GEC 1

UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

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 Unit I: THE SELF FROM THE VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES

Module 1
PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE SELF

Introduction

The history of philosophy particularly the western philosophy is replete with men
and women who inquired into the fundamental nature of self. A with the question of the
primary substratum that defines the multiplicity of things in the world, the inquiry on the
self has preoccupied the earliest thinkers in the history of western philosophy: the Greeks.
The Greeks were the ones who started to seriously question myths and then moved away
from them in attempting to understand reality and responded to the perennial questions
of curiosity, including the question of the self.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. explain why it is essential to understand the self;
2. describe and discuss the different notions of the self from the points-of-view of
the various philosophers across time and place;
3. compare and contrast how the self has been represented in different
philosophical schools; and
4. examine one’s self against the different views of self that were discussed in class.

Learning Content

ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY

Socrates and Plato

Prior to Socrates, the Greek thinkers, sometimes collectively called the Pre-
Socratics to denote that some of them preceded Socrates while others existed around
Socrates’s time as well, preoccupied themselves with the question of the primary
substratum, arché that explains the multiplicity of things in the world. These men like
Thales, Pythagoras, Parmenides, Heraclitus, and Empedocles, to name a few, were
concerned with explaining what the world is really made up of, why the world is so, and
what explains the changes that they observed around them. Tired of simply conceding to
mythological accounts propounded by poet-theologians like Homer and Hesiod, these
men endeavored to finally locate an explanation about the nature of change, the seeming
permanence despite change, and the unity of the world amidst its diversity.

After a series of thinkers from all across the ancient Greek world who were
disturbed by the same issue, a man came out to question something else. This man was
Socrates. Unlike the Pre-Socratics, Socrates was more concerned with another subject,
the problem of the self. He was first the philosopher who ever engaged in a systematic
questioning about the self. To Socrates, and this has become his life-long mission, the true
task of a philosopher is to know oneself.

Plato claimed in his dialogues that Socrates affirmed that the unexamined life is
not worth living. During his trial for allegedly corrupting the minds of the youth and for
impiety, Socrates declared without regret that his being indicted was brought about by his
going around Athens engaging men, youth and old, to question their presuppositions
about themselves and about the world, particularly about who they are (Plato 2012).
Socrates took it upon himself to serve as a “gadfly” that disturbed Athenian men from
their slumber and shook them off in order to reach the truth and wisdom. Most men, in
his reckoning, were really not fully aware of who they are and the virtues that they were
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supposed to attain in order to preserve their souls for the afterlife. Socrates thought that
this is the worst that can happen to anyone: to live but die inside.
For Socrates, every man is composed of body and soul. This means that every
human person is dualistic, that is, he is composed of two aspect of his personhood. For
Socrates, this means all individuals have an imperfect, impermanent aspect to him, and
the body while maintaining that there is also a soul that is perfect and permanent.
Plato, Socrates’ student, basically took off from his master and supported the idea
that man has a dual nature of body and soul. In addition to what Socrates earlier
espoused, Plato added that there are three components of the soul: the rational soul, the
spirited soul, and the appetitive soul. In his magnum opus, “The Republic” (Plato 2000),
Plato emphasizes that justice in the human person can only be attained if the three parts
of the soul are working harmoniously with one another. The rational soul forged by reason
and intellect has to govern the affairs of the human person, the spirited part which is in
charge of emotions should be kept at bay, and the appetitive soul in charge of base desires
like eating, drinking, sleeping, and having sex are controlled as well. When his ideal state
is attained, then the human person’s soul becomes just and virtuous.

MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY

St. Augustine of Hippoand St. Thomas Aquinas

Augustine’s view of the human person reflects the entire spirit of the medieval
world when it comes man. Following the ancient view of Plato and infusing it with the
doctrine of Christianity, St. Augustine agreed that man is of a bifurcated nature. An aspect
of man dwells in the world and is imperfect and continuously yearns to be with the Divine
and the other is capable of reaching immortality.
The body is bound to die on earth and the soul is to anticipate living eternally in a
realm of spiritual bliss in communion with God. This is because the body can only thrive
in the imperfect, physical reality that is the world, whereas the soul can also stay after
death in an eternal realm with the all-transcendent God. The goal of every human person
is to attain this communion and bliss with the Divine by living his life on earth in virtue.
Thomas Aquinas, the most eminent thirtieth century scholar and stalwart of the
medieval philosophy, appended something to this Christian view. Adapting some ideas
from Aristotle, Aquinas said that indeed, man is composed of two parts: matter and form.
Matter or hyle in Greek, refers to the common stuff that makes up everything in the
universe. Man’s body is part of this matter. Form on the other hand, or morphe in Greek
refers to the essence of a substance or thing. It is what makes it what it is. In the case of
the human person, the body of the human person is something that he shares even with
animals. The cells in man’s body are more or less akin to the cells of any other living,
organic being in the world. However, what makes a human person and not a dog, or a
tiger is his soul, his essence. To Aquinas, just as in Aristotle, the soul is what animates the
body; it is what makes us humans.

MODERN PHILOSOPHY

RENE DESCARTES
Rene Descartes, Father of Modern Philosophy, conceived of the human person as
having a body and a mind. In his famous treatise, The Meditations of the First Philosophy,
he claims that there is so much of what we should doubt. In fact, he says that since much
of what we think and believe are not infallible, they may turn out to be false. One should
only believe that since which can pass the test of doubt (Descartes 2008). If something is
so clear and lucid as not to be even doubted, then that is the only time when one should
actually buy a proposition. In the end, Descartes thought that the only thing that one
cannot doubt is the existence of the self, for even if one doubts oneself, that only proves
that there is a doubting self, a thing that thinks and therefore, that cannot be doubted.
Thus, his famous, cogito ergo sum, “I think therefore, I am.” The fact that one thinks
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should lead one to conclude without a trace of doubt that he exists. The self then for
Decartes is also a combination of two distinct entities, the cogito, the thing that thinks,
which is the mind, and the extenza or the extension of the mind, which is the body. In
Descartes’s view, the body is nothing else but a machine that is attached to the mind. The
human person has it but it is not what makes man a man. If at all, that is the mind.
Descartes says, “But what then, am I?” A thinking thing. It has been said. But what is a
thinking thing? It is a thing that doubts, understands (conceives), affirms, denies, wills,
refuses; that imagines also, and perceives” (Descartes 2008).

DAVID HUME
David Hume, a Scottish philosopher, has a very unique way of looking a man. As
an empiricist who believes that one can know only what comes from the senses and
experiences, Hume argues that the self is nothing like what his predecessors thought if it.
The self is not an entity over and beyond the physical body. One can rightly see here the
empiricism that runs through his veins. Empiricism is the school of thought that espouses
the idea that knowledge can only be possible if it is sensed and experienced. Men can only
attain knowledge by experiencing. For example, Jack knows that Jill is another human
person not because he has seen her soul. He knows she is just like him because he sees
her, hears her, and touches her.
To David Hume, the self is nothing else but a bundle of impressions. What are
impressions? For David Hume, if one tries to examine his experiences, he finds that they
can all be categorized into two: impressions and ideas. Impressions are the basic objects
of our experience or sensation. They therefore form the core of our thoughts. When one
touches an ice cube, the cold sensation is an impression. Impressions therefore are vivid
because they are products of our direct experience with the world. Ideas, on the other
hand, are copies of impressions. Because of this, they are not as lively and vivid as our
impressions. When one imagines the feeling of being in love for the first time, that still is
an idea.
What is the self then? Self, according to Hume, is simply “a bundle or collection of
different perceptions, which succeed each other with an inconceivable rapidity, and are
in a perpetual flux and movement.” (Hume and Steinberg 1992). Men simply want to
believe that there is a unified, coherent self, a soul or mind just like what the previous
philosophers thought. In reality, what one thinks is a unified self is simply a combination
of all experience with particular person.

IMMANUEL KANT
Thinking of the “self” as a mere combination of impressions was problematic for
Immanuel Kant. Kant recognizes the veracity of Hume’s account that everything starts
with perception and sensation of impressions. However Kant thinks that the things that
men perceive around them are not just randomly infused into the human person without
an organizing principle that regulates the relationship of all these impressions. To Kant,
there is necessarily a mind that organizes the impressions that men get from the external
world. Time and space, for example, are ideas that one cannot find in the world, but is
built in our minds. Kant calls these the apparatuses of the mind.
Along with the different apparatuses of the mind goes the “self.” Without the self,
one cannot organize the different impressions that one gets in relation to his own
existence. Kant therefore suggests that it is an actively engaged intelligence in man that
synthesizes all knowledge and experience. Thus, the self is not just what gives one his
personality. In addition, it is also the seat of knowledge acquisition for all human persons.

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CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHY

GILBERT RYLE
Gilbert Ryle solves the mind-body dichotomy that has been running for a long time
in the history of thought by blatantly denying the concept of an internal, non-physical self.
For Ryle, what truly matters is the behavior that a person manifests in his day-to-day life.
For Ryle, looking for and trying to understand a self as it really exists is like visiting
your friend’s university and looking for the “university.” One can roam around the
campus, visit the library and the football field, and meet the administrators and faculty
and still end up not finding the “university.” This is because the campus, the people, the
systems, and the territory all form the university. Ryle suggests that the “self” is not an
entity one can locate and analyze but simply the convenient name that people use to refer
to all the behaviors that people make.

MAURICE JEAN JACQUES MERLEAU-PONTY

Maurice Jean Jacques Merleau-Ponty is a phenomenologist who asserts that the
mind-body bifurcation that has been going on for a long time is a futile endeavor and an
invalid problem. Unlike Ryle who simply denies the “self,” Merleau-Ponty instead says
that the mind and body are so intertwined that they cannot be separated from one
another. One cannot find any experience that is not an embodied experience. All
experience is embodied. One’s body is his opening toward his existence to the world.
Because of these bodies, men are in the world. Merleau-Ponty dismisses the Cartesian
Dualism that has spelled so much devastation in the history of man. For him, the
Cartesian problem is nothing else but plain misunderstanding. The living body, his
thoughts, emotions, and experiences are all one.

TEACHING AND LEARNING ACTIVITY

Do You Truly Know Yourself?

Answer the following questions about yourself as fully and precisely as you can.

1. How would you characterize yourself?

2. What makes you stand out from the rest? What makes yourself special?
3. How has your self-transformed itself?
4. How is your self-connected to your body?
5. How is your self-related to other selves?
6. What will happen to the body and the soul when you die?

ANALYSIS

Were you able to answer the questions above with ease? Why? Which questions
did you find easiest to answer? Which ones are difficult? Why?

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 Questions Easy or difficult to answer? Why?

Can you truly know the self? Do you want to know about the self?

ASSESSMENT TASK 1

From the various philosophical perspectives above, discuss using your own words
what is self.
What philosophical perspective you consider the most similar to your perspective
about yourself. Explain.

ASSESSMENT TASK 2

Using the same guide questions in your activity above, write a four-stanza poem
that will reflect your idea on self. Please be guided with the rubrics below.
“I”
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________

______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________

______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________

RUBRIC
RELEVANCE 10pts.
ORIGINALITY 5pts.
CREATIVITY 5pts.
ORGANIZATION OF THOUGHTS 5pts.
TOTAL 25pts.

References

Alata, Eden Joy Pastor et al. 2018. Understanding the Self. Manila: Rex Book Store.

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Beilharz, Peter, and Trevor Hogan. 2002. Social Self, Global Culture: An Introduction to
Sociological Ideas. New York: Oxford University Press.

Chaffee, John. 2015. The Philosopher’s Way: Thinking Critically about Profound Ideas.
5th Ed. Boston: Pearson.

David, Randopl. 2002. Nation, Self, and Citizenship: An Invitation to Philippine

Sociology. Department of Sociology, College of Social Sciences and Philosophy,
University of the Philippines.

Descartes, René. 2008. Meditations on First Philosophy: with Selections from the
Objections and Replies. New York: Oxford University Press.

Ganeri, Jonardon. 2012. The Self: Naturalism, Consciousness, and the First-Person
Stance. New York: Oxford University Press.

Hume, David, and Eric Steinberg. 1992. An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding;
[with] A Letter from a Gentleman to His Friend in Edinburgh; [and] An Abstract of a
Treatise of Human Nature. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing.

Marsella, Anthony J., George A. De Vos, and Francis L. K. Hsu. 1985. Culture and Self:
Asian and Western Perspectives. London: Tavistock Publications.

Mead, George Herbert. 1934. Mind, Self, and Society: From the Standpoint of a Social
Behaviorist. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Plato. 2000. Plato: “The Republic.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Rappe, Sara L. 1995. “Socrates and Self-Knowledge.” Apeiron: A Journal for Ancient
Philosophy and Science 28 (1): 1-24.

Schlenker, Barry R. 1985. The Self and Social Life. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Stevens, Richard. 1996. Understanding the Self. California: SAGE Publications.

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 Module 2

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE SELF

Introduction

With the advent of Social Science in 18th century, new ways of knowing have
emerged. The new discipline departed from Philosophy’s heavy reliance on speculation
and shifted to observation as a valid approach of knowing what is real and true. This
new approach cultivated philosophical objectivity in understanding the world,
specifically in its nature. Humanity started to be considered as being part of the natural
world and gained attention as acceptable subject of study.

Consequently, the self which was dominantly regarded by Philosophers as whether

or not a concept of duality has been questioned by the Social Scientists. To re-examine
the true nature of the self, their focus shifted on the relationship of the self with its
external world. That is, with its constant interaction with the external reality, the self
is shaped by external forces that constitute society, community, and family among
others.

In this chapter therefore, the self is presented contrary to the philosophical view
whereby self is considered as having two components of the body and soul (or the body
and mind). Self in this chapter is emphasized as social by nature. Beginning from birth,
it continuously interacts with its external world that determines what it might be, what
it can be and what it will be.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the module, students should be able to:

1. explain the basic concept of self as a product of social reality;
2. describe how self is shaped by society and culture; and
3. examine one’s self relative to his/her external world.

Learning Content

Self as a Social Construct

The self as a social construct is derived from the idea that society which takes
part in its shaping is a social construction. Through social interaction and active
understanding of the social reality by collective actions of people, living together and
their relationships become meaningful. By active understanding, it means that
individuals are not only passive participants in their social life. Through language,
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 they privately and publicly utilize or share symbols within their interactions. This
creates a pattern that shapes and influences who they are, how they behave and
think.

The Self and Society

In 1996, Steven (cited by Alata, EJ et. al., 2018) found in his literature reviews that
self has been characterized as separate, self-contained, independent, consistent, unitary
and private. Said characteristics suggest that self is distinct to others. It is self-contained
and independent because it can exist by itself. It is contained in its own thoughts,
characteristics, and volition. It does not allow other self for it to exist. It has a personality
that is enduring or persists over time. It is centered on its experiences and thoughts. In
implication, self is isolated from the external world.

Taking the forefront when Philosophy started to lose its fame in the area of
understanding about the self, the discipline of Sociology asserts that humans cannot be
understood apart from it social context. Base on its idea, society is linked to the individual
as they are inherently connected and dependent on each other. Society being composed
of a large social grouping sharing in the same geographical territory implies that groups
who are more or less living together have the same cultures and predisposed to
institutions which provide their physical, social, and psychological needs and which
maintain order and the values of the culture. It makes us who we are by structuring our
interactions and lay out an orderly world before us. As a result, an individual is capable
of seeing through his/her experiences and the larger society called sociological
imagination in which society creates opportunities for him/her to think and act as well
as limiting his/her thoughts and actions.

Sociological Theories of the Self

A. The Looking Glass Self by Charles Cooley

Charles Cooley pioneered one of the most prominent Sociological perspectives of

the self. He asserted that individuals develop their concept of self by looking at how others
perceive them, hence, coined his theory as “The Looking Glass Self”.

Using the view of others, Cooley denotes that understanding of self is socially
constructed. Through social interaction, one’s sense of self is mirrored from the
judgments they receive from others to measure their own worth, values, and behavior.
This process involves the following steps:

1. An individual in a social situation imagines how they appear to others.

2. That individual imagines others’ judgment of that appearance.
3. The individual develops feelings (of pride or shame) and responds to those
perceived judgments.

Seemingly, the theory of Charles Cooley is appealing if not complicated by some

context of interaction and nature of people involved in the process. Feedback for one plays
an important role in the process. However, not all feedback are taken or carried out in the
same weight. Thus, not all judgments or view of other people to one’s self may affect how
he/she measure his/her worth, values and behavior. For instance, some take responses
from those whom they trust more seriously than those of strangers. Misinterpretations of
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signals may also occur from the point of view of the person examining him/herself. One’s
value system can be also taken into consideration when thinking through any changes to
their behavior or views of self. Ultimately, people constantly seek to create consistency
between their internal and external worlds and, therefore, continue to perceive, adjust,
and strive for equilibrium throughout their lives (Self and Socialization, nd).

B. Theory of the Self-Development by George Herbert Mead

Similar to Charle’s Cooley’s theory of self, George Herbert Mead also gave
emphasis to other’s perspective in view of one’s self. As a prerequisite of being able to
understand the self, one has to develop self-awareness. This can be derived from looking
at ourselves from the perspective of others. For instance, we put ourselves into someone
else’s shoes and look at the world through that someone’s perspective. This process is only
made possible by social interaction. If social interaction is absent particularly in one’s
early experiences, he/she will find difficulty in developing an ability to see him/herself as
others would see him/her. According to Mead, the “self” in such case is not being
developed (Theory of Self Development,nd).

By stages, Mead states that self develops through social interaction.

1. Preparatory Stage: Children in this stage are only capable of imitating

actions of others (i.e. people they particularly in contact with such as their family
members). They have no ability to imagine yet how others see things.

2. Play Stage: At this stage, children begin to try to take on the role of other
person by acting out grown up behaviors, dressing like adults, etc.

3. Game Stage: While children learn about several roles of others, they
understand how these roles interact with each other in this stage. They learn to
understand complex interactions involving different people with variety of purpose. In a
restaurant for instance, a child understands different responsibilities of people who work
together for a smooth sailing experience. He/she understands that someone from the
restaurant takes orders, others wash dishes, cook the food, etc.).

4. Generalized other: In this stage, children develop, understand and learn

the idea of the common behavioral expectations of the general society. They are able to
imagine how they are viewed by one or many. Mead pointed out that “self” in this stage is
being developed.

The Self and Culture

The self should not be seen as a static entity which remains constant through time.
It persistently struggles with its external reality and is malleable in dealing with it. Being
active participant in its social world, the self, through interaction, is made and remade.
As it continuously interacts with others, society is continually changing and dynamic, so
thus self.

Self being endlessly exposed to its social world and is subjected to its influences here
and there. While the social world is changing and dynamic, being the same person across

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time and space therefore is illogical. In this perspective, self is considered as multi-
faceted.

The Moi and Personne Self

Marcel Mauss and his contemporaries claimed that society is a result of a process
whereby actions of humans is built upon everyday social continuity. As an Anthropologist
and Sociologist, he asserted that self adapts to its everyday social condition. In particular,
the behavior of human groups and the way they perceive themselves in daily life are
influenced by their environmental and seasonal variations. Everyday life is an endless
process of actions and exchanges between and among humans to sustain their existence
and meet their needs. Cultural identity therefore is intertwined with space and time
(Airton José Cavenaghi, 2016) making one’s self determined according to its
circumstances and context.

As a result of this notion, Marcel Mauss asserted that every self has two faces--the
personne and moi. MOI refers to a person’s sense of who he is, his body and his basic
identity, his biological givennes. It is a person’s basic identity. PERSONNE on the other
hand, is composed of the social concepts of what it means, to be who he is. It has much to
do with what it means to live in a particular institution, a particular family, a particular
religion, a particular nationality, and how to behave given expectations and influences
from others. Personne therefore shifts from time to time to adapt to his social situation
(Alata, EJ et. al., 2018).

Various personne can be illustrated across culture. In the Philippines, part of the
Filipino personne-of who they are-- is their territory. This includes considering their
immediate surroundings as part of them, thus the perennial “tapat ko, linis ko”.

Language is also an interesting aspect of who Filipinos are. Filipinos articulates

love with the famous phrase, “Mahal kita”. This phrase if translated in English means,
“I Love You”. Unlike in English, the Filipino version of “I Love You” however does not
specify who the subject and the object of love. There is no specification of who loves and
who is being loved.

Interestingly, the word “mahal” in the Philippines can both mean “love” and
“expensive”. Love is intimately bound with value while being expensive means being
precious. Putting together, someone or something expensive is therefore valuable.
Someone whom we love is valuable. When taken from its Sanskrit origin “lubh,” love can
also mean desire.

Another interesting facet of the Filipino language is its being gender-neutral. The
word “siya” is used to refer to either a boy or girl. In other languages specifically English
and Spanish, demarcation between male and female pronoun is clear. In English, “he” is
referred to male while “she” refers to female. “El” in Spanish refers to male while “ella” is
referred to females.

As these examples depicts cultural divide, it goes to show how one regards oneself
differently from others. The language which has something to do with one’s culture has a
tremendous effect in the crafting of the self.

The “I” and the “Me” Self

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 As an offshoot of his theory previously presented, George Herbert Mead
characterized the self as “I” and “Me”. Based on the theory, an individual imports from
the social process. As an individual organism, he/she may display gestures on his/her
own but takes collective attitude of others and reacts accordingly to their organized
attitudes while in constant interaction with them.

The process according to Mead involves the creation of the two facets of self. The
“me” is the social self and the “I” is the response to the “me”. Both arising from the social
process, the “I” is the one responding to the attitudes of the others while “me” is the result
of the “I” assuming the organized set of attitudes of the others (it is the result of the
individual’s accumulated understanding of the generalized other). The “I” learns about
the “me”, hence, it is the knower, while the “me” is the known. Ultimately, self is
developed through language and role-play where the child learns to delineate his/her “I”
from the rest.

Lev Vygotsky

Together with George Herbert Mead, Lev Vygotsky stressed the important role of
language acquisition and interaction with others in human development. According to
them, mind is made or constituted through language that one acquires or experiences
with his/her external world. This process is mediated by one’s internal dialogue with
his/her own head. Through it, he/she learns to internalize values, norms, practices, social
beliefs, etc., Consistent exposure to internal dialogues will eventually become part of one’s
individual world. For Mead, role-playing of children indicates that they create scripts in
their head, thus a manifestation of internal dialogue within self. For Vygotsky, a child
internalizes real life dialogues that he/she had with others by recycling this during one of
their mental and practical problem solving (Alata, et. al, 2018).

Self in Families

Every human is born helpless or dependent from the external world. The first
group that one interacts with and depend for the fulfilment of his/her needs is the family.
As the basic social institution, the family is the primary provider or source of a child’s
needs (human, social, economic). It is also the main avenue for teaching young
individuals the basic things that they need to learn in order to fit in the society. It has also
the capacity to develop or encourage the actualization of one’s potentials. These are all
made possible by way of socialization whereby one learns basic ways of living, language,
values, etc. by way of imitating or observation or teaching by an adult member of the
family such as the mother and the father.

A child learns ways of living, his/her selfhood, by being with the family. Learning
self in the family is conscious or unconscious. If reared with respectful family, then he/she
becomes respectful. If raised with a conversational family, then he/she becomes
conversational. Ways of living that are explicitly taught are those that are basic for the
child to learn such as table manners, speaking with an elder, etc. Through rewards and
punishments, some behaviors and attitudes are indirectly taught to a child. For example,
talking about sexual behavior or how to comfort emotions are internalized by a child
through interpreting intonation of voice by adults or of their model in the family. Clearly,
these point out that becoming an adult who does not learn about basic matters such as
manners or conduct indicates failure of the family to initiate him/her into the world. In
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this sense, the initial conception of selfhood for social survival and becoming a human
person is learned in the family.

