c. Operation of the electric feathering pump
d. Starting control circuit

4. FEATHERING

The term feathering refers to the operation of rotating the blade of a

propeller to an edge-to-the-wind position. This operation will be controlled by the
condition lever. It is simply a constant-speed unit that can rotate the blades until
they are nearly aligned with the relative wind.

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During in-line-flight position a feathered blade is in an approximate, streamlined

with the line of flight. The purpose of this feathering operation is to stop the
rotation of the propeller and to reduce aerodynamic drag.

Fig 4.5 Feathering Mode

Feathering is necessary when an engine fails or when it is needed to shut off an

engine in flight. A feathered propeller:

a. Creates less drag and disturbance to the airflow.

b. Prevents additional damage to the failed engine.
c. Eliminates vibration caused by a damaged engine.

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5. REVERSE THRUST

When propellers are reversed, their blades are rotated below their positive
angle until a negative blade angle is obtained in order to obtain thrust acting in
the opposite direction of flight.

Fig 4.8 Reverse Thrust

This feature is helpful in:

a. Handling multi-engine aircraft in restricted areas.

b. Reducing the amount of braking needed.
c. Increasing the life of the brakes and tires as the landing roll is
reduced.

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CHAPTER 5
CONSTANT SPEED PROPELLER

1. INTROUCTION

A constant-speed propeller system is a system in which the propeller

blade angle is varied by the action of a governor to maintain a constant RPM,
even while there are charges in the engine throttle setting and aircraft speeds.

Constant-speed systems are used on most modern medium and high

performance single-engine aircraft.

2. BASIC OPERATION

Constant-speed propellers use a fixed force to cause a decrease or

increase in blade angle. This force may be centrifugal force acting on counter-
weights, a spring, or centrifugal twisting moment on blades. The force is termed a
fixed force because it is always present during operation and must be overcome
to cause a change in blade angle.

The most commonly used variable force, which will cause a change in
blade angle opposite to the fixed force, is oil pressure. The oil pressure is varied
by the governor as necessary to adjust the blades to the desired angle. During
ground taxing, blade angle will be fine. For propeller aircraft to take-off, blade
angle will be coarser; engine power will increase to aid the aircraft in taking-off.
When the propeller aircraft needs to climb, blade angle will decrease, engine
power will maintain.

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3. GOVERNOR

Fig 5.1 Basic governor configuration

The propeller governor as shown in Fig 5.1 is an RPM sensing device

which responds to a change in system RPM by directing oil pressure to or
releasing oil pressure from the propeller to change the blade angle and return the
system RPM to the original value. The governor is set for a specific RPM by the
cockpit propeller control. The basic governor control contains a driveshaft which
is connected to the engine drive train. The driveshaft rotates at a fixed
proportional speed to the RPM of the engine (governor speed ranges from 80%
to 110% of crankshaft RPM, depending on the engine model). An oil pump drive
gear is located on the driveshaft and meshes with an oil pump gear. These gears
take engine oil at engine oil pressure and boost it to the propeller operating
pressure. Excess pressure built up in the booster pump is returned to the inlet
side of the pump by a pressure relief valve.

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The location of these components will be discussed at next chapter. The boosted
oil is routed through passages in the governor to a pilot valve which fits in the
centre of the hollow drive shaft. This pilot valve can be moved up and down in the
driveshaft and directs oil through ports in the driveshaft to or from the propeller to
vary the blade angle maintaining the desired RPM.

The position of the pilot valve in the driveshaft is determined by the action
of the flyweights attached to the end of the driveshaft. The flyweights are
designed to tilt outward when RPM increases and inward when RPM decreases.
When the flyweights are tilted outward, the pilot valve is raised. When they tilt
inward, the pilot valve is lowered. This movement of the pilot valve in response to
changes in RPM will direct oil flow to adjust the blade angle to maintain the
selected RPM.

The movement of the flyweights is opposed by a speeder spring which is

located above the flyweights and is adjusted by the pilot through a control cable,
pulley, and speeder rack.

3.1 Higher RPM Operation

When a higher RPM is desired, the cockpit control is moved forward and
the speeder spring is compressed. As the flyweights are tilted by the increase in
compression of the spring, the pilot valve is lowered. When this occurs, the blade
angle is decreased and the RPM will increase until the centrifugal force on the
flyweights overcomes the force of the speeder spring and returns the pilot valve
to the neutral position.

3.2 Lower RPM Operation

The opposition action will occur if the cockpit control is moved aft, the
speeder spring compression will be reduced, the flyweights will tilt outward, the

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pilot valve is raised, and the blade angle will increase until the centrifugal force
on the fly-weights decreases and the pilot valve returns to the neutral position.

3.3 On-speed, Over-speed and Under-speed

Whenever the flyweights are tilted outward and the pilot valve is raised,
the governor is said to be in an Over-speed condition (the RPM is higher than
the governor speeder spring setting). If the flyweights are tilted inward, the
governor is Under-speed (the RPM is lower than the speeder spring setting). If
the RPM is the same as the governor setting as shown in Fig 5.2, the governor is
On-speed.