Another important aspect of social process within the family is the learning of
gender by a child. Gender partly determines how one sees him/herself in the world.
Though gender is considered as one aspect of the self that is subject to alteration, change
and development, it is noteworthy that its concept is primarily acquired in the family.

In a relatively conservative cultures such as the Philippines for instance, husbands

for the most part are expected to provide for the family. Exposed to this kind of system,
the sons in the family internalize a inkling to being a future provider to behave and think
like a man. Female members of the family who are mostly exposed to their mother’s roles
tend to imitate the same mentality of women as care providers in the family according to
Nancy Chodorow, a Feminist (cited in Alata, et. al, 2018). Providing dolls instead of guns
to girls also reinforces the notion of what roles they should take, thus, the kind of self-
concept they should develop.

Teaching and Learning Activities

Activity: Me and my Social World

Procedure:

1. Group the class by 5 members each.

2. Instruct each group to create a virtual collage depicting how an individual

is surrounded and shaped by his/her social world.

3. Tell each group to present and explain their outputs online.

Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adapted

This chapter adopts the synchronous and asynchronous learning modalities for
you to have better access and learning of the lessons. This may include google classroom,
moodle, schoology, edmodo, Podcast, printed materials and other resources depending
on your needs and capacity to use the material.

For uniformity, we will adopt the SeDi (Self-Directed) Learning Management

System of the Isabela State University.

Assessment Task:

Quiz

TRUE OR FALSE. Write True if the statement is correct while False if the statement is
incorrect.

___________1. Self is developed through human interaction and

language according to John Locke.

__________ 2. Self is in constant participation with social life, therefore,

subject to its influence.

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 ___________3. Internalization of behavior is conscious or unconscious.

___________4. Self has two faces according to Marcel Mauss, the

conscious and unconscious self.

___________5. Self is affected by its real encounters with the world.

___________6. The self is distinct from other selves.

___________7. Each person sorts out information, feelings, emotions,

and thought processes within the self.

___________8. The self is understood as a unified being essentially

connected to consciousness, awareness and agency.

___________9. Without a family, biologically or sociologically, a person

may not even survive or become a human person.

___________10. Masculinity is learned by integrating a young boy in a

society.

ESSAY (10 points each)

In not less than five (5) sentences,

1. explain “Self as a social product”.

2. state whether you agree or disagree on the statement,
“GENDER has to be personally discovered and asserted and
not dictated by culture and the society”. Justify your answer.

RUBRIC
RELEVANCE 10pts.
ORIGINALITY 5pts.
CREATIVITY 5pts.
ORGANIZATION OF THOUGHTS 5pts.
TOTAL 25pts.

References

Alata, E. et. al. (2018) Understanding the Self. Rex Bookstore, Manila Philippines.

Becker,H.(2016).Ways of telling about society. Retrieved on July 9, 2020 from

https://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/2607/3980

Cavenaghiv, A. J. (2016). Marcel Mauss and the cultural history: a contemporary rescue.
On-line version ISSN 1982-6125. Retrieved on July 10, 2020 from
https://doi.org/10.7784/rbtur.v10i3.1132.

Coursehero. (2020). Every self has two faces. Retrieved on June 11, 2020 from
https://www.coursehero.com/file/p62a491/Every-SELF-has-two-faces-1-Personne-
composed-of-the-social-concepts-of-what-it/

14
Perception Is Reality: The Looking-Glass Self. Lesley University. Retried on on July 10,
2020 from https://lesley.edu/article/perception-is-reality-the-looking-glass-self.

Prijatelj, E. (2011) Identities of Human Self: From the Standpoint of Guindon’s Personal
Identity Formation Approach SYNTHESIS PHILOSOPHICA pp. (267–281). Retrieved on
on July 10, 2020 from https://philpapers.org.

Self and Socialization: Boundless Sociology. Lumen. Retrieved on July 10, 2020 from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/the-self-and-
socialization/

Theories of Self-Development. Introduction to Sociology. Lumen. Retrieved on July 10,

2020 from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sociology/chapter/theories-of-self-
development/

Vida,M.(2020).The self, society and culture. Retrieved on June 10, 2020 from
https://www.scribd.com/document/445228801/THE-Self-Society-and-Culture

Wright Mills,C.(2000 ).The sociological imagination. Retrieved on June 10,2020 from

https://books.google.com.ph/books/about/The_Sociological_Imagination.html?id=UT
Q6OkKwszoC&printsec=frontcover&source=kp_read_button&redir_esc=y

15
 MODULE 3
ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF

Introduction

The Origin of Self explores the role that selfhood plays in defining human society.
It considers the genetic and cultural origins of self, the role that self plays in socialization
and language, and the types of self we generate in our individual journeys to and through
adulthood. Edwardes argues that other awareness is a relatively early evolutionary
development, present throughout the primate clade and perhaps beyond, but self-
awareness is a product of the sharing of social models, something only humans appear to
do. The self of whom we are aware is not something innate within us, it is a model of our
self-produced as a response to the models offered to us by other people. Edwardes
proposes that human construction of selfhood involves seven different types of self. All
but one of them are internally generated models, and the only non- model, the actual self,
is completely hidden from conscious awareness. We rely on others to tell us about our
self, and even to let us know we are a self.

Learning Outcomes

After the learning session, the students are able to:

1. increase awareness of the various dimensions of anthropology and
its influence on self-concept;
2. understand how each culture develop a unique cultural lens;
3. examine their own cultural identity from a global perspective; and
4. demonstrate critical and reflective thought in analyzing how culture
influences our beliefs and behavior through an essay.

Learning Content

In anthropology, the self-came to be understood as a process that orchestrates an

individual's personal experience following which s/he becomes self-aware and self-
reflective about her or his place in society.

This chapter seeks to explore the role selfhood plays in defining human society,
and each human individual in that society. It considers the genetic and cultural origins of
self, the role that self plays in socialization and language, and the types of self we generate
in our individual journeys to and through adulthood.

Anthropology

● The study of human societies and cultures and their development

● it is concerned with how cultural and biological processes interact to shape human
experience

Self as Embedded in Culture

Self-concept refers to all understanding and knowledge of oneself. The
components of self-concepts include: psychological, physical and social attitudes, ideas
and beliefs that one has. The most influence in terms of self-concept is family’s history,
basically referring to the culture one has been brought up in, and the experiences he or
she has undergone.

16
 Various studies have been carried out concerning the impact culture may have
towards self-concept. One such study was carried out by Erdman (2006) using American
and Chinese students, requesting them to recall memories and events of their early years
of childhood. In his study, Erdman found out that early childhood memories were a big
part of self-concept. The findings demonstrated that different cultural memories are
brought about by early childhood years and persist into adulthood. The differences are
formed both in the extended cultural contexts which defines the meaning of the self and
the immediate family environment.

In conclusion, culture has such a greater influence on an individual’s life

contributing majorly to the self-concept of an individual. The influence might either be
negative or positive depending on the type of culture that one has been brought up in. It
is important that individuals study and appreciate their culture and its contribution in
shaping their individual personalities.

Culture is the set of unwritten norms of conduct that guide the behavior of a group

Edward Taylor- defined the culture that it is a complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by man.

Material and Non-material Culture

Sociologists describe two interrelated aspects of human culture: the physical

objects of the culture and the ideas associated with these objects.

Material culture refers to the physical objects, resources, and spaces that people
use to define their culture. These include homes, neighborhoods, cities, schools, churches,
synagogues, temples, mosques, offices, factories and plants, tools, means of production,
goods and products, stores, and so forth. All of these physical aspects of a culture help to
define its members' behaviors and perceptions. For example, technology is a vital aspect
of material culture in today's Filipino Society. Students in highly urbanized cities must
learn to use computers to survive in college and business, in contrast to young adults in
the ethnic societies who must learn to build weapons and hunt.

Non‐material culture refers to the nonphysical ideas that people have about their
culture, including beliefs, values, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and
institutions. For instance, the non‐material cultural concept of religion consists of a set
of ideas and beliefs about God, worship, morals, and ethics. These beliefs, then, determine
how the culture responds to its religious topics, issues, and events.

When considering non‐material culture, sociologists refer to several processes that

a culture uses to shape its members' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Four of the most
important of these are symbols, language, values, and norms.

Two Anthropological Perspectives of the Self

1. Egocentric- a concept of the self where the self is seen as an autonomous and
distinct individual.
2. Socio-centric- according to this view, there is no intrinsic self that can possess
enduring qualities.

Three-Phased Rite of Passage by Arnold Van Gennep

17
 1. Separation Phase- in this phase, people detach from their former identity to
another
2. Liminality Phase- in this phase, a person transitions from one identity to another
3. Incorporation Phase- in this phase, the change in one's status is officially
incorporated

Anthony Wallace and Raymond Fogelson- coined the term "identity struggles"

Identity Struggles- a term coined by Wallace and Fogelson to characterize interaction

in which there is a discrepancy between the identity a person claims to possess and the
identity attributed to that person by other.

Self-identification- in order to attain this, individuals have to overcome many

obstacles

Katherine Ewing- formulated the "Illusion of Wholeness"

Illusion of Wholeness- implies that the cohesiveness and continuity of self are only
illusory

Cultural Differences- exists when groups of people assign different meanings to

different life events and things

Key Terms

Social Identities- people construct their self-identity from the similarities and
differences in characteristics among individuals.
Example: You have categorized yourself as a student, the chances are you will adopt the
identity of a student and begin to act in the ways you believe students act (and conform
to the norms of the group).

Family Membership- the most significant feature to determine a person's social

identity.
Example: A person’s social identity can be determined based on the influence of his/her
family background (history, status, traits, or even resources)

Language- viewed as an essential for the maintenance of group identity.

Example: As people become members of a social group and learn to share that group's
identity, they need to adapt to the group’s language.

Religious Affiliation- an important marker for group identity in a given society.

Example: In a predominantly Catholic country, the majority of Filipinos qualify
themselves as members of the Roman Catholic Church.

Name- an important device to individualize a person and legitimize him or her as a

member of a social group.
Example: When you were born, you were given a name documented through a birth
certificate to legalize your birth.

Teaching and Learning Activities

1. Online class discussion and presentation through SeDi/Google Meet/ Zoom

I. Multiple Choice

1. It implies that the cohesiveness and continuity of self are only illusory

18
 A. Separation Phase
B. Illusion of Wholeness
C. Identity Toolbox
D. Incorporation Phase
2. People construct their __________ from the similarities and differences in
characteristics among individuals
A. Social Identities
B. Separation Phase
C. Sociocentric
D. Identity Toolbox
3. It considers human experience as interplay of " nature"
A. Incorporation Phase
B. Anthropology
C. Language
D. Separation Phase
4. They coined the term "identity struggles"
A. Max Weber and Jean Piaget
B. Anna Ketterling and Nancy Chodrow
C. Anthony Wallace and Raymond Fogelson
D. Contemporary Anthropologists
5. It is the important marker for group identity in other societies
A. Liminality Phase
B. Religious Affiliation
C. Family Membership
D. Clifford Geertz

II.True/False. Write True if the statement is correct, false if the statement is

incorrect.

1. Culture greatly affects the attitudes of an individual

2. Name is an important device to individualize a person and legitimize
him or her as a member of a social group.
3. Identity struggle is a term coined by Wallace and Fogelson to
characterize interaction in which there is a discrepancy between the
identity a person claims to possess and the identity attributed to that
person by others
4. Contemporary Anthropologists suggested that individuals must
internalize divergent cultural models in order to maintain a relatively
stable and coherent self

19
 5. Egocentric Self Concept views the self as an autonomous and distinct
individual.

Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted

Asynchronous and Synchronous

❖ For the written activity, you may answer it through Google classroom
❖ Modular Distance Learning (MDL)
❖ Online Distance Learning (ODL) (click the link provided in the references to read
more about the topic)

Assessment Task

1. How is the self understood in the anthropological perspective?

2. Discuss the concept of the self as to how it is shaped by culture.

Rubric

Criteria
Thought Content 10pts
Organization 10pts
Grammar 10pts
Total 30pts

References

Martin, E. (2014). The Origins of Self

Brian, M. (2017). Anthropology of the Self

Anthropological Perspective of the Self UTS retrieved from

https://quizlet.com/432855497/anthropological-perspective-of-the-self-uts-flash-
cards/

Warder, A. (1996) Consumption identity formation and uncertainty sociology.

Manchester: Manchester University Press retrieved from
https://www.paypervids.com/influence-culture-self-concept/

Material and Non-Material Culture retrieved from https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-

guides/sociology/culture-and-societies/material-and-nonmaterial-culture

20
 Module 4
PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE SELF

Introduction
The phenomena of the self in terms of self-knowledge, self-awareness, self-esteem,
self-enhancement, self-regulation, self-deception, self-presentation—to name just a few,
are indispensable research areas. Whereas prior conceptions of the self as knower tended
to posit a “transcendental” capacity for the ego, psychologists made this concept more
congenial by simply referring to it as the function that allows for continuity among
thoughts and experiences. James’s distinction perseveres in the interest that self-theorists
accord to how people acquire self-knowledge and how this knowledge is manifested in
behavior. The major topics related to self-functioning that social and personality
psychologists address concern the ways in which people understand and define their
characteristics (self-knowledge), how people use task and social feedback to monitor their
goal progress (self-regulation), the influence of personal standards, expectations, and
values on perception of others (self in social judgment), and how people maintain desired
self-images. The self has been studied as an individual difference variable (primarily by
personality theorists), as a determinant of social perception, attribution, and judgment,
and as an essential element in social relations.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

1. determine whether the “I” self and “Me” self are congruent or not based on
people’s view and your own perception;
2. distinguish how the structures of the mind operate in your personality; and
3. illustrate the real self and ideal self.

Learning Content

I. The self as a cognitive construction:

● William James (1842–1910) was one of the first to postulate a theory of the self
in The Principles of Psychology.
- James described two aspects of the self that he termed the “I Self”and “Me
Self.”
- The I Self reflects what people see or perceive themselves doing in the physical
world (e.g., recognizing that one is walking, eating, writing).
- The Me Self is a more subjective and psychological phenomenon, referring to
individuals’ reflections about themselves (e.g. Characterizing oneself as
athletic, smart, and cooperative).
- Other terms such as self-view, self-image, self-schema, and self-concept are
also used to describe the self-referent thoughts characteristic of the Me Self.
James further distinguished three components of the Me Self.

21
 (1) The material self (e.g., tangible objects or possessions we collect for
ourselves)
(2) The social self (e.g., how we interact and portray ourselves within
different groups, situations, or persons)
(3) The spiritual self (e.g., internal dispositions).

● According to Sigmund Freud,

human personality is complex and
has more than a single component.
In his famous psychoanalytic
theory of personality, personality
is composed of three elements.
These three elements of
personality—known as the id, the
ego, and the superego—work
together to create complex human
behaviors.

- The id is driven by the pleasure principle, which strives for immediate

gratification of all desires, wants, and needs.
- The ego operates based on the reality principle, which strives to satisfy the id's
desires in realistic and socially appropriate ways.
- The superego is the aspect of personality that holds all of our internalized moral
standards and ideals that we acquire from both parents and society—our sense
of right and wrong.

● The 3 Levels of Awareness

- The conscious: The conscious consists of what

someone is aware of at any particular point in
time. It includes what you are thinking about
right now, whether it is in the front of you mind
or the back. If you are aware of it then it is in the
conscious mind.

Example: Right now as you are reading about

Freud you could be thinking about what is being
said in the text and that your eyes are tired from
staring at this screen. In the back of your mind,
however, you might be thinking "wow this
website is really cool, if I was a psychology teacher
I would give whoever made it an A". Both of these thoughts occur in the
conscious mind.

- The Preconscious: The preconscious contains information that is just below

the surface of awareness. It can be retrieved with relative ease and usually can
be thought of as memory or recollection.

Example: Right now think of your middle name. That is an example of

preconscious memory. Similar example could be what is your mom's birthday,
when did it last rain, and how long does it take to drive to the mall.

- The Unconscious: The unconscious contains thoughts, memories, and

desires that are buried deep in ourselves, well below our conscious awareness.
Even though we are not aware of their existence, they exert great influence on
our behavior.
22
 Example: Things in your unconscious would be forgotten negative experiences
in your past, extreme dislike for a parent, or a terrible event that you pushed
out of your preconscious.

II. True self

There is true self that has a sense of integrity, of connected wholeness that
harks to the early stage.

False self

When the person has to comply with external rules, such as being polite or
otherwise following social codes, then a false self is used. The false self constantly
seeks to anticipate demands of others in order to maintain the relationship.
In early development, the false self is split off as an adaptation to a mother or
career who reflects her own defenses onto the infant rather than reflecting the
infant's actual moods.

Two Kinds of False Self

Healthy false self
When the false self is functional both for the
person and for society then it is considered
healthy. The healthy false self feels that that
it is still being true to the true self. It can be
compliant but without feeling that it has
betrayed its true self.
When the situation becomes difficult, the
true self can still override the true self and
so acts as an effective conscience or super-
ego.
Unhealthy false self
A self that fits in but through a feeling of
forced compliance rather than loving
adaptation is unhealthy.
When the false self-wins debates against the
true self, the person finds that they are unable
to be guided by their true self and so has to
adapt to the social situation rather than assert
its self.

Discussion
An unhealthy and pathological false self never gains independence from the mother, and so
never gets to transition to independence.
These principles help explain how people seem at ease or are constantly in tension and so act
in dysfunctional ways. It also indicates how treatment is not about exposing the fragile true
self, which most of us naturally fear, but helping the individual move on, both letting go of the
unhealthy portions of the false self and building a healthy replacement.

III. Ideal Self -concept

This is the person who we would like to be. It consists of our goals and ambitions in life,
and is dynamic – i.e., forever changing.
The ideal self in childhood is not the ideal self in our teens or late twenties etc.

Real Self Concept

The knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions people have about themselves as they actually
are. It is how we think, how we feel, look, and act. The real self can be seen by others, but
23
because we have no way of truly knowing how others view us, the real self is our self-
image. The real self can be seen by others, but because we have no way of truly knowing
how others view us, the real self is our self-image.
Discussion
According the Humanistic Psychologist Carl Rogers, the personality is composed of the
Real Self and the Ideal Self. Your Real Self is who you actually are, while your Ideal Self is
the person you want to be.
It is an idealized version of yourself created out of what you have learned from your life
experiences, the demands of society, and what you admire in your role models.

For example, your parents are medical doctors who are respected and admired in the
community, and experience tells you that in order to be happy, you need to be smart and
have a high-paying job. Your Ideal Self might be someone who excels in science subjects,
spends a lot of time studying, and does not get queasy at the sight of blood. If your Real
Self is far from this idealized image, then you might feel dissatisfied with your life and
consider yourself a failure.

IV. Unified self

● It is the integration of the sub selves into one, however, integration is a task for the
later part of life.
● “each version of self includes cognitive elements as well as feelings, drives, values,
and behaviors organized around a certain point of view.”

Multiple self

● It contains different modes of the self, “appear, one after another and side-by-side
in the consciousness.”

V. Agentic Self and Proactive Self

The agentic self is defined as the aspect of human personality that is determined by future
assessments of one's goals, objectives, and actions. Its functions are adversely affected by
degenerating planning, selecting, and implementing the capabilities of an individual.
The proactive self make things happen, instead of waiting for them to happen to you.
Active means "doing something." The prefix pro- means "before." So if you
are proactive, you are ready before something happens. Proactive Attitude (PA) is a
personality characteristic which has implications for motivation and action. It is a belief
in the rich potential of changes that can be made to improve oneself and one's
environment. This includes various facets such as resourcefulness, responsibility, values,
and vision.

THE SELF IN WESTERN AND ORIENTAL/EASTERN THOUGHTS

Key Concepts

EASTERN
MAIN PRINCIPLES
1. Cosmological unity
2. Life is a journey towards eternal
realities that are beyond the
realities that surround us
3. Circular view of the universe,
based on the perception of eternal
recurrence
WESTERN
1. Feeling oneself as an element of
the Divine
2. Life is a service (to the God,
money, business, etc.)
3. Linear view of the universe and
life, based on the Christian
24
 4. Inner-world dependent
5. Self-liberation from the false "Me"
and finding the true "Me". The
highest state is believed to be a
state of 'no-self', where neither
self-worth nor self-importance
have any real meaning.
6. Behavioral ethics
philosophy where everything has
its beginning and the end.
4. Outer-world dependent
5. Self-dedication to the goal (life
vision, success,happiness,
etc.)

THE “ME” CONCEPT

Eternal reality of the universal truth: self- “Me” is here and now. The true “Me” in
liberation through getting rid of the false every human being is a part of the Divine
"Me" and discovering the true "Me" that need to become apparent. True “Me”
is given and doesn’t have to be
cognizable.
SEARCH FOR ABSOLUTE TRUTH
● HOLISTIC approach – all ● More focused on INDIVIDUAL
events in the universe are EVENTS and the role of the
interconnected person
● Searching INSIDE ● Searching outside yourself -
YOURSELF – by becoming a through research andanalysis
part of the universe
through meditation and right "The truth that survives is simply the
living lie that is pleasantest to believe."
~ H.L.Mencken
"Though he should live a hundred
years, not seeing the Truth Sublime;
yet better, indeed, is the single day's
life of one who sees the Truth
Sublime." ~ Buddha

INDIVIDUALISM/COLLECTIVISM
A human being is an integral part of the A human being has an individualistic
universe and the society. People are nature and is an independent part of the
fundamentally connected. Duty towards universe and the society.
all others is a very important matter. INDIVIDUALISM is stronger.
COLLECTIVISM is stronger.
ACHIEVEMENT & WINNING
Winning is INSIDE yourself. Winning is OUTSIDE yourself.

"Though he should conquer a thousand
men in the battlefield a thousand times,
yet he, indeed, who would conquer
himself is the noblest victor." ~ Buddha
"He who conquers others is strong; he
who conquers himself is mighty." ~ Lao
Tzu
"The most excellent Jihad is that for the
conquest of self."
– Mohammad
"You're not a star until they can spell
your name in Karachi."
~ Roger Moore
"Life affords no higher pleasure than
that of surmounting difficulties, passing
from one stop of success to another,
forming new wishes and seeing them
gratified."
~ Samuel Johnson

25
 "It is not because things are difficult
that we do not dare; it is because we do
not dare that they are difficult."

LEADERSHIP
SPIRITUAL; walking behind people; HANDS-ON; walking ahead of people;
silence is golden. speech is golden.

"In order to guide people, "Leadership is done from in front.

the leader must put himself behind Never ask others to do what you, if
them. Thus when he is ahead they feel challenged, would not be willing to do
no hurt." ~ Lao Tzu yourself."
~ Xenophon

● THE CONCEPT OF SELF IN THE CONFUCIAN THOUGHT

Self or No-Self
- The notion of self in Confucian thought is very similar to what Ames expresses in
above quote, and to the understanding of self in our examples of the Maori.
Although it is by westerners often understood that there is no self in Confucian
thought, (because in Confucianism one does talk of the concept of "no-self") this
concept may be misunderstood when taken into western paradigms of thinking.
- But what is really meant by the idea of "no self", is this: "If one had no selfish
motives, but only the supreme virtues, there would be no self. … If he serves
selflessly, he does not know what service is [does not recognize it as service]. If he
knows what service is, he has a self… [to think] only of parents but not of yourself…
is what I call no self." (Zoku Kyuo dowa [Kyuo’s Moral discourses continued],
1835).