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Fig 5.2 On-speed position of the governor flyweights

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3.4 Under-speed condition

The speed governing action of the flyweights and pilot valve will occur with
changing flight conditions. If the aircraft is in a cruise condition and the pilot starts
a climb, airspeed will decrease causing an increase in propeller blade angle of
attack. With the increase, more drag is created and the system RPM

Fig 5.4 Under-speed position of the governor flyweights

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Slows down. The governor senses this reduction in RPM by the reduced
centrifugal force in the flyweights, allowing them to tilt inward and lower the pilot
valve (Under-speed condition). When the pilot valve is lowered, blade angle is
reduced and the RPM increases to the original valve. And the system returns to
the On-speed condition.

3.5 Over-speed condition

If the aircraft is placed in a dive from cruising flight, an Over-speed

condition would be created and the governor would cause in blade angle return
the system to the On-speed condition.

Fig 5.3 Over-speed position of the governor flyweights

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A change in throttle setting will have the same effect as placing the aircraft
in a climb or dive. An increase in throttle would cause an increase on blade angle
to prevent RPM from increasing. A decrease in throttle setting would result in a
decrease in blade angle.

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CHAPTER 6
REDUCTION GEAR AND COMPONENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

To have a propeller of practical size, a limit must be placed on the speed at

which it turns. On any rotating object a force is exerted from the centre of rotation
outward, This is called centrifugal force.

A propeller must be very strong or it would come apart when turning at high
speeds. The stronger the propeller, the faster it can turn. For examples, T65-A-7
engine turns at about 13,820 RPM. This speed is much too fast for any propeller to
turn. To reduce the speed to a practical range, a reduction gear section is employed.

The reduction gear section gets its power through a shaft from the power
section. The shaft turns at the same speed as the power section. The connecting
shaft is called the torquemeter assembly.

2. REDUCTION GEAR ASSEMBLY

The reduction gear assembly is divided into major sections for assembly. The
sections are the front case, the bearing diaphragm, the rear case inner diaphragm,
the rear case inner diaphragm, and the rear case.

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Fig 6.1 Reduction Gear Assembly

2.1 Reduction Drive Train

The first stage of reduction is made by a pinion gear meshed to a large gear
called a drive gear. The large drive gear has about three times as many teeth as the
pinion gear, The small gear (pinion gear) will turn three times while the large gear
makes one turn. The first stage reduction gears are located aft of the main
diaphragm. The speed is decreased by 1/3 of the input speed.

For the second stage reduction, another gear is bolted to the main drive gear.
This gear is called the sun gear. Five gears are meshed to it. They are called the
planetary gears. The gear arrangement looks like the sun and planets in the solar
system. That is why they are so named. These gears are located forward of the main
bearing diaphragm as shown in Fig 6.1.
The sun gear rotates at the same speed as the main drive gear. A hub is bolted to
the main drive gear to which the sun gear is splined.

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Fig 6.2 Reduction Gear

The five planetary gears that mesh with the sun gear also mesh with a
stationary ring gear. Since the ring gear does not move as shown in Fig 6.1, the
planet gears walk around outside the sun gear. The ring gear has more than three
times as many teeth as the sun gear. The difference in the number of gear teeth
makes the second stage of reduction in the reduction gear.

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3. ENGINE NEGATIVE TORQUE SIGNAL DEVICE

Negative torque is developed when the propeller tries to drive the engine
power section, instead of the engine power section driving the propeller. Negative
torque can be caused by a suddenly slowing or stopping of the power section, air
gusts on the propeller, steep and rapid decent in flight, or improper propeller
governing, During occurrence of negative torque condition happens, an uneven
balance of power will results on the engine.

An uneven balance of power will cause the aircraft to yaw, which is a

dangerous condition. It must be limited for safe flight.

The easiest way to load the propeller is to increase in air load. An increase in
air load can be accomplished by increasing the propeller blade angle. To increase
the blade angle of the propeller when the negative torque occurs, the reduction
gears has a built in negative torque signal device. The NTS device will operate
automatically during engine operation. The signal consists of a stationary ring gear,
an NTS ring gear coupling, an NTS helical spline coupling, an NTS spline ring, a
front and rear plate, two spring retainers, a 14 plungers, 14 coiled springs and two
actuator rods.

The NTS ring gear is held stationary in the reduction gear case. This gear has
splines on the inside diameter which mate with the planetary gears. The NTS ring
gear coupling splines into forward end of the NTS ring gear. This coupling in turn
splines into the NTS helical spline coupling, which has angular or helical splines on
the NTS spling ring. The angle obtained, when the two helical splines mesh, will align
a slight forward movement when negative torque is applied, the NTS ring gear will
move forward as this twisting takes place , but is normally held rearward by positive
torque and spring forces.

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Fig 6.3 NTS Actuator

Positive torque is a counter-clockwise force on the NTS ring gear. Negative
torque is a clockwise force on the NTS ring gear. When the engine has a positive
torque applied, the force will seat the ring gear rearward as shown in Fig 6.3. When
the engine has a negative torque condition, the rotational movement will cause the
NTS ring gear to move forward. This movement will overcome spring force and move
a plunger and actuator rod forward.

The actuator rod is mechanically connected to the propeller. The mechanical

linkage positions the propeller governor to move the propeller to an increased blade
angle. This will load the propeller and eliminate the excessive torque condition. As
the negative torque decreases below certain Horsepower, the NTS ring gear will
move back to its normal position and the actuator rod will retract. This will move the
mechanical linkage from the propeller to its normal position.

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4. SAFETY COUPLING

To limit a negative torque condition, the front gear case has a device that will
automatically change the propeller blade angle to increase the propeller pitch. In the
event the section will be uncoupled from the engine by a safety coupling. A propeller
brake keeps the propeller from wind milling after feathering in flight or after shut-
down during ground operations. If the NTS device should fail to limit negative torque,
the negative torque could cause excessive drag. A safety coupling eliminates this
possibility, by disconnecting the torque meter shaft from the reduction gear section.
The safety coupling is between the torque meter shaft and the reduction gear
assembly.

Fig 6.4 Safety Coupling

The main parts of the safety coupling are the inner member, the intermediate
member, the outer member, and four springs. The outer member is bolted to the
torque meter shaft. The inner member is splined to the reduction pinion gear shaft.
The intermediate member joins the inner and outer members by the use of splines.
The aft out edge of the intermediate member is splined to the outer member with
straight splines.

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The straight splines allow a fixed connection of two units. The forward end of
the intermediate member has splines on the inside. These splines, which are helical,
mesh to the inner member. The inner member is splined to the pinion input shaft with
straight splines. Four Saucer-shaped springs hold the intermediate member to the
inner member. The springs, plus a positive torque from the engine, will hold the
helical splines engaged.

When a negative torque exceeding for example –920HP to –1580HP, the

inner member (through the helical splines) moves the intermediate member aft,
overcoming the four springs.

When the intermediate member travels far enough, the torque meter shaft is
uncoupled from the pinion input gear shaft. The propeller can now freely turn. The
torque meter shaft can recouped to the reduction gear section if the speed of the
engine and the speed of the propeller becomes equal. If the reduction gear section
uncouples, the safety coupling should be inspected.

4.1 Basic Operation of PCM

The dome assembly is mounted on the forward section of the barrel assembly as shown
in Fig 6.5. It contains the pitch changing mechanism and the low-stop assembly. The
pitch changing mechanism converts hydraulic pressure into mechanism converts
hydraulic pressure into mechanical torque. Its main parts are a piston assembly, a
stationary cam, a rotating cam and the dome shell. The piston is a double-walled
assembly which fits over the two cams inside the dome shell. The piston is held in place
by roller which ride in the cam tracks of both cams. The rear of the rotating cam is
connected to the propeller blades by beveled gears. As propeller oil pressure is applied
to the piston, causing it to move, the roller riding the cam track turn the rotating cam,
changing the blade angle. As for low-stop assembly, it function is to prevent the blades
from decreasing pitch if over-speeding occurs or if oil pressure is lost

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.
… Fig 6.5 PCM Assembly..

5. REDUCTION GEAR ACCESSORIES

The rear case of the reduction gear is used for mounting accessories as
shown in Fig 6.6. An accessory gear train is used to drive these accessories. The
gear train is driven by the accessory drive gear on the input shaft. The size and
number of teeth on the gear determines the speed for each accessory drive.

The reduction gear had pads for mounting accessories. Some of the mounting
pads are not used in the following illustrations. An AC alternator is mounted on each
engine. These alternators supply three-phase A-C power for the aircraft.

Each engine has a hydraulic pump. The hydraulic pumps supply normal
operating pressure for the aircraft’s hydraulic systems. The pumps on engines No.1
and No. 2 supply pressure to the utility system. The pumps on the engines No.3 and
No. 4 supply pressure to the booster system.

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Fig 6.7 Reduction Gear Accessory components

The reduction gear pressure oil pump and filter assembly are mounted on the
reduction gear case. The pump supplies oil, under pressure, to lubricate the
reduction gear. The filter assembly returns foreign materials from the oil before it
goes to the gears and bearings.

A pneumatic engine starter is mounted on the rear of the reduction gear

assembly as shown in Fig 6.8. During engine starts, torque is transmitted to the
reduction gear train by the starter until the starter cut-out speed is reached.

A tachometer generator is mounted on the gearbox. It sends an electrical

signal of engine speed to the tachometer indicator in the cockpit. It is also used to
provide an electrical speed signal for the propeller electrical control system.

Figure 6-9, show how the propeller assy is been connected to the reduction
gear box assy.

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Fig 6.8 Reduction Gear Accessory

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Fig 6-9 Propeller connected to Reduction Gear Box

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