Flexible Teaching/Learning Modality

Learning Management System, Offline Activities

Assessment Tasks

1. Give three examples of how the id, ego and superego operate in your
personality
2. Give at least five descriptions of your overt behavior then, ask a friend to
describe you in five words as well. Determine the congruence of your self-
description and that of your friend using the “I” and “Me” selves concept.
3. Draw and describe your ideal self ten years from now.

Criteria
Thought Content 10pts
Organization 10pts
Grammar 10pts
Total 30pts

References

26
https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199828340/obo-
9780199828340-0093.xml

https://www.monash.edu/business/marketing/marketing-dictionary/r/real-self-
concept

https://www.simplypsychology.org/carl-rogers.html

http://changingminds.org/disciplines/psychoanalysis/concepts/true_false_self.htm

https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ideal+Self

https://study.com/academy/lesson/ideal-self-vs-real-self-definition-lesson-
quiz.html#:~:text=The%20real%20self%20is%20who,how%20we%20want%20to%20b
e.

https://quizlet.com/381497571/144-multiple-vs-unified-selves-flash-cards/

27
 Unit II: UNPACKING THE SELF

Module 5
THE PHYSICAL SELF

Introduction
Physical Self refers to the body, this marvelous container and complex, finely
tuned, machine with which we interface with our environment and fellow beings.
William James considered body as the initial source of sensation and necessary for the
origin and maintenance of personality.
Sigmund Freud's construction of self and personality makes the physical body the
core of human experience. Freud was of the view that the ego is first and foremost a body
ego (Freud, 1937).
For Erik Erikson, experience is anchored in the ground-plan of ody (Erikson,
1963). According to him the role of bodily organs is especially important in early
developmental stages of a persons life.
Carl Gustav Jung argued that physical processes are relevant to us only to the
extent they are represented in the psyche. The physical body and the external world can
be known only as psychological experiences.
B. F. Skinner was a staunch behaviorist and for him the role of body is of primary
importance. For Skinner the terms personality and self are mere explanatory fictions and
all there is, is the body.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
1. familiarize how physical self functions in relation to understanding our self;
2. appreciate the physical body as an expression of the self; and
3. determine affirmative statements about the physical characteristics as part of
individual’s identity
Learning Content
The Physical Self: The Self as Impacted by the Body
Humans have five vital organs that are essential for survival. These are the brain, heart,
kidneys, liver and lungs.
The human brain is the body's control center, receiving and sending signals to other
organs through the nervous system and through secreted hormones. It is responsible for
our thoughts, feelings, memory storage and general perception of the world.

The human heart is a responsible for pumping blood throughout our body.
28
The job of the kidneys is to remove waste and extra fluid from the blood. The kidneys take
urea out of the blood and combine it with water and other substances to make urine.

The liver has many functions, including detoxifying of harmful chemicals, breakdown of
drugs, filtering of blood, secretion of bile and production of blood-clotting proteins.

The lungs are responsible for removing oxygen from the air we breathe and transferring
it to our blood where it can be sent to our cells. The lungs also remove carbon dioxide,
which we exhale.

Random Facts
● The human body contains nearly 100 trillion cells.
● There are at least 10 times as many bacteria in the human body as cells.
● The average adult takes over 20,000 breaths a day.
● Each day, the kidneys process about 200 quarts (50 gallons) of blood to filter out
about 2 quarts of waste and water
● Adults excrete about a quarter and a half (1.42 liters) of urine each day.
● The human brain contains about 100 billion nerve cells
● Water makes up more than 50 percent of the average adult's body weight
● You use your eyes to see, your ears to hear and your muscles to do the heavy lifting.
In fact, most body parts are far more complicated than that, while some seem to
have no business being inside there at all.

The Impact of Culture on Body Image and Self Esteem

Our body image, which includes our perception of ourselves and our own body and the
manner in which we feel about our body, is influenced by a variety of factors. Many
aspects contribute to body image, including the environment in which we are immersed
in as well as our biological makeup and genetic predisposition.

Understanding how each of these areas impact how we feel about our body is important
to understanding how we can create and build a positive body image.

Cultural Traditions Can Help or Hurt

The culture in which we are surrounded by has a significant impact on how we feel about
ourselves and the manner in which we think about our body. Many cultural traditions also
contribute to body image and can influence either negative or positive body image and
self-esteem.

Depending on the culture and overall emphasis of traditions involved, a person may find
their surroundings either conducive to or resistant to the building of a healthy body image
and self-esteem.

The Impact of Western Culture

The Western culture in general, for example, is one that tends to hyper-focus on dieting
and body appearance. Digitally retouched photos are the norm in which our society is
saturated in, and this mentality can negatively influence an individual’s body image.

29
Other cultures that celebrate and uphold a person’s body and whose traditions uphold
what a person is capable of doing rather than their appearance may more effectively
support the building of a positive body image.

Culture Is Just One Factor

While culture alone is not responsible for a poor or negative body image, the influence
and potential in which it can impact how a person feels about themselves and their body
are substantial. Being aware of your surroundings and understanding how culture and
traditions may affect and impact how you think and feel about your body can be
helpful, especially in a conscious effort to build a positive body image and increase self-
esteem. Understanding each of the components that contribute to your body image is an
important step towards making a difference in how you see and feel about yourself.

Published on July 18, 2015.

Reviewed, Updated & Approved on February 21, 2019, by Jacquelyn Ekern MS, LPC
Published on EatingDisorderHope.com

Article Reading

Beauty is in the Mind of the Beholder

There’s no getting around it. In this world, you’re better off being good-looking. At all
ages and in all walks of life, attractive people are judged more favorably, treated better,
and cut more slack. Mothers give more affection to attractive babies. Teachers favor more
attractive students and judge them as smarter. Attractive adults get paid more for their
work and have better success in dating and mating. And juries are less likely to find
attractive people guilty and recommend lighter punishments when they do.

Many factors can play into personal attractiveness — the way you dress, the way you act,
the way you carry yourself, even things that are hard or impossible to change, like social
status and wealth, race, and body size and shape. But the first thing we notice when we
meet someone is their face. There are faces that launch a thousand ships, and faces that
only a mother could love, and we are supremely attuned to tell the difference. The brain,
among its many other functions, is a beauty detector.

The brain is such a good beauty detector, in fact, that it can judge the appeal of a face
before you’re aware you’ve even seen one. When participants in a recent study were
presented with attractive and unattractive faces for only 13 milliseconds, they were able
to judge the faces’ attractiveness accurately (that is, in accordance with experimenters’
ratings), even though they were not consciously aware of the stimuli and felt like they
were just guessing (Olson & Marshuetz, 2005).

There is no doubt that beauty (which here means both male and female attractiveness) is
to some extent in the eye of the beholder, but across individuals and across cultures there
is nevertheless considerable agreement about what makes a pretty or handsome face, and
the evidence strongly counters the conventional wisdom that attractiveness preferences
are mainly acquired through life experience. For one thing, the beauty bias is already
present in infancy. Six-month-olds prefer to look at the same relatively attractive faces
that adults do (Rubenstein, Kalakanis, & Langlois, 1999).

Truth in Beauty

The question is, is beauty really only skin deep, or does an attractive face actually reflect
underlying good qualities? In a few ways, the stereotype that “beautiful is good” does hold.
30
Evolutionary psychology holds that faces really are windows onto certain fundamental
and important characteristics indicative of a person’s quality as a romantic partner and
as a mate — qualities of health and genes, and even character.

Among the most important and consistent factors in facial attractiveness are structural
qualities of the face that are highly sex-typical. An attractive man, in the eyes of female
experimental participants, is generally one with relatively prominent cheekbones and
eyebrow ridges and a relatively long lower face. Likewise, prominent cheekbones, large
eyes, small nose, a taller forehead, smooth skin, and an overall young or even childlike
appearance add to women’s allure in the eyes of male raters.
Our faces are sculpted by our hormones. These sex-typical facial features of adult men
and women reflect the ratio of testosterone to estrogen or estrogen to testosterone,
respectively, acting on the individual during development. We are programmed to be
drawn to strong indicators of maleness (for women) and femaleness (for men) partly
because they reflect an individual’s health (Fink & Penton-Voak, 2002). The reason
hormones equate to health is somewhat counterintuitive. High levels of sex hormones
during puberty actually suppress the immune system, raising vulnerability to disease and
infection. It sounds like a bad thing. But when a person with a particularly “male” or
“female” face makes it to adulthood with all his or her health intact, it means that the
person has withstood the potentially debilitating influence of those high hormones. In
other words it signifies a more robust constitution.

‘Your Symmetry Lights Up the Room’

No two faces are alike, and no two halves of a face are alike. Countless small variables
make faces somewhat asymmetrical – a slightly wider jaw on one side, one eye a fraction
of an inch lower than the other, a cheekbone that sticks out just a wee bit more, a dimple
on one cheek, etc. Some asymmetries (called directional asymmetries) are common across
the population – for example, the left side of most people’s faces is slightly larger than the
right. But many asymmetries, called fluctuating asymmetries, arise when one’s unfolding
genetic program is perturbed during development, for instance by parasites or other
environmental challenges. The slings and arrows of life’s fortunes can literally knock our
faces off of kilter, just like a punch to the nose. A symmetrical face, like a particularly
masculine or feminine one, is a sign of having stood up better to life’s figurative
schoolyard beatings.

Numerous studies have found that when men and women are asked to compare versions
of faces that are more versus less symmetrical, the symmetrical ones garner significantly
higher ratings of attractiveness, dominance, sexiness, and health, and are perceived to be
more desirable as potential mates (Rhodes, Proffitt, Grady, & Sumich, 1998; Shackelford
& Larsen, 1997). So as with masculine/feminine features, the appeal of symmetry makes
perfect sense to evolutionary psychologists. In a beautiful face, we are really seeing the
artistry of good genes. People prefer symmetrical faces even when they can’t actually
perceive the symmetry – that is, when only face halves are presented. It may be that
symmetry covaries with other desirable characteristics that reflect the same genetic
endowment and overall health (Penton-Voak et al., 2001).

It may not be all that surprising that we’d rather mate with a symmetrical Greek god or
goddess than with someone who stepped out of a Picasso painting. Less obvious is that a
pretty or handsome face is also generally one that is, well, average. When presented with
individual faces and a composite of those individual faces, participants will judge the
composite as more attractive than the individual, more distinctive faces. And the more
faces that contribute to the composite, the more attractive it becomes (Langlois &
Roggman, 1990). The most attractive faces appear to be those whose features are closest
to the average in the population—that is, more prototypical.

31
Averageness, like symmetry, reflects a favorable genetic endowment. Those with average
features are less likely to be carrying harmful mutations. Additionally, averageness
reflects greater heterozygosity — having both a dominant and a recessive allele for given
traits, rather than two dominant or two recessive alleles (an advantage that symmetry also
reflects). Heterozygosity confers relatively greater resistance to pathogens, in many cases,
and thus, along with all the other indicators of resilience, we may be programmed to seek
it out through its subtle but telltale signs.

However, it has also been argued that there may be some much simpler cognitive reasons
for the preference for averages. Besides faces, people show a preference for average-
looking dogs, average-looking birds, and average-looking watches (Halberstadt &
Rhodes, 2000). Prototypes are more familiar-looking than less typical examples of a given
class of objects, be it the face of a potential mate or the face of a timepiece, and they are
easier to process. Easy on the eyes = easy on the brain.

In the Sex of the Beholder

Men and women both show the above preferences when it comes to faces, but in general
men’s preferences tend to be more pronounced (Rhodes et al., 1998). Males may place
greater importance on physical beauty when it comes to mate choice, while females also
attend to characteristics like power and status. But a number of factors contribute to how
much — and when — male face characteristics matter to women.

One factor is a woman’s own attractiveness: Preference for masculine and symmetrical
features has been shown to be higher for women who regard themselves as more attractive
(Little, Burt, Penton-Voak, & Perrett, 2001). Another is time of the month: The degree of
women’s preferences for different attractive qualities fluctuates strikingly across the
ovulatory cycle.

A group of University of Mexico psychologists have studied women’s shifting preferences

for symmetrical men. They have found that this preference (which women can not only
see, but even smell in tee-shirts slept in by symmetrical men) increases dramatically
around the time of ovulation, when a woman is most fertile and the chance of conception
is highest (Gangestad, Thornhill, & Garver-Apgar, 2005). So does a woman’s preference
for more masculine-looking men. But this preference wanes during other times of the
month. Again, evolutionary psychology provides a ready explanation.

Humans, like many other species, are socially monogamous but not necessarily sexually
monogamous. When sex might result in getting pregnant, it’s health and fertility that are
particularly desirable in a mate. But good genes in the sense of physical health is not the
same as good genes in the sense of character, and what makes a good sperm donor may
not make the best long-term, nurturing, helpful life partner. The flip side of high
testosterone is an increased tendency toward aggression and antisocial behavior, a
tendency to compete rather than help. Thus a male with less testosterone, indicated by
less masculine features, may invest more in caring for offspring (whether or not he’s the
biological father) and so may be better to have around for the long term.

A Thousand Ships

In myth, beautiful women are disruptive of men’s reason, even causing them to go to war.
We now know that there’s truth to the idea that men make worse decisions when exposed
to female beauty, and we even are beginning to understand the neural basis. A pair of
McMaster University researchers found that looking at photographs of attractive women
(but not unattractive women) caused a significant increase in delay discounting in men —
that is, choosing a smaller immediate reward over a larger delayed one (Wilson & Daly,

32
2004). It’s the same tendency found to a high degree in addicts and others with impaired
self-control. Interestingly, viewing attractive men did not influence women’s decisions.

The reason-unseating effect of a beautiful face partly involves the amygdala. Activation of
the amygdala, which detects the value of social stimuli, has been associated with greater
discounting of all kinds of future rewards, and sure enough, this brain area shows much
stronger activation to attractive faces than to more ho-hum ones. (It is actually a U-
shaped relationship; the amygdala is also highly activated by unattractive faces; Winston,
O’Doherty, Kilner, Perrett, & Dolan, 2007.)

In both men and women, attractive faces cause greater activation in several other brain
areas involved in processing of rewards. These include the nucleus accumbens, which also
activates in response to rewarding stimuli like money; the medial prefrontal cortex; and
the anterior cingulate cortex, which may be involved in shaping future behavior from
learning reward outcomes. In men (but not in women), the orbitofrontal cortex, an area
that evaluates the reward value of current behaviors, also activates in response to
attractive female faces (Cloutier, Heatherton, Whalen, & Kelley, 2008).

Beautify Yourself
Beauty is unfair. Not everyone can be born with great genes. Not everyone can be born
symmetrical. Not everyone can be born enticingly, well, average. But obviously there are
many factors contributing to attractiveness that are potentially under our control.

For women, makeup does have a strong effect. In one study, women wearing makeup
were approached more, and approached faster, by men at a bar than they were on nights
without makeup (Gueguen, 2008b). Effect sizes on beauty judgments for makeup have
been found to be as high as those for the facial structural features mentioned earlier
(Osborn, 2006).

Getting enough beauty sleep is something everyone can do to up their beauty quotient. A
group of Swedish and Dutch researchers conducted an experiment in which observers
rated the attractiveness (as well as health) of participants who were photographed both
after a period of sleep deprivation and after a good night’s sleep (Axelsson, 2010). Not
surprisingly, individuals who were sleep deprived were rated significantly less attractive
than those who were rested. They were also rated less healthy.

And then there are the emotions we project through our faces. Not surprising, positive
emotions increase attractiveness. We are drawn to those who smile, for example. As when
they wore makeup, women who smiled at men on entering a bar were more likely to be
approached and were judged more favorably (Gueguen, 2008a). Even a smile perceived
only in the periphery of one’s vision will be seen as more attractive than a face with a
neutral expression (Bohrn, Carbon, & Hutzler, 2010). And attractive faces that smile
produce even more activity in the orbitofrontal cortex than do attractive faces wearing
neutral expressions (O’Doherty et al., 2003).

So here’s the timeless message of psychological science: Be beautiful—or, as beautiful as

you can. Smile and sleep and do whatever else you can do to make your face a reward.
Among its other social benefits, attractiveness actually invites people to learn what you
are made of, in other respects than just genetic fitness. According to a new study at the
University of British Columbia (Lorenzo, Biesanz, & Human, 2010), attractive people are
actually judged more accurately—at least, closer to a subject’s own self-assessments—than
are the less attractive, because it draws others to go beyond the initial impression. “People
do judge a book by its cover,” the researchers write, “but a beautiful cover prompts a closer
reading.” œ
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Flexible Teaching Learning Modality(FTLM) adopted
Learning Management System
Assessment Task
1. What is the significance of the physical self in expression of your thoughts and
feelings?
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
________________________________________
2. Identify the most important of your body and state its significance.
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

3. List down at least 3-5 affirmative attributes to describe your physical self.
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

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 Module 6
THE SEXUAL SELF

Introduction

This part tackles one of the most crucial aspects of human development, the sexual
self. It highlights biological and environmental factors that shape sexual development. It
is also characterized as persons’ evaluation of his or her own sexual feelings or actions. It
also perceives in viewing ourselves.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:

1. identify the development of Secondary sex characteristics and the human
reproductive system; and differentiate secondary sex characteristics in male
and female and the Identify Human Sexual response;
2. understand the basic biology of sexual behavior and the Chemistry of lust, love
and attachment;
3. know the diversity of sexual behavior solitary, heterosexual, homosexual and
bisexual, transsexual; and
4. determine Sexually Transmitted diseases(STDs) and methods of contraception
(natural and artificial).

Learning Content

Development of Secondary Sex Characteristics and the Human Reproductive

System

Sexual differentiation begins during gestation, when the gonads are formed. The
general structure and shape of the body and face, as well as sex hormone levels, are similar
in preadolescent boys and girls. As puberty begins and sex hormone levels rise,
differences appear, though some changes are similar in males and females. Male levels of
testosterone directly induce the growth of the genitals, and indirectly (via
dihydrotestosterone (DHT)) the prostate. Estradiol and other hormones cause breasts to
develop in females. However, fetal or neonatal androgens may modulate later breast
development by reducing the capacity of breast tissue to respond to later estrogen.

Underarm hair and pubic hair are usually considered secondary sex
characteristics, but may also be considered non-secondary sex characteristics because
they are features of both sexes following puberty.

Puberty is the stage of development at which individuals become sexually mature.

Though the outcomes of puberty for boys and girls are very different, the hormonal
control of the process is very similar. In addition, though the timing of these events varies
35
between individuals, the sequence of changes that occur is predictable for male and
female adolescents. As shown in the image below, a concerted release of hormones from
the hypothalamus (GnRH), the anterior pituitary (LH and FSH), and the gonads (either
testosterone or estrogen) is responsible for the maturation of the reproductive systems
and the development of secondary sex characteristics, which are physical changes
that serve auxiliary roles in reproduction.

Figure 1. During puberty, the release of LH and FSH from the anterior pituitary stimulates
the gonads to produce sex hormones in both male and female adolescents.

Signs of Puberty

Different sex steroid hormone concentrations between the sexes also contribute to the
development and function of secondary sexual characteristics. Examples of secondary
sexual characteristics are listed in Table 1.

Table 1. Development of the Secondary Sexual Characteristics

Male Female
Increased larynx size and deepening of the Deposition of fat, predominantly in
voice breasts and hips
Increased muscular development Breast development
Growth of facial, axillary, and pubic hair, and Broadening of the pelvis and growth of
increased growth of body hair axillary and pubic hair

As a girl reaches puberty, typically the first change that is visible is the development
of the breast tissue. This is followed by the growth of axillary and pubic hair. A growth
spurt normally starts at approximately age 9 to 11, and may last two years or more. During
this time, a girl’s height can increase 3 inches a year. The next step in puberty is menarche,
the start of menstruation.
In boys, the growth of the testes is typically the first physical sign of the beginning
of puberty, which is followed by growth and pigmentation of the scrotum and growth of
36
the penis. The next step is the growth of hair, including armpit, pubic, chest, and facial
hair. Testosterone stimulates the growth of the larynx and thickening and lengthening of
the vocal folds, which causes the voice to drop in pitch. The first fertile ejaculations
typically appear at approximately 15 years of age, but this age can vary widely across
individual boys. Unlike the early growth spurt observed in females, the male growth spurt
occurs toward the end of puberty, at approximately age 11 to 13, and a boy’s height can
increase as much as 4 inches a year. In some males, pubertal development can continue
through the early 20s.

Human Reproductive System

An organ system by which humans reproduce and bear live offspring. Provided all
organs are present, normally constructed, and functioning properly, the essential features
of human reproduction are (1) liberation of an ovum, or egg, at a specific time in the
reproductive cycle, (2) internal fertilization of the ovum by spermatozoa, or sperm cells,
(3) transport of the fertilized ovum to the uterus, or womb, (4) implantation of the
blastocyst, the early embryo developed from the fertilized ovum, in the wall of the uterus,
(5) formation of a placenta and maintenance of the unborn child during the entire period
of gestation, (6) birth of the child and expulsion of the placenta, and (7) suckling and care
of the child, with an eventual return of the maternal organs to virtually their original state.

Figure 2. Organs and structures of the male and female reproductive

systems.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc

The Human Sexual Response Cycle

It is a four-stage model of physiological responses to sexual stimulation, which, in

order of their occurrence, are the excitement-, plateau-, orgasmic-, and resolution phases.
This physiological response model was first formulated by William H. Masters and
Virginia E. Johnson, in their 1966 book Human Sexual Response. Since then, other
human sexual response models have been formulated.

1 Excitement phase

37
 The excitement phase (also known as the arousal phase or initial excitement phase)
is the first stage of the human sexual response cycle, which occurs as a result of
physical or mental erotic stimuli, such as kissing, making out, or viewing erotic
images, that leads to sexual arousal. During this stage, the body prepares for sexual
intercourse, initially leading to the plateau phase.[1] There is wide socio-cultural
variation regarding preferences for the length of foreplay and the stimulation
methods used.[3] Physical and emotional interaction and stimulation of the
erogenous zones during foreplay usually establishes at least some initial arousal.

2 Plateau phase

The plateau phase is the period of sexual excitement prior to orgasm. The phase is
characterized by an increased circulation and heart rate in both sexes, increased
sexual pleasure with increased stimulation and further increased muscle tension.
Also, respiration continues at an elevated level. [1] Both men and women may also
begin to vocalize involuntarily at this stage. Prolonged time in the plateau phase
without progression to the orgasmic phase may result in sexual frustration.

3 Orgasm phase

Orgasm is the conclusion of the plateau phase of the sexual response cycle and is
experienced by both males and females. It is accompanied by quick cycles of
muscle contraction in the lower pelvic muscles, which surround both the anus and
the primary sexual organs. Women also experience uterine and vaginal
contractions. Orgasms are often associated with other involuntary actions,
including vocalizations and muscular spasms in other areas of the body and a
generally euphoric sensation. Heart rate is increased even further

4 Resolution phase

The resolution phase occurs after orgasm and allows the muscles to relax, blood
pressure to drop and the body to slow down from its excited state. [1] The refractory
period, which is part of the resolution phase, is the time frame in which usually a
man is unable to orgasm again, though women can also experience a refractory
period.

Understanding “The Chemistry of Love: lust, attraction, and attachment ”

THE SCIENCE OF LOVE

Research has shown that all of these crazy, haywire feelings and physical reactions
are, in fact, led by the brain and the chemicals released as a result of attraction and desire.
Experts believe that three neurotransmitters (chemical messengers that transmit
impulses (i.e. messages) between nerve cells) play a significant role during the initial
stages of love.
According to a team of scientists led by Dr. Helen Fisher at Rutgers, romantic
love can be broken down into three categories: lust, attraction, and attachment. Each
category is characterized by its own set of hormones stemming from the brain (Table 1).

38
Figure 3. : Love can be distilled into three categories: lust, attraction, and attachment.
Though there are overlaps and subtleties to each, each type is characterized by its own
set of hormones. Testosterone and estrogen drive lust; dopamine, norepinephrine, and
serotonin create attraction; and oxytocin and vasopressin mediate attachment.

Lust – Testosterone and Estrogen

The first stage of romantic love, lust is defined as having an intense sexual desire towards
someone, therefore, lust is driven by having a desire to achieve sexual gratification. This
is based on an evolutionary need to reproduce, something that is common among all living
species. It is through reproduction that we are able to pass on our genes and this aids in
contributing to the continuation of our species.

The hypothalamus of your brain plays a major role in lust as it stimulates the production
of the sex hormones estrogen and testosterone. It is a common misconception that these
hormones should be labelled as female and male respectively, as these play a role in both
women and men’s physiology and sexuality.

Testosterone is known to increase libido in both genders. In women, the effects of

testosterone may be less significant than in men due to the presence of higher levels of
estrogen. However, estrogen promotes the function of two hormones, testosterone,
which increases sex drive, and oxytocin, commonly referred to as ‘the love hormone’
which is released during physical contact and sexual climax. It is little wonder then that
women report being more sexually aroused during the ovulation stage of their menstrual
cycle when estrogen levels are at their peak.

Lust then leads to the next stage of love, which is attraction.

● Attraction – Dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin
Attraction, although regarded as a distinct category in the stages of love, is closely related
to lust and while one can be linked to the other and vice versa, they can also be mutually
exclusive (i.e. one can occur without the other). Attraction is associated with the ‘reward’
pathways in the brain that influence our behavior.

The ‘reward’ pathway is connected to parts of your brain that control memory and
behavior and begin in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and prefrontal cortex, this is
where neurons release dopamine to induce feelings of pleasure when we do something
that feels good to us. The VTA forms an important part of your brain’s reward circuit
which is considered to be a primitive, evolutionary neural network. Some of the structures
that make up this reward network or circuit include the hippocampus, amygdala and the
prefrontal cortex, all of which are stimulated by pleasure-inducing behaviors such
as food consumption, sex and even gambling or drug use.
39
 Dopamine, which is produced by your hypothalamus, is released during the stage
of attraction, specifically when we spend time with someone we are attracted to or when
we engage in sexual intercourse with them. Dopamine is a natural stimulant that fills you
with emotions of ecstasy, this is often why the way falling in love feels is regarded as
the natural equivalent to the high experienced from taking an illicit drug.
Dopamine is also involved in focus and attention, which explains why you cannot get that
one special person out of your head and when you are with them as, during this stage, you
are ‘hyper-focused’ on their presence and the way they make you feel.
Another hormone that is released during the stage of attraction is norepinephrine.
Norepinephrine, also referred to as noradrenaline, may sound familiar to you, this is
because it plays an important role in our ‘fight or flight’ response to stressful situations
and keeps us alert. When it comes to love, the combination of dopamine and
norepinephrine allows us to feel energetic, euphoric and even giddy. These hormones may
also lead to insomnia and a decreased appetite. Basically, these are why you can be so
attracted to someone that you can’t sleep or eat.
Serotonin is the final hormone associated with attraction. This hormone is a vital
neurotransmitter that aids in the regulation of social behaviour, mood, memory, appetite,
digestion and sexual desire. Interestingly, it is believed that serotonin levels begin to
decline during the attraction phase. Cortisol (also known as the stress hormone) levels
increase during the initial stage of falling in love, which allows for our bodies to deal with
the ‘crisis’ or ‘stressful situation’ that romantic love is perceived by the body to be on a
physiological level. As chemicals flood the reward centre of the brain, our hearts race,
palms sweat, cheeks flush and we are overwhelmed with emotions of anxiety and passion.
● Attachment – Oxytocin and Vasopressin
The final stage of falling in love is attachment, this is the predominant factor in defining
the success of long-term relationships. Although the previous stages of lust and attraction
are seen as exclusive to a more romantically euphoric stage of falling in love, the
attachment stage refers to a more meaningful bond developing between two people,
moving a romantic relationship to an advanced level of falling in love wholeheartedly. The
two main hormones involved in the stage of attachment include oxytocin, as well as
vasopressin.
Oxytocin is referred to as ‘the love hormone’ or ‘the cuddle hormone’ is also produced
by the hypothalamus and is released in substantial amounts during sexual intercourse
and is stimulated through skin-to-skin contact. Interestingly, oxytocin is also released
during childbirth and breastfeeding. It may seem like the same hormone is responsible
for a strange combination of activities, however, what all of these have in common is a
form of bonding and attachment. Therefore, oxytocin, or OT, plays an important role in
forging bonds representative of the depth of love and attachment to a partner as it
heightens the feelings of calmness, security and contentment that are so often linked to
bonding with a mate2.
The second hormone involved in the phase of attachment is one that is released in
large quantities directly after having sex. The pituitary gland in both men and women
release vasopressin. Experts believe that vasopressin plays a role in social interactions
between humans and encourages pair-bonding (monogamous, long-term
relationships). Researchers have also noted that this hormone may in actual fact, have a
taming effect on more promiscuous people, thus, when this hormone is increased after
sex with someone that you are in love with, this may affect your brain by triggering your
neural reward system which stimulates feelings of happiness, encouraging you to want to
stay with that person as a result.
These two hormones provide us with an explanation as to why euphoric love will
begin to fade as attachment and long-term love grow

40
Gender and Sexual Diversity

Gender and Sexual Diversity (GSD), or simply sexual diversity, refers to all
the diversities of sex characteristics, sexual orientations and gender identities, without
the need to specify each of the identities, behaviors, or characteristics that form this
plurality.
Overview
In the Western world, generally simple classifications are used to describe sexual
orientation (heterosexuals, homosexuals and bisexuals), gender identity (transgender
and cisgender), and related minorities (intersex), gathered under the acronyms LGBT or
LGBTI (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender/transsexual people, and sometimes intersex
people); however, other cultures have other ways of understanding the sex and gender
systems. Over the last few decades, some sexology theories have emerged, such as Kinsey
theory and queer theory, proposing that this classification is not enough to describe the
sexual complexity in human beings and, even, in other animal species.
For example, some people may feel an intermediate sexual orientation between
heterosexual and bisexual (heteroflexible) or between homosexual and bisexual
(homoflexible). It may vary over time, too, or include attraction not only towards women
and men, but to all the spectrum of sexes and genders (pansexual).[9] In other words,
within bisexuality there exists a huge diversity of typologies and preferences that vary
from an exclusive heterosexuality to a complete homosexuality (Kinsey scale).
Sexual diversity includes intersex people, those born with a variety of intermediate
features between women and men. It also includes all transgender and transsex identities
which do not frame within the binary gender system and, like sexual orientation, may be
experienced in different degrees in between cisgender and transsexuality, such as
genderfluid people.
Lastly, sexual diversity also includes asexual people, who feel disinterest in sexual
activity; and all those who consider that their identity cannot be defined, such as queer
people.
Socially, sexual diversity is claimed as the acceptance of being different but with
equal rights, liberties, and opportunities within the Human Rights framework. In many
countries, visibility of sexual diversity is vindicated during Pride Parades.

Sexually Transmitted Infection

STI s are diseases that are passed from one person to another. The most common
STIs are: chlamydia, syphilis, trichomonas, chancroid, genital herpes,
hepatitis B and HIV infection. Some STDs, such as syphilis and HIV can also be
transmitted through exposure to contaminated blood and from a pregnant woman to the
unborn child. Table below was presents the sexually transmitted infection

Table 1. The Different Types, Symptoms, and Treatments of Sexually Transmitted

Infection.

Types of Diseases and Description or Curable Uncurable

Pictures Symptoms

41
1. Chlamydia A certain type of Antibiotics can
bacteria easily treat
chlamydia
● pain or Fortunately, if
discomfort caught early
during sex or enough,
urination syphilis is
● green or yellow easily treated
discharge from with
the penis or antibiotics.
vagina However,
syphilis
● pain in the lower infection in a
abdomen newborn can
be fatal. That’s
why it’s
important for
all pregnant
women to be
screened for
syphilis.
2. Syphilis ● The first symptom If earlier If late
to appear is a small diagnose diagnosed and
round sore, known treated with treated
as a chancre. It can antibiotics
develop on your
genitals, anus, or
mouth. It’s painless
but very infectious.
Later symptoms
include: rash, fatigue,
fever. Headaches, joint
pain

3. HIV/ AIDS HIV can damage the There’s no cure

immune system and for HIV yet,
raise the risk of but treatment
contracting other options are
viruses or bacteria and available to
certain cancers. manage it.
Symptoms : fever, Early and
chills, aches and pains, effective
swollen lymph nodes, treatment can
sore throat, headache help people
Nausea. with HIV live
as long as
those without
HIV.

42
4. Gonorrhea Gonorrhea is another If earlier
common bacterial diagnosed
STD. It’s also known as curable and
“the clap.” treated with
present symptoms may antibiotics
include:

● a white, yellow,
beige, or green-
colored
discharge from
the penis or
vagina
● pain or
discomfort
during sex or
urination
● more frequent
urination than
usual
● itching around
the genitals
● sore throat

5. Pubic lice (‘crabs’) “Crabs” is another Pubic lice can

name for pubic lice. be treated with
They’re tiny insects over-the-
that can take up counter lice-
residence on your killing
pubic hair. Like head medications.
lice and body lice, they
feed on human blood.
Common symptoms of
pubic lice include:

● itching around
the genitals or
anus
● small pink or
red bumps
around the
genitals or anus
● low-grade fever
● lack of energy

43
6. Trichomoniasis Also known as “trich.” Trich can be
It’s caused by a tiny treated with
protozoan organism antibiotics.
that can be passed from
one person to another
through genital
contact.
When symptoms do
develop, they may
include:

● discharge from
the vagina or
penis
● burning or
itching around
the vagina or
penis
● pain or
discomfort
during
urination or sex
● frequent
urination

In women, trich-
related discharge often
has an unpleasant or
“fishy” smell.
7. Herpes Shortened name for the There’s no cure
herpes simplex virus. for herpes yet.
(HSV). Most common But
symptom of herpes is medications
blistery sores. In the are available to
case of genital herpes, help control
these sores develop on outbreaks and
or around the genitals. alleviate the
In oral herpes, they pain of herpes
develop on or around sores. The
the mouth. same
medications
can also lower
your chances
of passing
herpes to your
sexual partner.
8. Hepatitis B It is a virus that Although there
spreads through is no cure,
contact with body there is a
fluids and blood, so it vaccine to

44
 can be transmitted prevent
through sexual hepatitis B
intercourse. Hepatitis infection.
B infection is also
possible through
sharing of needles,
razors, and
toothbrushes. Nausea

● Abdominal pain
● Jaundice
(yellowing of
the skin and
whites of the
eyes)

Over time, scarring of

the liver (cirrhosis) and
liver cancer can
develop.
9. Chancroid It is more common in About half the
Africa and Asia. It time when
causes painful lumps in untreated.
the genital area that
can progress to open
sores. Antibiotics can
cure the infection;
chancroid is caused by
bacterial infection with
Haemophilus ducreyi.
One or more sores or
raised bumps on the
genitals. A narrow, red
border surrounds the
sores.
10. Scabies This parasite is not Prescription
necessarily sexually creams can
transmitted, since it cure a scabies
can affect any area of infestation.
the skin. However,
scabies is often spread
during sexual contact.
Extreme itching that is
worse at night. The
skin appears to have a
pimple-like rash, as
shown in the above
photo.

45
 NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL METHOD OF CONTRACEPTION

Table 2. Presents the Natural and Artificial Methods of Contraception

NATURAL METHOD ARTIFICIAL METHOD

1. Calendar Method ● Also called as 1. Oral ● Also known as
the rhythm Contraceptives the pill, oral
method, this contraceptives
natural contain
method of synthetic
family estrogen and
planning progesterone.
involves ● Estrogen
refraining suppresses the
from coitus FSH and LH to
during the suppress
days that the ovulation,
woman is while
fertile. progesterone
● According to decreases the
the permeability
menstrual of the cervical
cycle, 3 or 4 mucus to limit
days before the sperm’s
and 3 or 4 access to the
days after ova.
ovulation, the
woman is Side effects for
likely to OCs are nausea,
conceive. weight gain,
● The process headache, breast
in calculating tenderness,
for the breakthrough
woman’s safe bleeding, vaginal
days is infections, mild
achieved hypertension,
when the and depression.
woman
records her
menstrual
cycle for six
months.
2. Cervical Mucus The basis of this 2. Hormonal ● A hormonal
Method method is the Injections injection
changes in the consists of
cervical mucus medroxyproge
during sterone, a
ovulation. The progesterone,
fertile days of a and given once
woman every 12 weeks

46
according to this intramuscularl
method is as y.
long as the ● The injection
cervical mucus is inhibits
copious and ovulation and
watery and a day causes
after it. changes in the
Therefore, she endometrium
must avoid and the
coitus during cervical
these days. mucus.
● After
administratio
n the site
should not be
massaged so it
could absorb
slowly.

It has an
effectiveness
of almost
100%, making
it one of the
most popular
choices for
birth control.

47
3. Coitus Interruptus ● This is one of 3. Intrauterine ● An IUD is a
the oldest Device small, T-
methods of shaped object
contraception. that is inserted
The couple still into the uterus
proceeds with via the vagina.
the coitus, but ● It prevents
the man fertilization by
withdraws the creating a local
moment he sterile
ejaculates to inflammatory
emit the condition to
spermatozoa prevent
outside of the implantation.
vagina. The ● The IUD is
disadvantage fitted only by
of this method the physician
is the pre- and inserted
ejaculation after the
fluid that woman’s
contains a few menstrual flow
spermatozoa to be sure that
that may cause she is not
fertilization. pregnant.
Coitus
interruptus is The device
only 75% contains
effective progesterone
because of this. and is effective
for 5 to 7 years.

4. Lactation ● Through Male Condoms ● The male

Amenorrhea Method exclusive condom is
breastfeeding a latex or
of the infant, synthetic
the woman is rubber
able to sheath
suppress that is
ovulation placed on
through the the erect
method of penis
lactation before
amenorrhea vaginal
method. penetratio
n to trap
However, if the sperm
the infant is during
not ejaculatio
exclusively n.
breastfed, this
method would

48
not be an It can prevent
effective birth STIs and can
control be bought
method. over-the-
counter
without any
fitting needed.
VASECTOMY ● Males undergo
vasectomy,
which is
executed
through a small
incision made
on each side of
the scrotum.

The vas deferens

is then tied,
cauterized, cut,
or plugged to
TUBAL LIGATION
block the passage
of the sperm.

● In women,
tubal ligation
is performed
by occluding
the fallopian
tubes through
cutting,
cauterizing, or
blocking to
inhibit the
passage of the
both the sperm
and the ova.

After
menstruation
and before
ovulation, the
procedure is
done through a
small incision
under the
woman’s
umbilicus.

49
Assessment Task

Multiple Choice: Select the best answer among the four choices and write only the
letter on the space provided before the number.

_____1. Which of the following hormones will induce the development of female breast
a. estrogen c. estradiol
b. androgens d. all of the above
_____2. Sexual behavior begins before puberty
a. true
b. false
c. either a nor b
d. none of the above
_____3. These are the hormones which is responsible for the development of
secondary sex characteristics
a. hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, gonads
b. GRH, LH and FSH, testosterone
c. Gonads ,Testosterone and estrogen
d. GnRH, LH and FSH, estrogen
_____4. The variability among any group of boys from practically complete maturity to
absolute preadolescence was ranged from the age of __________.
a. 13-15 b. 11-13 c. 12-15 d. all of the above
_____5. It is a part of human reproductive system by which humans reproduce and
bear child is called ________________.
a. Organ c. birth
b. Reproduction d. none of the above
_____6. If the organs are present normally constructed improperly function is it
essential for human reproduction?
a. yes c. either a nor b
b. no d. none of the above
_____7. What is the first sign of changes that is visible among girls?
a. the start of menstruation c. growth of pubic hair
b. development of breast tissue d. all of the above
_____8. The initial stage of physiological human sexual response is called_________.
a. excitement phase c. resolution phase
b. plateau phase d. none of the above
_____9. This phase is characterised by an increased circulation and heart rate in both
sexes ________________.
a. excitement phase c. resolution phase
b. plateau phase d. none of the above
_____10. He was the first one who formulated physiological response model in 1966
a. Virginia E. Johnson c. William H. Masters
b. William Master d. all of the above

50
Matching type. Match column A to column B Write the letter of your answer before
the number.

A B
1. Increased larynx size and deepening of a. homosexual
the voice.
2. The refractory period. b. Pubic lice
3. The first stage of romantic love. c. Attachment
4. the initial stage of falling in love. d. dopamine
5. the final hormone associated with e. attraction
attraction.
6. The final stage of falling in love. f. transgender
7. describe sexual orientation. g. lust
8. Gender identity. h. chlamydia
9. pain or discomfort during sex or i. Resolution phase
urination.
10. The first symptom to appear is a small j. HIV/AIDS
round sore, known as a chancre.
11. can damage the immune system. k. male secondary
characteristics
12. It’s also known as “the clap.” l. Intrauterine
Device
13. tiny insects that can take up residence m. Lactation
on pubic hair. Amenorrhea
Method
14. the woman is able to suppress n. Serotonin
ovulation through breastfeeding.
15. It prevents fertilization by creating a o. male secondary
local sterile inflammatory condition. characteristics
p. Gonorrhea

Essay:
1. Where do we get sexually transmitted Infection? How to prevent risky sexually
behavior?

51
 Module 7
The Material/Economic Self

Introduction

This chapter deals with the description of the material self. It includes the basic
components and the subclasses of the material self. It also covers the role of material
possessions on the sense of self and identity.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, the student is expected to:

1. develop understanding about the material self;
2. describe the basic components of the material self;
3. appraise one’s self in terms of motives in acquiring material possessions;
4. develop qualities of a wise buyer; and
5. apply critical and reflective thought in integrating the aspects of the
material self.

Learning Content

The Material Self

The American philosopher and psychologist, William James (1979), considered

the self as anything that an individual considers to be his or hers, not only his or her body
and material possessions but also his or her reputation and beliefs. The self constitutes
the material self and the manifestation of one’s identity through his material possessions.

The material self entails two subclasses such as the bodily self and the
extracorporeal self or beyond the body self. The bodily component as the term
suggests refers to the entities comprising our bodies. For instance, someone may speak of
his/her head, eyes, and hands which form part of his/her physical body. Rosenberg (1979)
regarded the extracorporeal self as the extended self. The extended self includes other
people (e.g. my parents), pets (my puppy), possessions (my phone), places (my
hometown), and the products of our labor (my recipe). Thus, it is not merely the physical
entities which encompass the material self but the tangible objects, people or places
carrying the designation my or mine.

James (1979) added that an entity can be identified as part of the self through our
emotion and/or action towards it. If we pay much attention or work hard towards that
entity, we can conclude that the entity is part of the self. As James wrote:

“A man’s self is the sum total of all that he can call his, not only his
body and his psychic powers, but his clothes and his house, his wife and
children, his ancestors and friends, his reputation and works, his lands and
horses, and yacht and bank account. All these things give him the same
emotions. If they wax and prosper, he feels triumphant; if they dwindle and
die away, he feels cast down, --not necessarily in the same degree for each
thing, but in much the same way for all.” An equally instinctive impulse
drives us to collect property; and the collections thus become, with different

52
 degrees of intimacy, parts of our empirical selves. The parts of our wealth
most intimately ours are those which are saturated with our labor. ... and
although it is true that a part of our depression at the loss of possessions is
due to our feeling that we must now go without certain goods that we
expected the possessions to bring in their train, yet in every case there
remains, over and above this, a sense of the shrinkage of our personality, a
partial conversion of ourselves to nothingness, which is a psychological
phenomenon by itself. (p. 293)

The Role of Material Possessions on the Sense of Self and Identity

Possessions are considered as the extended versions of oneself; whereas, material

possessions tell something of the personality and social values of those who own them.

Ø Regardless of how much or how little material possessions people have, they
remain valuable because these possessions are symbolic of one’s social status.
The more expensive they are; the more other people are impressed.

Ø Russel Belk (1988) in his work “Are We What We Own?”, suggests that
material possessions act as an objective manifestation of the self. Material
possessions can be a reflection of hard work and success.

Ø Normally, people tend to measure success through the amount of their material
possessions. Owning material possessions becomes a driving force in urging an
individual to seek a high level of achievement in order to be able to acquire more
possessions.

Ø However, the lack or loss of material possessions can be disruptive to one’s

mental health.

Ø People tend to judge others through their material possessions.

Ø Materialism – refers to giving more importance to material possessions than

intangible values.

Ø Materialistic person – one who is excessively concerned with the acquisition

of material possessions.

Ø The strong desire for material possessions could lead to psychological

dysfunction or impairment in functioning such as compulsive buying disorder
(CBD) which is characterized by an obsession with shopping and buying behaviors
that can cause adverse consequences.

Ø Lack or loss of these material possessions could lead to anxiety, insecurity, and
depression in people who are overly materialistic.

In relation to the Theory of Meaning of Material Possessions, Dittmar (1992,

2004) suggested that material goods can fulfill a range of instrumental, social, symbolic

53
and affective functions. Individuals buy and use material goods depending on their
specific functions.

1. Instrumental functions relate to the functional properties of a product.

e.g. Jake bought a four-wheeler closed van for the delivery of their merchandise

2. Social symbolic functions signify personal qualities, social standing, group

affiliation and gender roles.

e.g. Using branded bags and shoes

3. Categorical functions refer to the extent to which material possessions may be

used to communicate group membership and status.

e.g. Wearing organizational shirt

4. Self-expressive functions reflect a person’s unique qualities, values or attitudes.

e.g. Collecting items with Panda designs

In terms of the economic self, people buy goods not only because they need them
but also because of the joy and happiness the goods give by merely having of acquiring
them. The emotion that an individual expects to feel when doing or buying something is
called the anticipated affect. The anticipated positive effect like excitement, pride, and
happiness as well as the negative affect such as anger, sadness, and frustration are
important predicates of whether to buy or not to buy the product. In other words, these
emotions can be a strong motivator or barrier for the buying behavior of people.

The Role of Consumer Culture on our Sense of Self and Identity

❏ It is a social system in which consumption is dominated by the consumption of

commercial products.

❏ Consumer culture denotes a social arrangement in which the relations between

lived culture and social resources, and between meaningful ways of life and the
symbolic and material resources on which they depend on, are mediated through
markets.

❏ The consumption of market-made commodities and desire-inducing marketing

symbols is central to consumer culture.

❏ A consumerist society is one in which people spend a great deal of time, money,
and energy to “consume” commercial products, goods, and services.

❏ Consumerism is the consumption of material goods and services in excess of one’s

basic needs. It is closely tied to materialism. Both heavily influence the way
individuals view the self.

❏ The state of needs and wants tends to be endless, and thus could cause negative
effects such as dissatisfaction, unhappiness, and depression.

54
 ❏ Karl Marx’s theory of the alienation of workers within a capitalist system stresses
that consumerist urges become a social force separate from the individual and
operating independently.

❏ Products and brands become the force that propels and reproduces norms, social
relations, and the general structure of society.

❏ The dominant worldview, values, and culture are inspired by disposable and empty
consumption.

Regardless of your intention in purchasing, keep these two things in mind when
acquiring goods. Consider its utility to ensure that the product serves a practical purpose;
and, remember its significance and be aware of how the objects become powerful symbols
or icons of habit ritual.

Teaching and Learning Activities

Activity 1

SHOPPING KING/QUEEN Challenge

Directions: You were given a day to shop like a king or queen and spend money as much
as you want. List down all the things you want to buy; then, answer the following:

1. What do you plan to do with all the items in your list?

2. How are you connected with those items?

3. Which among those items in your list best describe you? In what way?

4. Which among those items you like best? Why?

Recommended learning materials and resources for supplementary reading

https://prezi.com/p/rtcf6o40smhy/the-materialeconomic-self/
https://faculty.washington.edu/jdb/452/452_chapter_02.pdf
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QF3_dFo_yp8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=54SF9o27-Xw

Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted

Modular Distance Learning (MDL) – Module
Online Distance Learning (ODL) – Videocon/Google Classroom,
Email, Messenger, Zoom

Assessment Task

Directions: Answer the following questions briefly but substantially.

55
1.Define and explain the meaning of the material self?

2.When you buy goods/products, which among the following do you value most? Why?

a. price d. quality

b. brand e. significance

c. quantity f. utility

3.What do you consider as your most valuable possession? Why?

4.Do material possessions define one’s success in life? Defend your answer.

5.Can money really buy happiness? Explain your answer.

My Reflection

Watch the movie Confessions of a Shopaholic

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=orkaqFcTQh4) featuring Isla Fishers as the
shopaholic journalist. Based on the movie, discuss the experiences of a person who has a
compulsive buying disorder. What insights did you draw from the movie and how are you
going to apply them to better understand and develop your material self?

Directions: Your essay will be graded based on this rubric. Consequently, use this
rubric as a guide when writing your essay.

Scoring Rubrics for Essay

Exceeds Meets Needs Inadequate

CRITERIA Expectations Expectations Improvement
(4) (3) (2) (1)
Critical and
Original thought
Organization
Sentence,
Structure,
Grammar,
Mechanics and
Spelling
TOTAL

References

Antonova, N. (2014). Economic Identity and Professional Self-Determination.

Retrieved from https://www.atiner.gr/journals/social/2014-1-1-6-Antonova.pdf

Alata, E., Caslib, B., Serafica, J. & Pawilen, R. (2018). Understanding the self.
Manila: Rex Book Store.

56
Cole, N. (2019). What does consumerism mean. Retrieved from

https://www.thoughtco.com/consumerism-definition-3026119

Go-Monilla, M. and Ramirez, N. (2018). Understanding the self. Quezon City: C & E
Publishing

Maderazo, S. (2017, September 28). Material self and economic self. Retrieved
from:https://www.scribd.com/presentation/360154947/MATERIAL-SELF-
ECONOMIC-SELF-pptx

57
 Module 8: Unpacking the Self
The Spiritual Self

Introduction

The spiritual self is the most intimate, inner subjective part of the self. In William
James book, The Principles of Psychology Spiritual self is one of the four constituents of
the “self”. In his famous Sermon on the Mount, Jesus said: “Happy are those conscious
of their spiritual need.” You probably agree with that statement. People everywhere
recognize the need for spirituality in their life and assume that once found, it will bring
them happiness. It is the most intimate version of the self because of the satisfaction
experienced when thinking of one’s ability to argue and discriminate, of one’s moral
sensibility and conscience, and of our unconquerable will (James 1890) is purer than all
other sentiments of satisfaction. Moreover, seeking the meaning of life is a journey that
the spiritual self is on.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lesson students should be able to:

1. discuss Spirituality and its importance;
2. understand the self in relation with religious beliefs; and
3. explain ways of finding the meaning of life.

Learning Content

In Search of Spirituality

One dictionary defines spirituality as “sensitivity or attachment to religious values” and

“the quality or state of being spiritual.” Thus, such terms as “spirituality,” “being
spiritual,” or “being spiritually-minded” are viewed as synonymous. To clarify the term
further, think of this comparison: An individual who is skillful in commercial affairs is
said to be business-minded. Similarly, someone who keenly values spiritual or religious
interests is called spiritually-minded.

How, then, is true spirituality achieved? Though just about every religion claims to know
the path to spirituality, the directions given are about as numerous as the religions
themselves. A Protestant claims to be saved at a revival meeting. A Catholic seeks
communion with God at Mass. A Buddhist pursues enlightenment through meditation. A
Hindu strives for release from the cycle of rebirths through self-denial. Are all of these on
the path to true spirituality? Are any?

For many, the answer to those questions is no. They hold that spirituality means to
“believe without belonging,” that is, to believe in a god or a deity without belonging to a
church. Others feel that spirituality refers, not to a religious experience, but to a desire for
inner peace and for meaning in life. They assert that those seeking spirituality need not
look to religion at all. Rather, they need only to look inwardly, to their innermost feelings.
One writer says: “True spirituality is something that is found deep within oneself. It is

58
your way of loving, accepting and relating to the world and people around you. It cannot
be found in a church or by believing in a certain way.”

Clearly, people differ greatly in their ideas about spirituality. Thousands of books claim
to show the way to a spiritual life, yet all too often readers are left feeling unfulfilled and
confused.

Religion—How Did It Begin?

The history of religion is as old as the history of man himself. That is what archaeologists
and anthropologists tell us. Even among the most “primitive,” that is to say, undeveloped,
civilizations, there is found evidence of worship of some form. In fact The New
Encyclopædia Britannica says that “as far as scholars have discovered, there has never
existed any people, anywhere, at any time, who were not in some sense religious.

Besides its antiquity, religion also exists in great variety. The headhunters in the jungles
of Borneo, the Eskimos in the frozen Arctic, the nomads in the Sahara Desert, the urban
dwellers in the great metropolises of the world—every people and every nation on earth
has its god or gods and its way of worship. The diversity in religion is truly staggering.

Logically, questions come to mind. From where did all these religions come? Since there
are marked differences as well as similarities among them, did they start independently,
or could they have developed from one source? In fact we might ask: Why did religion
begin at all? And how? The answers to these questions are of vital importance to all who
are interested in finding the truth about religion and religious beliefs.

Question of Origin

When it comes to the question of origin, people of different religions think of names such
as Muḥammad, the Buddha, Confucius, and Jesus. In almost every religion, we can find
a central figure to whom credit is given for establishing the ‘true faith.’ Some of these were
iconoclastic reformers. Others were moralistic philosophers. Still others were selfless folk
heroes. Many of them have left behind writings or sayings that formed the basis of a new
religion. In time what they said and did was elaborated, embellished, and given a mystic
aura. Some of these leaders were even deified.

Even though these individuals are considered founders of the major religions that we are
familiar with, it must be noted that they did not actually originate religion. In most cases,
their teachings grew out of existing religious ideas, even though most of these founders
claimed divine inspiration as their source. Or they changed and modified existing
religious systems that had become unsatisfactory in one way or another.

For example, as accurately as history can tell us, the Buddha had been a prince who was
appalled by the suffering and deplorable conditions he found surrounding him in a society
dominated by Hinduism. Buddhism was the result of his search for a solution to life’s
agonizing problems. Similarly, Muḥammad was highly disturbed by the idolatry and
immorality he saw in the religious practices around him. He later claimed to have received
special revelations from God, which formed the Qurʼān and became the basis of a new
religious movement, Islām. Protestantism grew out of Catholicism as a result of the

59
Reformation that began in the early 16th century, when Martin Luther protested the sale
of indulgences by the Catholic church at that time.

Thus, as far as the religions now in existence are concerned, there is no lack of information
regarding their origin and development, their founders, their sacred writings, and so on.
But what about the religions that existed before them? And the ones even before those? If
we go back far enough in history, we will sooner or later be confronted with the question:
How did religion begin? Clearly, to find the answer to that question, we must look beyond
the confines of the individual religions.

Different yet Similar

We can get the answer in the same way that linguistic experts got their answers about the
origin of language. By placing the languages side by side and noting their similarities, an
etymologist can trace the various languages back to their source. Similarly, by placing the
religions side by side, we can examine their doctrines, legends, rituals, ceremonies,
institutions, and so on, and see if there is any underlying thread of common identity and,
if so, to what that thread leads us.

On the surface, the many religions in existence today seem quite different from one
another. However, if we strip them of the things that are mere embellishments and later
additions, or if we remove those distinctions that are the result of climate, language,
peculiar conditions of their native land, and other factors, it is amazing how similar most
of them turn out to be.

For example, most people would think that there could hardly be any two religions more
different from each other than the Roman Catholic Church of the West and Buddhism of
the East. However, what do we see when we put aside the differences that could be
attributed to language and culture? If we are objective about it, we have to admit that
there is a great deal that the two have in common. Both Catholicism and Buddhism are
steeped in rituals and ceremonies. These include the use of candles, incense, holy water,
the rosary, images of saints, chants and prayer books, even the sign of the cross. Both
religions maintain institutions of monks and nuns and are noted for celibacy of priests,
special garb, holy days, special foods. This list is by no means exhaustive, but it serves to
illustrate the point. The question is, Why do two religions that appear to be so different
have so many things in common?

As enlightening as the comparison of these two religions turns out to be, the same can be
done with other religions. When we do so, we find that certain teachings and beliefs are
almost universal among them. Most of us are familiar with such doctrines as the
immortality of the human soul, heavenly reward for all good people, eternal torment for
the wicked in an underworld, purgatory, a triune god or a godhead of many gods, and a
mother-of-god or queen-of-heaven goddess. Beyond these, however, there are many
legends and myths that are equally commonplace. For example, there are legends about
man’s fall from divine grace owing to his illicit attempt to achieve immortality, the need
to offer sacrifices to atone for sin, the search for a tree of life or fountain of youth, gods
and demigods who lived among humans and produced superhuman offspring, and a
catastrophic flood that devastated nearly all of humanity.

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What can we conclude from all of this? We note that those who believed in these myths
and legends lived far from one another geographically. Their culture and traditions were
different and distinct. Their social customs bore no relationship to one another. And yet,
when it comes to their religions, they believed in such similar ideas. Although not every
one of these peoples believed in all the things mentioned, all of them believed in some of
them. The obvious question is, Why? It was as if there was a common pool from which
each religion drew its basic beliefs, some more, some less. With the passage of time, these
basic ideas were embellished and modified, and other teachings developed from them.
But the basic outline is unmistakable.

Logically, the similarity in the basic concepts of the many religions of the world is strong
evidence that they did not begin each in its own separate and independent way. Rather,
going back far enough, their ideas must have come from a common origin. What was that
origin?

RELIGION

Rebecca Stein (Stein 2011) works on the definition of religion “as a set of cultural
beliefs and practices that usually includes some or all of basic characteristics. These
characteristics are:

1. A belief in anthropomorphic supernatural being, such as spirit & gods

2. A focus on the sacred supernatural, where sacred refers to a feeling of reverence
and awe
3. the presence of supernatural power or energy that is found on supernatural beings
as well as physical beings and objects
4. The performance of ritual activities that involves the manipulation of sacred object
to communicate to supernatural beings and/or to influence or control events
5. the articulation of worldview and moral codes through narratives and other means
6. Provide the creation and maintenance of social bonds and mechanism of social
control within a community; provide explanation for unknown and a sense of
control for individuals

RITUAL

Ritual is the performance of ceremonial acts prescribed by a tradition or sacred law

(Britanica 2017). It is a specific, observable mode of behavior exhibited by all known
societies. it is thus possible to view ritual as a way or describing humans

Some World Religious Beliefs & Practices

There are different religions with different beliefs & practices. Some of the major
world religions are Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam and Judaism.
BUDDHISM

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 Image o f Buddha By: Jesus -Zambrano
(https://creativecommonsorg/licenses/by sa-4.0) via wikimedia CommonsI

Buddhist Monks (Image via wikimedia commons)

Beliefs
Buddhism believes that life is not a bed of roses. Instead, there are suffering, pain,
frustrations. When people suffer, they want to experience the goodness of life and avoid
disappointments. It becomes a habit known as the reactive cycle of wanting and hating,
like and dislike, and craving and aversion. This reactive cycle can be broken through the
practice of mediation, acquiring more wisdom and deeper understanding, and acceptance
of things as they are.
Customs and Practices
There are two types of meditation practices: samatha and vipassana. Samatha is
practiced as mindfulness of breathing and development of loving- kindness (Metta
Bhavana). Vipassana practices aim at developing insight into reality. Acquiring wisdom
is by studying Buddha’s teaching. The Dharma. Through the reflection of the Dharma.
Buddhists can achieve a deeper understanding of life. Buddhists believe in non-violence
principle.

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Some of the major Buddhist celebrations are Parinirvana Day in February; Buddha Day
(Wesak) in May; Dharma Day in July; Padmasambhava Day in October; and Sangha Day
in November.

(photo via: wikimedia commons)

Parinirvana Day

(https:// flickr.com/photos/udeyismall/4642613)
Wesak Day
CHRISTIANITY
Beliefs
Christians believe in Trinitarian God. One God in three personas: God the Father
(Creator), God the Son (Savior), and God the Holy Spirit (Sustainer). Eternal life after
death will be achieved through faith in Jesus Christ. Jesus Christ is, God the Son, who
came into flesh, to spread the Good News of Salvation. He died on the Cross for the sin
of the humanity but resurrected from the death, so that anyone who believes in Him will
be saved and have eternal life. The Holy Bible is a selection of books, which is divided into
two, the Old Testament and New Testament.
Holy baptism

Customs and Practices

Sacrament of Baptism and Sacrament of Communion are practiced by Christian
churches. The sacrament of Baptism symbolizes the birth in Christian world, while the
sacrament of communion is an act of remembrance of Jesus Christ’s sacrificial love. Jesus
Christ teaching in unconditional love that is expressed in loving the poor, oppressed, and
outcast of the society.
Christmas and Resurrection (Easter) are the two major celebrations in
Christianity. Christmas, usually on December 25, commemorates the birth of Jesus Christ

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while Resurrection Sunday (depends on the lunar calendar, sometime in March or April)
celebrates the resurrection of Jesus Christ from death.

HINDUISM
Beliefs
Hinduism covers a wide range of traditional beliefs and religious groups; thus
there is no single founder or leader. Hindus believe that existence is a cycle of birth, death
and rebirth , governed by Karma. Karma is a concept where the reincarnated life will
depend on how the past life was spent. Hindus believe that the soul passes through a cycle
of successive lives and its next incarnation is always dependent on how the previous life
was lived. Vedas are sacred scriptures of Hindus. Mahabharata and Ramayana are two
other important texts of the Hindus.

Customs and Practices

Diwali and Navrati are the most celebrated festivals of the Hindus. Diwali is the
Festival of Lights while Navrati is the festival of nine nights, which celebrate the triumph
of good over evil. Hindus have set dates to honor particular manifestations of Gods

(By: wikimedia Commons)

Diwali Celebration

ISLAM
Beliefs
Muslims believe in Allah, who is their “One God.” They believe in the unity and
universality of God. Muslims also have a strong sense community or “ummah” and an
awareness of their solidarity with all Muslims worldwide. Islam means “willing
submission to God.”
Muslims believe that Mohammed is the last and final prophet sent by God.
Mohammed was born in Mecca in 570 CE and received revelations from God through the
Angel Gabriel over a period of 23 years. The Holy Book of Islam is called the Quran, which
was taught to be recited in Arabic because any translation is seen as inadequate.

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Mosque
Customs and Practices
Muslims believe in the five pillars of Islam, which are the foundation of Muslims life:
1. Shahadah- statement of faith: “There is no God but the one true God and
Mohammed is his messenger.”
2. Salat- the prayer that is practiced five times a day.
3. Zakat- the monetary offering for the benefit of the poor. It compromises the 2.5%
of a Muslim’s assets.
4. Hajj- the yearly pilgrimage to Mecca. Muslims who can afford are asked to do the
pilgrimage at least once in their lifetime.
5. Sawm- the fasting. Muslims do fasting, from food, drink and sexual act, during
the celebration of Ramadan. Ramadan is the ninth month of the Islamic lunar
calendar. The fast is from dawn to sunset.

Two of the major festivals in Islam are Eidul-Fitr and Eidul-Adha. Eidul – Fitr is
the celebration at the end of Ramadan, while Eidul-Adha is celebrated within the
completion of the Pilgrimage, the Hajj.

(https://pixabay.com/en/mecca-saudi-arabia-kaaba-holy-656774)
Hajj, the Pilgrimage to Mecca

JUDDAISM
Beliefs
The Jews believe in the God of Abraham, the same God that liberated the Hebrew slaves
from Egypt to Canaan, the Promised Land through the leadership of Moses and later,
Joshua.
The Jews believe in the coming of Messiah the Savior. The sacred scripture of the Jews
is called the Torah of the Law. The Torah is the guide of the Jewish living. The study and
interpretation of Torah is part of the Jewish culture.
Customs and Practices

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There are five major festivals observed by the Jews:
1. Rosh Hashanah- the New Year
2. Yom Kippur- the Day of Atonement
3. Pesach- Passover
4. Shavuot- Pentecost
5. Sukkot- Tabernacles. The Jewish Sabbath begins on Friday evening at sunset and
is an important time when families gather to the Shabbat meal.

https//www.flicker.com/folderphotos1858436

Shabbat meal Rosh Hashanah Pesach

Religious beliefs, rituals, practices, and customs are all part of the
expression of the spiritual self. What to believe and how to manifest the belief is
entirely dependent on the individual, to the self. A person might believe that there
is a higher being, a supernatural being, usually termed as God, but not necessarily
wants to be affiliated or identified with a certain religious group. Others may have
religious beliefs and practices which are perceived to be contrary to the practices
of other groups. Religious beliefs and practices, therefore, are formed relative to
its context and culture.

The Need for Meaning

Who needs it? Not the earthworm or the eagle, the chipmunk or the whale. It is man alone
of all earth’s creatures that raises the question, Does life have any meaning? Every
generation has pondered it. If the need for meaning were not inherent in man, the
question would not have haunted him through the centuries.
If life is so fleeting and followed by a future of oblivion, how could it have meaning? But
the need for meaning and permanence is so great that doctrines of immortal souls and
reincarnations are seized upon. Many feel the need to make this present life memorable
by leaving something of themselves behind—a book, a painting, a musical composition,
an endowment, a foundation, anything to give some kind of tangible evidence of their
having been here. It seems to help them to feel that there was some meaning to their
existence. Even those who made a name for themselves fade from memory as they are
eclipsed by prominent ones now living.
In spite of man’s tininess in universal space, however, and his fleeting appearance in the
stream of time, he still needs to feel his life is meaningful. This springs from the way he
was created. It is an inborn need. Viktor Frankl, the psychiatrist who originated the
psychiatric school of logotherapy, which he defines as meaning-therapy, says: “The
striving to find a meaning in one’s life is the primary motivational force in man.”
How can the need for meaning in our life be met?
Making Lives Meaningful

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BY SETTING GOALS
“Hitch your wagon to a star,” advises the old saying. Goals of high purpose give
meaningful direction to our life, keep us from drifting, floundering or stagnating. Human
creatures are goal-oriented. Setting goals aids progress and strengthens purpose.
Psychiatrist Viktor Frankl, in “Man’s Search for Meaning,” writes of the importance of
goals even in Nazi concentration camps: “Any attempt to restore a man’s inner strength
in the camp had first to succeed in showing him some future goal.”
He tells of two men in camp who had decided to commit suicide—what did they have to
live for? But when one realized his adored child was waiting for him, and the other had a
series of scientific books to finish, both chose to live. “There is nothing in the world, I
venture to say,” Frankl wrote, “that would so effectively help one to survive even the worst
conditions, as the knowledge that there is a meaning in one’s life.”
If this is true in “the worst conditions,” how much more so would setting goals and
striving to reach them help people in their day-to-day living!
BY DOING WORK
Goals in themselves, however, mean little. Only when they are accompanied by deeds do
they have real meaning. A farmer may have as a goal the harvesting of a certain crop, but
to attain that goal he must sow seed and do all the additional work needed to produce and
bring in the crop.
Even children benefit from work. Professor Alice Rossi, a sociologist at the University of
Massachusetts, urged parents to give children work in the home: “To feel needed and
useful is as important as to feel loved. Yet our child-rearing ideas have stressed only love
and the child’s need to play, neglecting the work children can do.”
BY MINDING SPIRITUAL THINGS
Purpose and meaning are based in the things of the spirit, not the flesh. Frankl wrote of
the ability to resist the tortures of the concentration camps because of spiritual strength:
“The consciousness of one’s inner value is anchored in higher, more spiritual things, and
cannot be shaken by camp life.” Why do successful executives, materially well off, change
careers in mid-life? Psychologist Levinson said that they begin to ask: “Is this all there is?
Was it worth all I had to give up along the way? Do I want to go on like this for the rest of
my life?”
It is the awareness of a person’s spiritual need and the fulfilling of that that brings
happiness and meaning to his life.
BY A RIGHT ATTITUDE
Do you work toward a goal with confidence and vigor, not doubting or drifting willy-nilly?
Think negative and get negative results; think positive to get positive results. Doubts are
traitors that make us lose what we might win if we didn’t fear to try. Think on that which
is good.
BY SERVING OTHERS
We feel useful when we help others. It shows we have something to offer. Useful lives
become meaningful lives, viewed so by others as well as by ourselves. Serving mankind
can in itself become a goal and impart meaning to a person’s life.

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Serving God does much more toward enabling us to view our life as meaningful, even
though we are small in a vast universe and exist only in a tiny fraction of the stream of
time.

BY SUFFERING FOR RIGHTEOUSNESS’ SAKE

“Suffering ceases to be suffering in some way at the moment it finds a meaning, such as
the meaning of a sacrifice,” writes Frankl. “Man is even ready to suffer, on the condition,
to be sure, that his suffering has a meaning.” What greater meaning could it have than
being for righteousness’ sake?
LOGOTHERAPY ASSUMPTIONS
Logotheraphy is a psychotherapy introduced by Dr. Vitor Frankl, who is considered the
Father of Logotherapy. The main belief of logotheraphy is that “man’s primary
motivational force is search for meaning, it uses the philosophy of optimism in the face of
tragedy, where people are capable of “turning suffering into human achievement and
accomplishment; deriving from guilt the opportunity to change oneself for the better; and
deriving from life’s transitoriness an incentive to take responsible action.
● The human being is an entity consisting of body, mind, and spirit.
● Life has meaning under all circumstances, even the most miserable
● People have a will to meaning
● People have freedom under all circumstances to activate the will to find meaning
● Life has a demand quality to which people must respond if decisions are to be
meaningful
● The individual is unique

Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) Adapted

Module; zoom video conference

Teaching and Learning Activities

a. Learning Activity- Art Recall:

Draw/Paint a poster about the meaning of life based on Viktor Frankl’s
existentialism
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

Rubrics
Relevance (50%) - all graphics are related to the topic and make it easier to
understand.
Originality(25%)- graphics used on the poster reflect a exceptional degree of student
creativity in their creation and / or display
Visual Clarity (25%)- It is neat and easy to understand the content

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Assessment Task
Reflection Essay:
Make an Essay about “What is the meaning of life” with not less than 500 words.
Rubrics
Organization of Thoughts 50% (Ideas and thoughts are conveyed in a very organized
way)
Integration of Lessons/ Concepts Discussed in Class 30%(The analysis contains a
substantial amount of the lessons and/ or concepts discussed in class.)
Originality (20%)

References
Goldsmiths, University of London.n.d. “Religion and Belief guide”.October
16,2017.https://www.gold.ac.uk/media/documents-by-section/life-on-campus/student-
support-services/Religion-and-Belief-Guide.pdf

Penner, Hans.1998. “Ritual.” In Encyclopedia Britannica.

October17,2017.https://www.britannica.com/topic/ritual.
Popova, Maria.2013. “Viktor Frankl On the Human Search for Meaning.” In
Brainpickings.October 20,2017.https://www.brainpickings.org/2013/03/26/viktor-
frankl-mans-search-for-meaning/.
Victor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy.n.d. “About Victor Fraankl.”October 20,2017.
http://www.viktorfranklInstitute.org/Home.html.
Victor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy.n.d. “Logotherapy.” October 20,2017.
http://www.logotherapyinstitute.org/About_Logotherapy.html,

Mod

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 Module 8
THE POLITICAL SELF

Introduction

As members of the society, people are naturally obligated to participate in a political

system as social citizens. Politics is the way that people living in groups make
decisions. It is about making agreements between people so that they can live together in
groups such as tribes, cities, or countries. As Aristotle stated, “man is, by nature, a
political man.” This is because man is a social being and that people naturally drawn to
various political involvement in order to satisfy their social needs. The political self-
explores how our social and economic contexts profoundly affect our overall well-being.
It is the aspect of our identity that is political, such as beliefs about what a “good
society” means or how much government regulation is appropriate.
This section allows students to have an understanding of their self – concept in
political perspective and improve one’s political identity as a Filipino.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lesson students should be able to:

1. identify values, traits, political community and institutions as aspects of
political self.
2. describe what a democratic culture is.
3. understand the concept of self in political thought; and
4. examine one’s political identity.

Learning Content

Who is a Filipino?

According the 1987 Phil. Constitution, Filipino citizen are "those who father or mother
are citizens of the Philippines those born before Jan.17, 1973 of Filipino, mother who elect
Philippine citizenship upon reaching the age of majority and those who are naturalized in
accordance with law".

What is Political?

It is primarily concerned with the making as distinguished from the administration of

governmental policy. A republic is a political system in which the government remains
mostly subject to those governed. Some scholars define any political system in which the
citizens legitimize the government.
The Philippines today has only emerged in the 1980s after over three centuries
colonization of the Spaniards. Meanwhile, the Japanese only occured in 1946. Foreign
culture, beliefs, language, and religion have made a huge dent on our own by setting a
foundation to the contemporary Filipino identity and culture. Filipino have truly
developed an identity of their own? or we still living in the shadow of our colonial friends.
The individual's race, ethnicity, and physical characteristics are not the only factors that
make a person's national identity. The important of values and traits are set apart ne
nationality from the other. This values and traits may not always be a positive thing, but

70
being able to identity one's self apart from other nationalities and point out weakness and
mistakes, paired with unity and progress a possibility.

What is Political Self?

It captures the extent to which a person thinks of themselves as a “political person”. These
are beliefs about what a “good society” means or how much government regulation is
appropriate. Political self-organization then refers to the formation of political patterns
through the local interactions of the members only; this can be seen in the formation of
public opinion, political movements, and political revolutions. In a cultural context, self-
organizing processes can be seen in the formation of customs and the development of
beliefs. In a socioeconomic context self-organization can be seen in the growth,
competition, and extinction of companies, national economies and the stock market.

Filipino Traits and Values

What do Filipinos value?

The term kapwa or a shared inner self lies at the core of Filipino values and psychology.
A person who treats another as a kapwa has a shared a sense of identity and consciousness
with that ‘other’ person. Both in the individual and community level, strong emphasis is
placed on social acceptance and maintaining social harmony. As such, social approval and
caring about what others will think, say, or do strongly influence social behavior.

FILIPINO TRAITS
Hospitality - Offer the warmth and comfort of your place to a friend
or relative who needs a place to stay.
- Give more than of your best to make your guests feel at
home.
Cheerful & Optimistic - Problems are inevitable but Filipinos are known to be
positive and joyful – plaster a sweet smile on your face.
Respect - Pagmamano, beso, and paghalik sa kamay should be
manifested.
- Use po and opo and/or polite expressions when talking
to someone older than you.
Close family Ties - Maintain a harmonious relationship with your family
members.
- Avoid conflicts and if possible settle disputes and
misunderstandings.
- Support and help your family and relatives up to any
extent.
Bayanihan/Unity and - Sincerely extend help to your fellowmen.
Helpfulness - Do not choose whom to help.
- Offer help when someone needs assistance.
Filipino Time - Show respect, sincerity and sensitivity by arriving at a
meeting or event on time.
Mañana Habit - Procrastination leads to a bulkier and heavier workload.
- Do not delay tasks.
Colonial Mentality - Support locals.

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 Ningas Kugon - Be consistent of the ventures and things you have
started.
Crab Mentality - Be happy of other’s achievements and success.
- Put off jealousy / enviousness.
Pride - Learn to ask for an apology without waiting for the other
party to do it.

FILIPINO MARKERS

Proverbs or Salawikain - Filipino proverbs or Philippine proverbs are traditional

sayings or maxims used by Filipinos based on local culture, wisdom, and philosophies
from Filipino life. If used in everyday conversations, proverbs are utilized to emphasize a
point or a thought of reasoning: the Filipino philosophy.

Examples:
1. Habang may buhay, may pag-asa. (Meaning: Never lose hope in life.)
2. Kapag binato ka ng bato, batuhin mo ng tinapay. (Meaning: Repay evil with kindness
and blessing.)
3. Ang buhay ay parang gulong. (Meaning: There is no permanent situation in this
world.)

Superstitions - beliefs or practice based upon one's trust in luck or other irrational,
unscientific, or supernatural forces. Often, it arises from ignorance, a misunderstanding
of science or causality, a belief in fate or magic, or fear of that which is unknown.

Examples:
1. The number of steps of staircases at home should not be divisible by three.
2. Don’t go straight home after attending a wake.
3. Siblings should not marry within the same year (sukob).

Myths and Legends - historical fact morphs into a legend when the truth has been
exaggerated to the point that real people or events have taken on a romanticized, "larger
than life" quality. In contrast, a myth is a type of symbolic storytelling that was never
based on fact.

Examples:
1. Mythical creatures such as duwende, diwata, engkanto, kapre, aswang, etc.
2. The Legend of Makahiya
3. The Heartbreaking Story of Alitaptap (Bataan Legend)

Heroes and Icons - heroes serve as reminder of true patriotism and nationalism as
they have sacrificed their lives for the sake of their country`s freedom and progress.
Examples: Manny "Pacman" Pacquiao, Lea Salonga

Political Community and Institutions

According to Aristotle, every community “is established for the sake of some good.”
This is because “everyone does everything for the sake of what they believe to be good,”
though they of course can be wrong about what “the good” is. It follows that a political

72
community must also be established for the sake of some good. Like Plato, Aristotle
believed that such a community must be large enough to be self-sufficient, but must
nevertheless remain relatively small. It is a group of like-minded people who share
common political goals and values such as social justice, lowering taxes, improving
educational policy, etc.
Political institutions definitely impact our economy, education, culture and
society. For example, political parties, trade unions, legislature and judiciary are
needed in order to safeguard the interests of citizens of the country and to ensure the
unity and integrity of the nation. It further results in the overall development of the
country. they ensure that the laws are being followed by the citizens of the country.

Establishing a Democratic Culture

The word democracy describes a political system. In a democratic country, all

eligible citizens have the right to participate, either directly or indirectly, in making the
decisions that affect them.
Democratic culture is defined as the desire and ability of individuals in a
population to participate actively, individually and together, to the government of public
affairs affecting them. The existence of a democratic culture within a population is
characterized by the active contribution, effective and in duration, of members of civil
society to development of: the common good, the terms of “living together” and the
construction of collective decisions. An example of democracy at work is in the
Philippines, where people have political freedom and equality. In our country, supreme
powers lies with the people, the power of the elected representatives would be supreme,
democracy requires free and fair election and requires respect for law and minority
opinion.

Strengthening your Political Skills

Political skill is the ability to effectively understand others at work, and to use such
knowledge to influence others to act in ways that enhance one's personal and/or
organizational objectives. Dimensions include social astuteness (how well you
understand other), interpersonal influence (how you make others feel at ease),
networking ability (using your formal and informal network to advance your goals) and
apparent sincerity (how genuine and sincere you appear to others).

How to Improve your Political Skills

1. Make a political "book." With any organization or group you're involved with, it's
a good idea to gather some insights on the people you work with most often. Record
notes regarding how they each tend to approach problems.

2. Draw a "power web." Create a chart showing the power relationships among all the
people in your organization or workgroup. Power relationships are those
connections in which the parties help one another move projects forward and
obtain needed support and resources.

3. Strengthen and forge relationships. Review your power web to spot opportunities
to strengthen existing relationships, as well as forge new ones. For example, ask
yourself which individuals on your web might make valuable power-relationship

73
 partners — but you haven't yet cultivated mutually beneficial connections with
them.

4. A key part of developing and wielding political skill is simply knowing other
people — their major concerns and their priorities. By figuring out what you can
do for them and what they can do for you, you nurture relationships of mutual
influence and benefit.

Teaching & Learning Activities

Measuring Your Political Skill

Instructions: Using the following scale, please place a number in the blank next to each
item that best describes how much you agree with each statement in your work
environment.
Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
Disagree
1 2 3 4 5

Rating
1. I spend a lot of time and effort at work networking with others
2. I am able to make most people feel comfortable and at ease around
him
3. I am able to communicate easily and effectively with others
4. It is easy for me to develop good rapport with most people
5. I understand people very well
6. I am good at building relationships with influential people at work
7. I am particularly good at sensing the motivations and hidden
agendas of others
8. When communicating with others, I try to be genuine in what I say
and do
9. I have developed a large network of colleagues and associates at work
who I can call on for support when I really need to get things done
10. At work, I know a lot of important people and am well connected
11. I spend a lot of time and effort at work developing connections with
others
12. I am good at getting people to like me
13. My behavior suggests it is important to me that people believe I am
sincere in what I say and do
14. I try to show a genuine interest in other people

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 15. I am good at using connections and my network to make things
happen at work
16. I have good intuition or “savvy” about how to present myself to
others
17. I always seems to instinctively know the right things to say or do to
influence others
18. I pay close attention to peoples’ facial expressions

Your Overall Political Skill Rating

Total all your self-ratings and divide by 18. The closer you are to 5 the stronger your
competence in political skill

Your Specific Dimensions

Research by Ferris, Davidson and Perrewé (2005) identifies four dimensions of political
skill. Each is critical.

Social Astuteness (Total of questions 5, 7, 16, 17 and 18, then divided by 5). An average
close to 5 indicates competence in this dimension. This covers how well you understand
others, their motivations, hidden agendas and knowing what are the right things to say
and do.
Interpersonal Influence (Total of questions 2, 3, 4 and 12, then divided by 4). An
average close to 5 indicates competence in this dimension. This covers making others feel
at ease, are likeable and communicate well with others, building rapport.
Networking Ability (Total of questions 1, 6, 9, 10, 11 and 15, then divided by 6). An
average close to 5 indicates competence in this dimension. This covers networking skills
– whereby you want to network and can do so easily, especially with influential people.
You can deftly use your informal and formal network to advance your goals.
Apparent Sincerity (Total of questions 8, 13 and 14, then divided by 3). An average
close to 5 indicates competence in this dimension. This covers how genuine and sincere
you appear to others. Scoring high suggests you know how important it is to be seen as
sincerely interested in others at all times.

Recommended Learning Materials & Resources for Supplementary Reading

For further readings of the traits and values of a Filipino, visit this link
https://owlcation.com/social-sciences/Filipino-Traits-and-Characteristics

Loob at Kapwa: An Introduction to a Filipino Virtue Ethics -

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09552367.2015.1043173?journalCode=
casp20

Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) Adopted

SYNCHRONOUS
- Video conferencing (Zoom, Google Meet, or Facebook room)

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 - Learning Management System
ASYNCHRONOUS
- Printed Module

Assessment Tasks

1. Conduct a short interview with your parents/grandparents about Filipino traits

and values, superstitions, legends which they believe are important part of their
lives as Filipinos. What are its implications to the present generation? Provide your
insights.

2. Cite a particular political group, institution or affiliation you are actively involved
with. Describe its goals and purpose, activities, accomplishments and your
personal reasons of joining the community. How does it contribute to the
development of your political identity?

3. Under the following sectors, enumerate at least two activities which show how you
exercise democracy as a Filipino student.

a. Education
b. Religion
c. Media
d. Health
e. Government

4. As a Filipino student, share at least three politically driven contributions to address

the COVID19 public health emergency?

References

Alata, E. et al. 2018. Understanding the Self. RexBook Store, Inc. (RBSI)

https://owlcation.com/social-sciences/Filipino-Traits-and-Characteristics

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09552367.2015.1043173?journalCo
de=casp20

https://www.7stonesboracay.com/15-filipino-traits-that-make-the-philippines-fun-to-
visit/

https://positivepoliticalintelligence.com/free-self-assessment-of-your-political-skill/

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 Module 9
THE DIGITAL SELF

Introduction

The examination of the nature of the self will begin and based on the work of
William James who proposed that aside from the physical self, we also have the material
self. He said that our entities encompass more than our bodily parts and that our
extended self that includes our possessions are prized because they become part of us.
From the context of William James, we can surmise that part of our extended and material
self are our technological possessions. It is a general knowledge that this 20 th century
marks the age of the so called digital age. According to Russell Belk (2013) many
technological changes have dramatically affected the way we consume, communicate and
present our self. Collin Dictionary defines digital age as a time when large amount of
information are widely available to many people, largely through computer technology.
Digitalization does not just affect our home and everyday activities but it also creates a
great impact on human behavior in both positive and negative ways.

This section will highlight the role of the internet in the formation of the self.

Learning Outcomes

After the learning session, the students are able to:

1. discuss on - line identity and its relation to the digital world;
2. describe the influence of internet to the self; and
3. demonstrate good values and attitude online.

Learning Content

The Self and others in the Cyberspace

The data, statistics and trend presented by datareportal.com (2020), shows that
there is a tremendous increase in the use of technology all over the world and the
Philippines is somehow one of the top users of the internet as shown by the latest studies
conducted in the month of January, 2020.

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78
79
80
 The above tables are evidences of how digitalized the world is. It has become part
of our daily routine thus impacted the development of the self. New technologies today
did not just improve lives of people but it has also become part of their lives so much so
that most aspect of our lives are greatly influenced if not dependent on it.

I, me, myself and my user ID on line identity

Much of our communication and socialization mode now a days happens on – line,
relying more on the unse of technology and internet. Even business transactions and
meetings are mostly done virtually through the use of the internet. As we interact with
other people in on-line sites and uses online services that requires personal accounts such
as password and usernames, we are already creating and sharing our on-line identity.
On-line identity (Olshansky, 2016) is a social identity that network users establish in
online communities. In the internet, there are many social identity providers such as
Facebook, twitter, Google, and many others where one can manage how their identities
can be presented. When you are using the Internet, your online identity is the sum of
your characteristics and interactions. Every website you interact with has its own idea of
your identity because each one you visit sees you and your characteristics differently.
Through the internet, we are able to make multiple on-line identity for different purposes

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that possible suits us. This according the William James is an extension of our self –
identity. Our on-line identity is just one facet of who we are.

Selective Self Presentation and Impression Management

On – line identity most of the time requires sharing of self – identity and people
are likely to share their on-line identity that usually matches what is needed or required
in the online community. People usually consider proper selection of words, photos, and
comments in order to create or make a difference. This process is called impression
management. Impression management is the effort to control or influence other
people's perceptions. This could be their perception of a certain person (including you), a
material possession or an event. An example of online impression management is when
people post happy moments about their family and their travels because they wanted
others to think and to present themselves as having a happy and contented family life.
We usually do impression managing in order to feel good about our lives but if we try to
look into the deeper meaning of it, we may be striving for positive perceptions from others
in the internet world.

Another way of on – line presentation is through selective self – presentation.

Self-presentation refers to how people attempt to present themselves to control or
shape how others (called the audience) view them. It involves expressing oneself and
behaving in ways that create a desired impression. Girls would post filtered images of
themselves because they wanted to feel satisfied with their personal looks as well as try to
present herself as beautiful or sexy or stylist to others. Selective self-presentation focuses
on changing how other people view an individual.

FIVE CHANGES THAT IMPACT THE NATURE OF SELF DUE TO OUR

CURRENT DIGITAL AGE
(Excerpt from Belk (2013) study)
1. DEMATERIALIZATION
Our tangible things and possessions becomes invisible. Photos that are
collected and place in an album are now stored in digital storage devices such as
phones and in some internet location. Music and movies are now stored in small
devices instead of CD and tape collections. Our private acquisition becomes group
because of sharing.

2. REEMBODIMENT
Refers to new construction and definition of the self. Through the digital
technology, we are able to disembody and re-embodied our photos and videos
through the help of editing, photo shop and other accessories that can help
enhance it. An example of this is those who are undergoing sexual identity crisis.
Through the virtual worlds they are able to present themselves in the way they want
to present themselves. The internet provides us a mask as well as safety which
means that we do not see true identity thus we must rely on the feedback of others
for self – improvement.

3. SHARING
Digital devices help us share more, as well as more broadly, than ever
before. Through Facebook, it is likely that social media friends knows more than

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 the immediate families about daily activities, connections and thoughts. Diaries
that were once private or shared only with close friends are now posted as blogs for
anyone to read. In posting photos on sites like Flickr or Photo bucket the use of
arm’s-length self-photography marks a change. Facebook is now a key part of self-
presentation.

4. CO- CONSTRUCTION OF SELF

Our blogs invite comments, social media thrive on interaction and while cell
phones may be decreasingly used for telephone calls and e-mails, they are
increasingly used for text messaging, taking and posting photos and videos, and
geo-locating to connect with others. Blogging is a form of affirmation seeking. The
affirmation by readers provide confidence to extend the self in a new directions.
Feedbacks from friends and anonymous readers help in the co – construction of
the self.

5. DISTRIBUTED MEMORY
Social media help us remember other people, emotions and events of
significance in our lives. We can look up old friends, see photos with others who
help a jointly construct the memory of shared events. Our memories benefit not
only from our online actions but those others who post images of us and tag us in.
Our self is not just co – constructed on line but so is our shared portion of our
memory co- constructed with others on social media.

CYBERBULLYING AND SOCIAL MEDIA

According to the Merriam Webster Dictionary, cyberbullying is the electronic
posting or mean – spirited messages about a person, often done anonymously. It seek
to control or harm others. Some forms of cyberbullying can be in the form of exclusion,
harassment, outing, cyberstaking, impersonation, insulting, trolling and catfishing.
In order for a harassment to be considered bullying, the following basis should be
considered:
1. There must be an imbalance of power between the victim and the perpetrator/s
and occur over an extended period of time.
2. It is characterized by the repetition of the abuser behavior – it happens more
than one or it has potential to happen again.
3. The imbalance and repetition of the harassment happens via any form of
electronic communication, such as texting online, on websites, social networks,
via email and others.
Effects of Cyberbullying
EFFECTS ON THE BULLIED EFFECTS ON THE BULLIES
1. Emotional issues (anxiety, - Emotional issues
depression)
2. Concentration issues - Concentration issues
3. Behavioral issues - Behavioral issues
4. Trouble getting along with peers - More likely to be hyperactive
5. Experience physical symptoms - More likely to abuse drugs or
such as headaches, and stomach alcohol
pain

How to avoid or stop cyberbullying

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 1. Keep your profile set to private.
2. Don’t friend or follow anyone who isn’t a friend.
3. Don’t accept requests or messages from users you don’t know
4. Never share and protect your password and prevent others from gaining access to
your profile and private photos
5. Educate yourself and others on the negative impact of cyberbullying.
6. If you see it, report it.

ETIQUETTES RULES FOR STUDENTS

Social media have greatly influenced and hanged our everyday interactive
behaviors and new norms are formed. It is not already uncommon for us to see people
walking while talking to someone in their phone or even doing a live – streaming.
People are posing for a selfie,, taking photos before meal for their instagram and posting
for their instagram.
Since this is already the modern communication landscape, it is important that
people who are using social media should be able to practice modern social media
etiquette

General Social Media Etiquette for Students

1. Act like you would in real life. How you act on social media sites is often the most
direct way of how people will perceive who you are.
2. Don’t Discriminate. You can’t be friends with everybody on line but be willing to
open up to all types of friends and followers.
3. Earn Respect. Offer accessible information in a friendly way. Share relevant and
verified link, commentary and helpful tips. Be responsible and do not spread fake
news.
4. Avoid Burnout. Balance your social media life, do not burn yourself out.
5. Be curious but not nosy. Social media communities are all about learning each
other but do not invade other people’s lives.
6. Be extra polite. Apply some attitude to your social media activity by being
friendly and helpful and not to spread hate.
7. Follow the golden rules. Treat others the way you want to be treated.
8. Remember that there are boundaries. Not everyone you are following or
following you is your personal friend. Try not to talk about health and mushy
stuff.
Rules on Facebook
1. Don’t cyber-stalk.
2. Don’t drunk – Facebook. Making drunk post can be funny for some friends but it
can seriously damage your image or self-representation.
3. Don’t sent apps. When you try out an application, do not send it to everyone
you’re friends with. Again, not everyone is your personal friend.
4. Don’t write private messages on wall posts. It’s embarrassing, rude and makes
you look immature.
5. Edit your photo choices. Posting personal photos can trigger bullying. Do not
post photos of yourself or others engaging in irresponsible or illegal activities.
6. Be careful who you tag. Ask permission if it oks to the person you tag.

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 7. Write Clear Status Updates. People who write or post vague status updates such
as depressing songs or images can be self – indulgent.

Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) Adapted

Module, and exercises

Teaching and Learning Activities

a. Learning Activity: Self-Assessment Test: “Internet Addition Test”

Direction and Implementation:

The students are given 5 – 7 minutes to complete weighting 20 items using a Likert
– scale continuum (please refer to attached activity). After 7 minutes, the students
will be instructed to add all the scores in each items in preparation for the
interpretation. On line version is available at
http://www.internetoveruse.com/?p=171.

When everyone is finished, the instructor may ask the group for volunteers who
will share their self-assessment test result.

Processing Questions
1. What does it feel to share the result of your test?
2. What did you learn about yourself by doing this activity?
3. What where your thoughts, feelings and reactions to the result of your test?
4. How do you feel about the result of the test?

Generalization and application

1. What did you learn from this activity?
2. Do you think this exercise will help you improve more about yourself? Why and
how?

Assessment Task

1. Take the internet Addiction Test

2. Choose at least 2 popular personalities that you usually follow the most in social
media. How do you perceive their digital personality and how can you relate it to
you as a person?
3. As a responsible social media agent, give at least 5 ways on how you handle or share
and use information through the internet.
4. Read and make a reflection on the essay “How the Digital era has changed the lives
of Pinoys”

References (Copyrighted within the last 10 years)

Belk, Russel W. (2013). Extended Self in a digital world. Journal of consumer research,
Vol 40, No. 3.pp 477 – 500.

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Olshansky, Steve. 2016. Online Identity: who, Me? Internet Society. October 10, 2016.
https://www.internetsociety.org/resources/doc/2016/online-identity-who-me/

http://psychology.iresearchnet.com/social-psychology/self/self-presentation/

https://qz.com/1525661/your-digital-identity-has-three-layers-and-you-can-only-
protect-one-of-them/
https://turbofuture.com/internet/Cyberbullying-and-Social-Media

http://www.internetoveruse.com/?p=171.

Other Reading:

How the Digital era has changed the lives of Pinoys

https://cnnphilippines.com/life/culture/tech/2018/03/23/digipinoy-interview.html

Maria Magdalena (2019) Personal Online Identity – Branding or Impression

Management. Scientific Bulettin. Vol. XXIV, No. 1 (47).

Tartakovsky, M. (2018) Ten Tips for Setting Boundaries Online. Psych Central.

Understanding Your Online Identity: An Overview (PDF)

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 UNIT III: MANAGING AND CARING FOR THE SELF

Module 10
LEARNING TO BE A BETTER STUDENT

Introduction

“The person who is educated is the one who has learned how to learn and change.”
- Carl Rogers

Being acquainted to oneself is insufficient. Knowing “who you are” is a fragment

of one’s choices; one must continuously strive to be the better version of oneself. A
journey to pursue a better “you” by educating one how to absorb knowledge, skills and
change will enable yourself to become a better person. For instance, in a school setting,
your knowledge of yourself should at least enable you to become a better student.
Neuroscientist stressed that brain structures of an individual changes and
improves when learning new knowledge and skills, thus increases its ability to learn.
This chapter discusses theories and concepts that explain the nature and dimensions of
learning. Further, metacognition and self-regulated learning will also be discussed with
suggestions and strategies on how to improve learning and become a better learner.
This lesson will present techniques that you can adapt depending on your
situation and preferences to make you a better learner. When we discuss learning, it
does not just include studying for quizzes and examinations but mostly learning to be
equipped with knowledge and skills. It can occur outside the corners of a classroom or
thickness of the book, like pursuing one’s passion to acquire a new move of your favorite
sports or learning skills for a certain hobby.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the chapter, students should be able to:

1. identify the parts of the brain involved in learning;
2. enumerate various metacognition and studying techniques;
3. choose and apply strategies to improve learning;
4. describe the importance of goal setting among college students towards
achieving success;
5. establish clear goals along with concrete steps to accomplish those goals;
6. determine the level of Self-Efficacy;
7. discuss how mindset is related to academic success, social relationships,
emotional and physical health; and
8. discuss how mindset is related to academic success, social relationships,
emotional and physical health.

Learning Content

Learning to be a Better Person

Learning from experiences is characterized as a fairly permanent change in

behavior (Feist et al., 2013). This is awareness, skills, and behaviors gained by experience
and practice. It may also be defined as a process of transformation which leads to personal
growth and development. Education helps an person adjust to his or her dynamic and
diverse world. It's a continuous cycle that starts in life from birth; a cycle that can result

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from direct and indirect experiences. Individuals learn from one another through
observation and imitation.
The brain functions as a dense fiber pathway network consisting of about 100
billion neurons that are responsible for all interactions among the three main parts:
nucleus, cerebellum and cerebrum. Learning may be attributed to the cerebrum, because
higher order functions such as memory and thinking occur there (Villafuerte et al., 2018).
The mission is apparent in behaviour, as each performs the or her roles in vision, voice,
short-term memory, vocabulary, and reasoning (Ford, 2011).

How Learning Happens in the Human Brain

Human beings have the potential to acquire new skills and adapt to new
conditions. Training and growth are potent drivers of transition during one's life and
promote structural and functional plasticity in the brain's neural networks (Galvan,
2010). The neuroplasticity cycle is the brain's capacity to alter over lifetime. This includes
the addition of new neurons, new neuronal interconnections, and the reorganization of
areas for information processing. The brain's capacity to change occurs in two ways; it
may be by an increase in the amount of neuronal synapses, or a change in neuronal
function and structure.
Learning happens through a network
of neurons where sensory information
is transmitted by synapses along the
neural pathway and stored
temporarily in short-term memory, a
volatile region of the brain that acts
like receiving center for the flood of
sensory information we encounter in
our daily lives (Ford, 2011). Neurons
are the basic building blocks of the
nervous system which transmits impulses or messages from stimuli throughout one’s
Figure 1. Basic Parts of a Neuron

physical body. Every single neuron is made up of a cell body (soma), dendrites and axon.
Shapes and appearance of neurons vary according to its functions and locations. The
impulses that travel along neuros are electrochemical in nature. A neuron transmits
impulses or messages to another neuron through a junction is called synapse. Neurons
are not totally connected and are separated by a small gaps of neurons. Neurotransmitters
are the electrochemical that connect and allow transmission of impulses from one neuron
to another. Several neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine, glutamate, dopamine and
norepinephrine are associated with memory and learning.
The neuroplasticity phase, or changes in
the structure and functions of the brain cells, typically
occurs in the cerebral cortex that is the wrinkled
layer of the brain. The cerebral cortex is lined with
neurons and is responsible for the complex
processing of information within the brain.
The cortex has four lobes: frontal, parietal,
temporal, and occipital. Each lobe is responsible
for processing sensory information of the different
forms. Figure 2 illustrates of how learning happens in
the brain. It will start by getting information at the
sensory cortices that is located at the parietal lobe.
Then, the information will be processed and analyzed
at the temporal lobe. After making meaning,

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 information gathered will be formed into abstractions, stored into memory which will be
used for future planning, complex behaviors and greatly contributes to personality
development. Then, when the need arises the learned behavior will be actively tested.
Right from the moment a person is born, learning fundamentally involves the
acquisition of new knowledge. What makes the brain search for the unexpected is its
inherent interest in the world. Stevens (2014) explained that brain changes make for
quicker, stronger signaling between neurons as the brain learns new skills, but the best
way to improve these signals is to implement them
Figure 2. A snapshot on how learning happens in the brain.
gradually new information to the head.
Figure 2. A snapshot on how learning happens in the brain.

Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning

A remarkable phenomenon the brain is capable of doing aside from learning, is
learning how to learn. State of mind may have learned component skills that allow them
to perform a task, or had completed steps toward producing a product, but they are not
actually learning and mastering knowledge. Learning to learn give individuals’ ability to
control and direct their learning experience to develop powerful skills that can directly
relate to their academic and career success, this is process is called “metacognition”.
Metacognition is the awareness of one’s thinking and the strategies one uses to
learn or “thinking about thinking” (Livingston, 1997; Papaleontiou-Louca 2003 as cited
from Alata, et al., 2018). Pierre Paul Gagné et al. (2009) discussed that metacognition
activated the students’ drive for learning, utilizing all their available resources, towards
efficient learning experiences. To do this, students must be knowledgeable on the process
on how they acquire information, solve problems and perform tasks essential for learning
(cited from Villafuerte et al., 2018).
Metacognition exist when good readers clarify their purpose for reading and
preview the text. It is understanding and awareness of an individual’s own mental or
cognitive process. For example:
✔ An individual learns the things that assist him or her to remember names, facts,
events, etc.
✔ An individual is aware of his or her style of learning.
✔ An individual knows which strategies are most effective for solving problems in his
or her context.

In 2014, a Philosopher and Sociologist named Edgar Morin stated that

metacognition involves thinking and reflecting before, during and after a learning task.
Metacognition starts when an individual think about the strategies they will utilize to
perform a task. It happens when someone chose the most effective strategies and decide
for themselves whether the outcome of these strategies meets the standard. The time
taken to teaching variety of strategies is vital since students must choose strategies for
each task they perform. Metacognitive strategies appropriate for classroom use:
✔ Think-A louds (for reading comprehension and problem solving)
✔ Organizational Tools (such as checklist, rubrics)
✔ Explicit Teacher Modeling (for math instruction)

The National Collaborative on Workplace and Diy7sability for Youth

(NCWD/Youth, 2014) on their Information Brief “Learning How to Learn” discussed that
educators are provided with practical suggestions on strategic learning, compensatory
techniques, cognitive and metacognitive strategies and literacy programs and learning
strategies.

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Types of Learning Strategies and Supports: Cognitive
Cognitive Strategies
STRATEGY DEFINITION BENEFIT
Rehearsal Reciting items to be learned Believed to influence the
from a list attention and coding process.
It does not seem to help
students connect current
information with prior
knowledge.
Elaboration Summarizing and Believed to improve a
paraphrasing student’s ability to store
information into the long-
term memory by building
internal connections between
items to be learned and
assisting with integration of a
new information with prior
knowledge.
Organization Outlining Helps learners select
appropriate information and
make connections to be
learned
Analyzing Problem-solving, critical Assist students with applying
thinking previous knowledge to a new
situation in order to solve
problems and/or reach
decisions.

Types of Learning Strategies and Support: Metacognitive

These strategies would help students think about thinking. First is monitoring
their progress as they learn, and second is making changes and adapting their strategies
is they perceive that they are not doing as well as you could. These are some basic
metacognition aids or strategies:
✔ Connecting new information to existing knowledge
✔ Selecting thinking strategies deliberately
✔ Planning, monitoring and evaluating thinking process.

Metacognition is a mental process that include three distinct phases (Fogarty,

1994). To be successful thinkers, students must do the following:

✔ Planning. Students must develop a plan before approaching a learning task,

such as reading for comprehension or solving a math problem.
✔ Monitoring. Students should monitor their understanding; use “fix-up”
strategies when meaning breaks down.
✔ Evaluating. Students must evaluate their thinking after completing the task.

Developing Metacognitve and Self-regulated Learning Behavior

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 Set your short term and long-term academic goals in your studies. Identify
negative outcomes if you don’t achieve your goals as well as the positive outcomes when
you achieve them.
1. Make a self-help plan to achieve your academic goals. Think and select
strategies to achieve your goals such as staying focused, avoiding distractions,
and developing skills to manage your time efficiently.
2. Monitor your academic performance and progress. Use a chart to monitor your
work outcomes. When confronted with challenges, always think and keep
working toward your goals and the future.
3. Reflect on what you have learned and accomplished. Reflection helps you
develop your strengths and overcome your weaknesses.

SETTING GOALS FOR SUCCESS

Learners are bound to face multifarious tasks, overlapping with other roles they
portray at different social institutions. Enlightening them with which goals they are to
track would ease their minds in possible dilemma. “Conscious goals affect actions, thus,
a goal is the object or aim of an action” (Villafuerte et al., 2018). Goal is a driving force
that direct one’s action.

Locke’s Goal-setting theory

Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory was created based on five principles. This theory is
also known as the 4CF Goal Setting Method or Locke and Latham’s five principles.

Locke and Latham’s five principles

Fig. 2
Source:https://www.google.com/search?q=goal+setting+theory&sxsrf=ALeKk03Ba1m
6kVJpEi5m_pnPqNINlxWlg:1594650958589&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2a
hUKEwj1lbXfucrqAhWhF6YKHVDTBlkQ_AUoAXoECBEQAw&biw=1366&bih=657#im
grc=rH6NdwR66wXPdM

The theory emphasizes the important relationship between goals and

performance. Research supports predictions that the most effective performance seems
to result when goals are specific and challenging, when they are used to evaluate
performance and linked to feedback on results and create commitment and acceptance.

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The motivational impact of goals may be affected by moderators such as ability and self-
efficacy. Deadlines improve the effectiveness of goals. A learning goal orientation leads to
higher performance than a performance goal orientation, and group goal-setting is as
important as individual goal-setting.

1. Setting Clear Goals

When your goals are clear, you know what you're trying to achieve. You can also measure
results accurately, and you know which behaviors to reward. However, when a goal is
vague – or when you express it as a general instruction like "take initiative" – it isn't easy
to measure, and it isn't motivating. You may not even know you've achieved it!

2. Setting Challenging Goals

Setting challenging goals demands an accurate balance to guarantee the right level of
challenge. Goals that are either too easy or too difficult negatively influence the
motivation and decrease performance. The highest level of motivation is reached when
goals are somewhere between easy and difficult

3. Commitment
Goals need to be accepted. Individuals must understand and agree to the goals. Staying
motivated as long as the goal is actually achievable and is in accordance with the
aspirations of all those involved. Some individuals may reject imposed goals, but if they
have self-efficacy, they may still maintain high personal goals to accomplish the imposed
goals (Bandura, 1997).

4. Gaining Feedback
In addition to selecting the right goals, you should also listen to feedback, so that you can
gauge how well you and your team are progressing. Feedback gives you the opportunity
to clarify people's expectations and adjust the difficulty of their goals.

Keep in mind that feedback doesn't have to come from other people. You can check how
well you're doing by simply measuring your own progress.

5. Considering Task Complexity

Take special care to ensure that work doesn't become too overwhelming when goals or
assignments are highly complex. People who work in complicated and demanding roles
can often push themselves too hard, if they don't take account of the complexity of the
task.

LET’S BE S-M-A-R-T!
Goals are part of every aspect of life and provide a sense of direction, motivation,
a clear focus, and clarify importance. By setting goals for yourself, you are providing
yourself with a target to aim for. A SMART goal is used to help guide goal setting.

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 SMART is an acronym that stands for Specific, Measurable, Achievable,
Realistic, and Timely. Therefore, a SMART goal incorporates all of these criteria to
help focus your efforts and increase the chances of achieving your goal.
1. SMART Goal – Specific

Goals that are specific have a significantly greater chance of being accomplished. To make
a goal specific, the five “W” questions must be considered:
Who: Who is involved in this goal?
What: What do I want to accomplish?
Where: Where is this goal to be achieved?
When: When do I want to achieve this goal?
Why: Why do I want to achieve this goal?

For example, a general goal would be “I want to get in shape.” A more specific goal would
be “I want to obtain a gym membership at my local community center and work out four
days a week to be healthier.”

2. SMART Goal – Measurable

A SMART goal must have criteria for measuring progress. If there are no criteria,
you will not be able to determine your progress and if you are on track to reach your goal.
To make a goal measurable, ask yourself:

How many/much?
How do I know if I have reached my goal?
What is my indicator of progress?

For example, building on the specific goal above: I want to obtain a gym
membership at my local community center and work out four days a week to be healthier.
Every week, I will aim to lose one pound of body fat.

3. SMART Goal – Achievable

A SMART goal must be achievable and attainable. This will help you figure out
ways you can realize that goal and work towards it. The achievability of the goal should
be stretched to make you feel challenged but defined well enough that you can actually
achieve it. Ask yourself:

Do I have the resources and capabilities to achieve the goal? If not, what am I missing?
Have others done it successfully before?

4. SMART Goal – Realistic

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 A SMART goal must be realistic in that the goal can be realistically achieved given
the available resources and time. A SMART goal is likely realistic if you believe that it can
be accomplished. Ask yourself:

Is the goal realistic and within reach?

Is the goal reachable, given the time and resources?
Are you able to commit to achieving the goal?

5. SMART Goal – Timely

A SMART goal must be time-bound in that it has a start and finish date. If the goal
is not time-constrained, there will be no sense of urgency and, therefore, less motivation
to achieve the goal. Ask yourself:

Does my goal have a deadline?

By when do you want to achieve your goal?

For example, building on the goal above: On August February 14, I will obtain a
gym membership at my local community center. In order to be healthier, I will work out
four days a week. Every week, I will aim to lose one pound of body fat. By the end of
August, I will have realized my goal if I lose four pounds of fat over the course of the
month.

Bandura’s Self- Efficacy

“In order to succeed, people need a sense of self-efficacy, struggle together with
resilience to meet the inevitable obstacles and inequities of life.”

-Albert Bandura

Albert Bandura was a well-known social-cognitive psychologist .He was born in

1925 in Alberta, Canada, and as of this writing, he's still alive and well, living in the United
States. He is best-known for his work in social-cognitive psychology, or the branch of
psychology that deals with people learning from observing others and interacting with
them.

Self-Efficacy Theory tells us that people generally will only attempt things they
believe they can accomplish and won’t attempt things they believe they will fail.
However, people with a strong sense of efficacy believe they can accomplish even difficult
tasks. They see these as challenges to be mastered, rather than threats to be avoided
(Bandura, 1994).

The basic idea behind self-efficacy is that when individuals feel their actions can
influence the outcome of a given situation, several things happen. For one, they feel

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 much better about themselves. Second, they feel that they have a sense of power and
control over what happens in the world. And finally, they don't float hopelessly from one
activity to the other. In short, they act, think, and feel differently than people who have
no self-efficacious beliefs.

Bandura defined Self-Efficacy as “people’s beliefs about their capabilities to

produce designated levels of performance that exercise influence over events that affect
their lives” (p. 2). People with “high assurance in their capabilities” (p. 2):

1. Approach difficult tasks as challenges to be mastered

2. Set challenging goals and maintain strong commitment to them
3. Heighten or sustain their efforts in the face of failures or setbacks
4. Attribute failure to insufficient effort or deficient knowledge and skills which are
acquirable
5. Approach threatening situations with assurance that they can exercise control
over them

In contrast, people “who doubt their capabilities” (p. 2):

1. Shy away from tasks they view as personal threats
2. Have low aspirations and weak commitment to goals they choose to pursue
3. Dwell on personal deficiencies, obstacles they will encounter, and all kinds of
adverse outcomes, rather than concentrating on how to perform successfully
4. Slacken their efforts and give up quickly in the face of difficulties
5. Are slow to recover their sense of efficacy following failure or setbacks
6. Fall easy victim to stress and depression

Thus, the theory believes that efficacious people set challenging goals and maintain
strong commitment to them. In the face of impending failure, they increase and sustain
their efforts to be successful. They approach difficult or threatening situations with
confidence that they have control over them. Having this type of outlook reduces stress
and lowers the risk of depression (Bandura, 1994). Conversely, people who doubt their
ability to accomplish difficult tasks see these tasks as threats. They avoid them based on
their own personal weaknesses or on the obstacles preventing them from being
successful. They give up quickly in the face of difficulties or failure, and it doesn’t take
much for them to lose faith in their capabilities. An outlook like this increases stress and
the risk of depression (Bandura, 1994).

Sources of Self Efficacy

A. Personal Accomplishment. Bandura (1977) explained that this is the most

important source of self-efficacy as it is based on experience. The personal experience can
increase the mastery of expectation. The experience of mastery influences one’s
perspective on his/her abilities. Successful experiences lead to greater feelings of self-
efficacy. Repeated success of behavior can establish strong self-efficacy.

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 B. Vicarious Experience. Individuals do not depend on past experienced as the only
source of self-efficacy as most expectations are result from indirect experience. Noting
them doing threatening activities without adverse consequences can make expectations
and will enhance with strengthen effort and persistence. These influence them that if
others can do, others will also reach the same performance with little improvement
(Bandura & Barab, 1973).

C. Verbal persuasion. The third and weaker factor, compared to the first two sources.
The verbal persuasion as discussed by Bandura (1977) can be sum as people are led to
believe that an activity or behavior can accomplish successfully through the use of
suggestion. But this verbal persuasion is not stuck in personal experiences it is a weak
inducer of self-efficacy and may be extinguished by disregarding the past failures.
Verbal feedback and instruction can come from other people, texts, or self-instruction.

D. Emotional Arousal. This last source of self-efficacy can be stimulated from a

demanding and challenging situation which might have beneficial worth for self-ability
hence this affect the perceived self-efficacy in dealing with threatening situation
(Bandura, 1977). This means that this emotion produce after stressful situation can affect
how an individual may feel about personal abilities like if someone is nervous it may
develop a weaker self-efficacy while in contrary if someone is confident, it will lead to
sense of excitement without anxiety and eventually foster good sense of self-efficacy.

Dweck’s Mindset

Learning Outcomes/Objective

● Discuss how mindset is related to academic success, social relationships,

emotional and physical health; and

Learning Content/Topic

Carol S. Dweck, a psychologist and a member of the faculty at Stanford University,

proposed mindset theory to understand the effects of the beliefs that individuals hold for
the nature of intelligence. She is one of the world’s leading researchers in the field of
motivation. She focuses on why people succeed and how to foster this idea of success in
schools.

Two Types of Mindsets

“Mindset” is a belief that orients the way we handle situations—the way we sort out
what is going on and what we should do (Dweck, 2007).

Individuals with a fixed mindset believe that their qualities (such as intelligence
and other personality traits) are “set in stone”– how God made you is basically who you
are. One’s traits are fixed — not something that can be practiced or developed.

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 On the other hand, Individuals with a growth mindset, believe that effort or
training can change one’s qualities and traits. Therefore, the individual is not terrified of
failure, because it only signals the need to pay attention, invest effort, apply time to
practice, and master the new learning opportunity. They are confident that after such
effort they will be able to learn the skill or knowledge, and then to improve their
performance.

How Does a Mindset Form?

Dweck suggests that many people are trained in the two types of mindsets early in
life, often through the way they are raised or their experiences in school and in everyday
life.
Fixed Mindsets

● Children who are taught that they should look smart instead of loving learning tend
to develop a fixed mindset.
● They become more concerned with how they are being judged and fear that they
might not live up to expectations.

Growth Mindsets

● Kids who are taught to explore, embrace new experiences, and enjoy challenges are
more likely to develop a growth mindset.
● Rather than seeing mistakes as setbacks, they are willing to try new things and
make errors all in the name of learning and achieving their potential.

Dweck notes that having a growth mindset doesn't involve believing that anyone can
become anything they want with enough education and effort. Not everyone can become
Einstein or Mozart just because they try. Instead, the growth mindset is about living up
to one's possible potential. This potential, however, is never knowable. Who knows how
far a person can go if they set their mind to it? People with a growth mindset believe that
the effort that goes into learning and deepening one's understanding and talents is well
worth all the toil and trouble.

Six Premises of Mindset Theory

Premise 1: People with Growth Mindset Hold Learning Goals
Students with growth mindset seek to learn and develop their abilities (Rattan et
al. (2015). As Dweck explained people with growth mindset “care first and foremost about
learning” and “the cardinal rule is: Learn, learn, learn!”
Premise 2: People with Fixed Mindset Hold Performance Goals
Dweck stated: Believing that your qualities are carved in a stone – the fixed
mindset – creates urgency to prove yourself over and over. These people “have to look
good at all times” and “the cardinal rule: Look talented at all costs”.
Premise 3. People with Fixed Mindset Holds Performance – Avoidance Goals
Dweck (2002), has also described how people with fixed mindsets supposedly
avoid performing tasks if they might fail.
Premise 4. People with Fixed Mindsets Believe That Talent Alone – Without
Effort – Creates Success.

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 Dweck claimed, “those with fixed mindsets believe that if you have natural talent,
you shouldn’t need much effort”. This means people with fixed mindset disregard the
necessity of effort in achieving goal rather talent alone can lead to the achievement of
success.
Premise 5. People with Growth Mindsets Persist to Overcome Challenge
People with growth mindset has the perseverance to seek and meet challenges
equipped with resilience to hindrances.
Premise 6. People with Growth Mindsets Are More Resilient Following
Failure
People with this mindset show hard work and effectively learn from their
experiences. They display the motivation to meet challenges and can mentally and
emotionally cope amidst their failure.

Teaching and Learning Activities

Activity 1. How do you think about thinking?

Answer the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI) and evaluate yourself as a
learner. MAI can be downloaded from the link:
https://www2.viu.ca/studentsuccessservices/learningstrategist/documents/Metacognit
iveAwarenessInventory.pdf
After accomplishing the MAI, answer the following questions:
1. Do you agree with the results of your MAI? Why or Why not?
2. Make your own list of “7 Secret Methods for Studying” based on your personal
experiences and preferences. Share your answer in class.
3. Does the result of MAI consistent with your personal “Secrets of Studying”? Create
your own illustration/diagram/table in which you can adopt as a student. Indicate
your own steps that needed to follow in order to help someone make learning truly
effective.

Activity 2. Beating the deadlines.

Scenario: You are about to study for your Final Examinations and it is as if the universe
conspired for a heavy finals week, all your courses provided at least three new reading
materials and topics one week before the examination period. Create a diagram or
schedule using metacognitive strategies, skills, and studying techniques on how you
would prepare for the next seven days before the final examinations.

Activity 3. Back to the Future

Instructions: Picture yourself 5 years from today and consider where you would like to
be, who would you like to be with, and what you like to be doing.

Activity 4. What Is Your Mindset? (Excerpt from “Why Mindset Matters for
Your Success”)

Do you have a fixed or growth mindset? Start reading the following statements and decide
which ones you agree with most.

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 1. People have a certain amount of intelligence, and there isn't any way to change it.
2. No matter who you are, there isn't much you can do to improve your basic abilities
and personality.
3. People are capable of changing who they are.
4. You can learn new things and improve your intelligence.
5. People either have talents, or they don't. You can't just acquire talent for things like
music, writing, art, or athletics.
6. Studying, working hard, and practicing new skills are all ways to develop new
talents and abilities.

* If you tend to agree with statements 1, 2, and 5, then you probably

have a more fixed mindset. If you agree with statements 3, and 4, 6,
however, then you probably tend to have a growth mindset.

Activity 5. General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE)

Source: Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized Self-Efficacy scale. In J.

Weinman, S. Wright, & M. Johnston, Measures in health psychology: A user’s portfolio.
Causal and control beliefs (pp. 35-37). Windsor, UK: NFER-NELSON.

Scoring:
The total score is calculated by finding the sum of the all items. For the GSE, the total
score ranges between 10 and 40, with a higher score indicating more self-efficacy.

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Recommended learning materials and resources for supplementary
reading:
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cgLYkV689s4
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wlaG99awCD8
3. https://elearninginfographics.com/what-happens-to-our-brain-when-
learning-occurs-infographic/
4. http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/119008/chapters/How-the-Brain-
Learns-Best.aspx
5. https://gsi.berkeley.edu/gsi-guide-contents/learning-theory-
research/neuroscience/
6. https://ctl.columbia.edu/resources-and-
technology/resources/metacognition/
7. http://www.painsley.co.uk/parents-students/metacognition/
8. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HZrUWvfU6VU
9. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f-4N7OxSMok
10. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tYg3sLcyLB8
11. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O96fE1E-rf8
12. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vtQzuwnyW6E
13. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_qIBe0h0-Ig
14. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L4N1q4RNi9I

Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted

Online (synchronous)
Zoom, Edmodo, google classroom
Remote (asynchronous)
module, case study, exercises, problems sets

Assessment Task
Name: _______________________________________ Date: ________
Course/Year/Section: _____________________________ Score: ________

Part 1. True or False. Write O on the blank if the statement is TRUE and X if it is false.
____1. Metacognition is thinking about how others think.
____2. The cortex is divided into four lobes.
____3. Cognition refers to emotions.
____4. Neuroplasticity usually happens in the cortex.
____5. The two components of self-regulated learning are knowledge and
regulation.
____6. Self-regulation is a mental ability.
____7. The number of neurons and synapses declines with age.
____8. Learning is a constant process.
____9. Self-regulated learning is a cyclical process.
____10. The structures of the brain keep on changing.

Part 2. Multiple Choices. Encircle the letter of your chosen answer.

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1. This refers to the understanding and awareness of one’s own mental or cognitive
processes.
a. Compassion
b. Metacognition
c. Goals
d. Self-efficacy
2. This cognitive strategy helps learners’ select appropriate information and make the
connections to be learned.
a. Analyzing
b. Elaboration
c. Organization
d. Rehearsal
3. This study strategy refers to any form of testing for learning which a student is able
to do on his or her own.
a. Distributed practice
b. Practice testing
c. Elaborative interrogation
d. Self-explanation
4. This study strategy refers to distributing the learning overtime, not cramming.
a. Distributed practice
b. Practice testing
c. Elaborative interrogation
d. Self-explanation
5. It is the study strategy in which the explanation might take the form of answering
why but also other questions, as well as relating new information which is already
known.
a. Distributed practice
b. Practice testing
c. Elaborative interrogation
d. Self-explanation
6. It is a source of coping that refers to the outcome expectancies that good things
rather than bad things will happen to self.
a. Optimism
b. Self-esteem
c. Mastery
d. Social support
7. It is a source of coping that refers to whether a person feels able to control or
influence outcomes.
a. Optimism
b. Self-esteem
c. Mastery
d. Social support
8. This refers to engaging in activities and behaviors that have a positive effect one
one’s mental and physical health.
a. Compassion
b. Stressor
c. Self-care

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 d. Self-explanation
9. It is self-care that includes eating well, exercising regularly, prioritizing sleep and
taking care of health.
a. Emotional
b. Physical
c. Spiritual
d. None
10. It is self-care that includes volunteering, connecting with nature, medication,
mindfulness.
a. Emotional
b. Physical
c. Spiritual
d. None

References

Ackerman, C. E. Growth mindset vs. fixed + key takeaways from Dweck’s book. Positive
Psychology. Published August 11, 2019.

Alata, E. P., Bernardo, C., Serafica, J. J. & Pawilen, R. A. (2019). Understanding the self
(1st ed.). REX Boolstore, Inc

Burgoyne, A. P., Hambrick, D. Z., & Macnamara, B. N. (2020). How firm are the
foundations of mind-set theory? The claims appear stronger than the
evidence. Psychological Science, 31(3), 258-267.

Dweck, C. S. (2000). Self theories: Their role in motivation, personality, and

development. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis Group.

Dweck, C. S. (2012). Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. Constable & Robinson
Limited.

Dr. Dweck’s research into growth mindset changed education forever. Mindset Works.
2017.

Go-Molina, M. A. & Ramirez, N. C. (2018). Understanding the self. C & E Publishing, Inc.

Locke, L. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting
and task motivation. American Psychologist, 57(9), 705-717

Macayan, J. V. , Pinugu, J. N., Castillo, J. D. & Ofalia, B. C. (2018). Understanding the

self: outcome-based module. C & E Publishing, Inc.

Maddux, J. E. (2002). Self-efficacy. Handbook of positive psychology, 277-287.

Pajares (2002). Overview of social cognitive theory and of self-efficacy. Retrieved June
25, 2020, from http://www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/eff.htm

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Sari, J. (2018). Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory. Retrieved July 13, 2020 from ToolsHero:
https://www.toolshero.com/personal-development/edwin-locke-goal-setting-theory/

Villafuerte, S. L., Quillope, A. F., Tunac, R. C. & Borja, E. I. (2018). Understanding the self.
Nieme Publishing House Co. LTD.

https://gostrengths.com/what-is-goal-setting-theory/ retrieved on July 10, 2020

http://www.nationalforum.com/Electronic%20Journal%20Volumes/Lunenburg,%20Fr
ed%20C.%20GoalSetting%20Theoryof%20Motivation%20IJMBA%20V15%20N1%202
011.pdf
https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/knowledge/other/smart-goal/
retrieved on July 4, 2020
https://positivepsychology.com/goal-setting-students-kids/ Retrieved: June 2, 2020
https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-3-319-28099-8_1167-1
Retrieved on July 8, 2020
https://www.gloveworx.com/blog/understanding-self-efficacy/ Retrieved on July 7,
2020
https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-a-mindset-2795025 retrieved on July 7, 2020
http://mindsets.port.ac.uk/?p=80 retrieved on July 13, 2020
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g7u6UwtmGyE retrieved on July 13, 2020

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 Chapter 12
TAKING CHARGE OF ONE’S HEALTH

Introduction

Stress is an everyday event. It is a common phenomenon associated with a feeling

of emotional or physical tension. Every individual experiences stress at some or other
time. Making a decision to beat stress is the first step toward achieving well-being. It is
the decision to take charge of your life and reclaim your power that opens the way to
change, and all other progress follows from this point. Taking charge entails several
fundamental changes in one’s mindset. This chapter provides ways on how to manage and
care for one’s mental health and apply new skills to one’s self to function for a better
quality of life.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the chapter, the student will be able to:

1. identify the kinds of stress and stressors;
2. discover the adaptive ways of coping with stress;
3. develop new skills in caring for the self; and
4. apply these new skills to one’s self and functioning for a better quality of life.
Learning Content

Definition and Origin of Stress

Stress has a different meaning for different people under different conditions:
1. The first and most generic definition of stress was defined by Hans Selye,
the father of modern stress research as “Stress is the nonspecific response of the
body to any demand”.
2. Stress as defined in medical or biological context is a physical, mental, or
emotional factor that causes bodily or mental tension.
3. Stresses can be external (from the environment, psychological, or social
situations) or internal (illness, or from a medical procedure). (www.medicine.com)

Types of Stress
1. Eustress is characterized by motivation and energy as the focus, is short term, is
perceived as within our coping abilities, feels exciting and improves performance
of the person; positive stress
2. Distress manifest characteristics that causes anxiety or concern, can be short or
long term, is perceived as outside of our coping abilities, feels unpleasant,
decreases performance, and can lead to mental and physical problems; negative
stress
Sources of Stress
There are four categories that were identified as the top reasons for stress:

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 1. Money includes the three most significant sources of money related stress like
paying unexpected expenses, paying for essentials, and saving for retirement.
2. Work include conflict with co-workers or bosses, constant change, and threats to
job security, such as potential redundancy.
3. Family responsibilities as one of the sources of stress include arguments, fighting
and other poor communication skills. Fatigue, health problems and general
exhaustion because of busy schedules. Confusion especially in children about
relationships with other family.
4. Health concerns is one of the sources of stress because it seems to worsen or
increase the risk of conditions like obesity, heart disease, alzheimer’s disease,
diabetes, depression, gastrointestinal problems, and asthma.
Signs of Stress
The most dangerous thing about stress is how easily it can creep up on the person. It
might be just usual or extra ordinary, starts to feel familiar, even normal. The person does
not notice how much it is affecting the self, even as it takes a heavy toll. That is why it is
important to be aware of the common warning signs of stress overload as follows:
1. Cognitive signs of stress are memory problems, inability to concentrate, poor
judgment, seeing only the negative, anxious or racing thoughts, and constant
worrying.
2. Emotional signs of stress are depression or general unhappiness, anxiety and
agitation, moodiness, irritability, or anger, feeling overwhelmed, loneliness and
isolation, and other mental or emotional health problems.
3. Physical signs of stress are aches and pains, diarrhea or constipation, nausea,
dizziness, chest pain, rapid heart rate, loss of sex drive, and frequent colds or flu.
4. Behavioral signs are eating more or less, sleeping too much or too little,
withdrawing from others, procrastinating or neglecting responsibilities, using
alcohol, cigarettes, or drugs to relax, and nervous habits like nail biting and pacing.
Adaptive ways of coping with stress
1. Effective time management methods involve finding ways to work more efficiently, so
as to maximize one’s time. A variety of techniques and tools for list-making, task analysis
scheduling, and task prioritization are typically used for this purpose. If the activities were
properly planned then the individuals be complacent to do all the tasks expected of them.
Henceforth, excessive stress is not encountered.
2. Social support has been widely studied as a factor that minimizes the effects on stress,
and the results are somewhat striking. Not only thus social support help people feel less
stressed, but it can also actually improve your health and decrease their mortality risk.
3. Positive reappraisal is a form of meaning-based coping, is the adaptive process by which
stressful events are re-construed as benign, valuable or beneficial. Research has
demonstrated that the ability to find benefit from adversity is associated with improved
health outcomes.
4. Engagement in leisurely pursuits as a coping technique involving leisure activity are
linked to stress reduction. It seems that leisure participation sublimates the stressful
experiences of every individual.
5. Caffeine, alcohol and nicotine because these vises are most widely consumed
psychotropic drugs worldwide. However, it was found out that caffeine is known to inhibit
receptors in the brain for the chemical adenosine. These receptors also control the
negative effects of chronic stress and that stress-induced behavior can be reversed by
blocking the receptor. Alcohol drinking may lead to positive feelings and relaxation, at

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least in the short term. Problems arise, however, when stress is ongoing and people
continue to try and deal with its effects by drinking alcohol. Nicotine creates an immediate
sense of relaxation so people smoke in the belief that it reduces stress and anxiety.
6. Indulge in physical activity so that the stressed individual will be helped to bump up
the production of your brain’s feel-good neurotransmitters, called endorphins.
7. Get more sleep as a powerful stress reducer. Regular sleep routine calms and restores
the body, improves concentration, regulates mood, and sharpens judgment and decision
making. You are a better problem solver and are better able to cope with stress when
you’re well rested.
8. Try relaxation techniques in order to effectively combat stress. The individual need to
activate body’s natural relaxation response. Techniques as deep breathing, visualization,
meditation and yoga.
9. Talk to someone whether to a friend, colleague or trained professional because they
may help to gain perspective and have positive impact on stress level.
10. Use visualization strategies to increase positive feelings as another powerful technique
that can help unwind and relieve stress. It involves using mental imagery to achieved a
more relaxed state of mind through imagination.

WHAT IS SELF CARE?

Self-compassion is regarding yourself compassionately. Self-care, by contrast, is
treating yourself compassionately. The two terms sound interchangeable, but they
contain a thinking versus doing distinction. Self-care with self-compassion is a gift that
doesn't have to be earned or repaid.

Self-care is a broad term that encompasses just about anything you to do be good to
yourself. In a nutshell, it’s about being as kind to yourself as you would be to others. It’s
partly about knowing when your resources are running low, and stepping back to
replenish them rather than letting them all drain away.

Meanwhile, it also involves integrating self-compassion into your life in a way that helps
to prevent even the possibility of a burnout.

However, it’s important to note that not everything that feels good is self-care. We can all
be tempted to use unhealthy coping mechanisms like drugs, alcohol, over-eating, and
risk-taking. These self-destructive activities help us to regulate challenging emotions, but
the relief is temporary.

The difference between unhealthy coping mechanisms and self-care activities is that the
latter is uncontroversially good for you. When practiced correctly, self-care has long-term
benefit for the mind, the body, or both.

Benefits of Self Care

1. Better productivity. When you learn how to say “no” to things that over-extend
you and start making time for things that matter more, you slow life down in a
wonderful way. This brings your goals into sharper focus and helps you to
concentrate on what you’re doing.
2. Improved resistance to disease. There is evidence that most self-care
activities activate your parasympathetic nervous system (PNS). What this means

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 is that your body goes into a restful, rejuvenating mode, helping it to fortify its
immune system.
3. Better physical health. Similarly to the previous point, with better self-care
often comes fewer colds, cases of flu and upset stomachs. Less stress and a better
immune system can surely help you feel more physically able and strong inside and
out.
4. Enhanced self-esteem. When you regularly carve out time that’s only about
being good to yourself and meeting your own needs, you send a positive message
to your subconscious. Specifically, you treat yourself like you matter and have
intrinsic value. This can go a long way toward discouraging negative self-talk and
your critical inner voice.
5. Increased self-knowledge. Practicing self-care requires thinking about what
you really love to do. The exercise of figuring out what makes you feel passionate
and inspired can help you understand yourself a lot better. Sometimes, this can
even spark a change in career or a reprioritization of previously abandoned
hobbies.
6. More to give. When you’re good to yourself, you might think you’re being selfish.
In truth, self-care gives you the resources you need to be compassionate to others
as well. Giving compassion is a bit like filling a bucket; you can’t fill someone else’s
if you don’t have enough of your own!

Types of Self Care

1. Sensory

- Sensory self-care is all about helping to calm your mind.

- This involve all of your senses

Sensory Self-Care Ideas

• Cuddling up under a soft blanket.

• Going to the countryside and focusing on the smell of the air.
• Watching the flames of a candle or a fire.
• Feeling the water on your skin during a hot bath or shower.
• Focusing on the movements of your own breathing.
• Lying down and listening to music with your eyes closed.
• Sitting in the heat of the afternoon sun.
• Having a small square of the most delicious chocolate.
• Walking barefoot in the grass.
• Having a massage with essential oils.
• Holding a pet in your arms.

2. Emotional

- When it comes to your emotional health, one of the best self-care tips is to make sure
you fully engage with your emotions. When you face them head-on, this actually helps
with stress.

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- You may feel tempted to push down feelings like sadness or anger, but it’s healthy to feel
them, accept them, and move on.

- Remember that emotions are not “good” or “bad” in themselves. You are not
blameworthy for the emotions you feel; only how you behave in response to them.

Emotional Self-Care Ideas

• Keep a daily journal, and be totally honest about your feelings.

• See a therapist, even if it’s just for 8-10 sessions of general personal development.
• Write a list of “feeling words” to expand your emotional vocabulary.
• Make time to be with a friend or family member who truly understands you.
• Let yourself cry when you need to.
• Deliberately encourage yourself to laugh with old memories or funny videos.
• Sing along to the song that best expresses your current emotions.

3. Spiritual

- Spiritual self-care is about getting in touch with your values and what really matters to
you.

Spiritual Self-Care Ideas

• Keep up a daily meditation or mindfulness practice.

• Attend a service, whether it is religious or humanistic.
• Read poetry.
• Walk in nature and reflecting on the beauty around you.
• Make a daily list of 5-10 things that make you feel grateful.
• Be creative, whether through art, music, writing or something else entirely.
• Make a list of 5-10 things that make you feel alive, then ask yourself how you can
better incorporate these things into your life.
• Say affirmations that ground your sense of self and purpose.
• Go on a trip with the sole purpose of photographing things that inspire you.

4. Physical

- The importance of self-care definitely extends to purely physical aspects of your health.
Physical activity is vital not only for your bodily well-being but also for helping you let off
steam.

Physical Self-Care Ideas

• Dance to your favorite songs

• Do yoga. Even if you’ve never tried it, there are poses that are perfect for beginners.
• Join a class and learn a new sport.
• Go running with your dog (or a friend’s)!
• Cycle through the countryside.
• Simply go for a walk.

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In addition, remember that physical self-care is as much about the things you don’t do as
the things you do! So:

1. Nap when you need to. Just 20 minutes can make you feel mentally and physically
refreshed.
2. Say “no” to invitations when you’re simply too tired to enjoy them.
3. Don’t push yourself to do your exercise routine when you’re run down or unwell.
4. Commit to 7-9 hours of sleep per night, barring exceptional circumstances.

5. Social

- Connecting with other people is necessary for happiness for a large diversity of people.

- It helps you to understand that you’re not alone. Plus, it can also give us a sense of being
fully “seen” by others. This can, in particular, help us combat loneliness and isolation.

Social Self-Care Ideas

• Make a date to have lunch or dinner with a great friend.

• Write an email to someone who lives far away, but who you miss.
• Reach out to someone you like but haven’t seen in a while.
• Consider joining a group of people who share your interest.
• Stop socializing with those who undermine or disempower you.
• Strike up a conversation with someone interesting.
• Join a support group for people who struggle with the same things you do.
• Sign up for a class to learn something and meet new people at the same time.

WHAT IS SELF-COMPASSION?
Self-compassion is not based on self-evaluations. People feel compassion for themselves
because all human beings deserve compassion and understanding, not because they
possess some particular set of traits (pretty, smart, talented, and so on). This means that
with self-compassion, you don’t have to feel better than others to feel good about yourself.
Self-Compassion is not self-pity.

When individuals feel self-pity, they become immersed in their own problems and forget
that others have similar problems. They ignore their interconnections with others, and
instead feel that they are the only ones in the world who are suffering. Self-pity tends to
emphasize egocentric feelings of separation from others and exaggerate the extent of
personal suffering. Self-compassion, on the other hand, allows one to see the related
experiences of self and other without these feelings of isolation and disconnection. Also,
self-pitying individuals often become carried away with and wrapped up in their own
emotional drama. They cannot step back from their situation and adopt a more balanced
or objective perspective. In contrast, by taking the perspective of a compassionate other
towards oneself, “mental space” is provided to recognize the broader human context of
one’s experience and to put things in greater perspective. (“Yes it is very difficult what I’m
going through right now, but there are many other people who are experiencing much
greater suffering. Perhaps this isn’t worth getting quite so upset about…”)

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Self-Compassion is not self-indulgence.

Self-compassion is also very different from self-indulgence. Many people say they are
reluctant to be self-compassionate because they’re afraid they would let themselves get
away with anything. “I’m stressed out today so to be kind to myself I’ll just watch TV all
day and eat a quart of icecream.” This, however, is self-indulgence rather than self-
compassion. Remember that being compassionate to oneself means that you want to be
happy and healthy in the long term. In many cases, just giving oneself pleasure may harm
well-being (such as taking drugs, over-eating, being a couch potato), while giving yourself
health and lasting happiness often involves a certain amount of displeasure (such as
quitting smoking, losing weight, exercising). People are often very hard on themselves
when they notice something they want to change because they think they can shame
themselves into action – the self-flagellation approach. However, this approach often
backfires if you can’t face difficult truths about yourself because you are so afraid of hating
yourself if you do. Thus, weaknesses may remain unacknowledged in an unconscious
attempt to avoid self-censure. In contrast, the care intrinsic to compassion provides a
powerful motivating force for growth and change, while also providing the safety needed
to see the self clearly without fear of self-condemnation.

Self-Compassion is not self-esteem.

Although self-compassion may seem similar to self-esteem, they are different in many
ways. Self-esteem refers to our sense of self-worth, perceived value, or how much we like
ourselves. While there is little doubt that low self-esteem is problematic and often leads
to depression and lack of motivation, trying to have higher self-esteem can also be
problematic. The need for high self-esteem may encourage us to ignore, distort or hide
personal shortcomings so that we can’t see ourselves clearly and accurately. Finally, our
self-esteem is often contingent on our latest success or failure, meaning that our self-
esteem fluctuates depending on ever-changing circumstances.

In contrast to self-esteem, self-compassion is not based on self-evaluations. People feel

compassion for themselves because all human beings deserve compassion and
understanding, not because they possess some particular set of traits (pretty, smart,
talented, and so on). This means that with self-compassion, you don’t have to feel better
than others to feel good about yourself. Self-compassion also allows for greater self-
clarity, because personal failings can be acknowledged with kindness and do not need to
be hidden. Moreover, self-compassion isn’t dependent on external circumstances, it’s
always available – especially when you fall flat on your face! Research indicates that in
comparison to self-esteem, self-compassion is associated with greater emotional
resilience, more accurate self-concepts, more caring relationship behavior, as well as less
narcissism and reactive anger.

TEACHING AND LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Activity #1: Self Stress Assessment
1. Search a copy of the “College Student’s Stressful Event Checklist” from the
Arizona State University available through Research Gate. The link is
(https://www.researchgate.net/file.PostFileLoader.html?id=57361005f7b67ee8f
b041dc2&assetKey=AS%3A361336895754242%401463160837813).
2. Answer the online questionnaire honestly. To put the checklist in the present
context, replace the third item to the actual situation in our country like”

110
 Experiences amidst COVID 19 Pandemic” to “Filipino situations during COVID
19 Pandemic.”
3. Write your score and interpretation in the blank provided below.
4. Circle all events that you identified
5. Pin point at least two to three life events you circled. The findings should be
treated with utmost confidentiality.

Activity #2: Answer the self compassion training exercise below.

Learning Self-Compassion
Self-compassion is the attitude that underpins all other depression-beating strategies.
If we can learn to treat ourselves kindly and support ourselves though our struggles
then everything else becomes a lot easier!

Are you your own worst enemy? It is very rare for depression to exist without a certain
amount of ‘self-bullying’. Depression is a bully, and it preys on and reinforces the habit
of self-bullying. To beat depression you need to sort your inner bully out!
Self-compassion is a skill that you can learn and practice without having to ‘believe’ it
first – we can train our minds to bring greater compassion to all our thoughts and
feelings.

4.1. Tune In
First you need to notice how self-bullying you can be, because often we do this without
even realizing it. Spend a day or a week writing down some of the things you say to
yourself as part of your inner running commentary when you are feeling low. Just write
it all down exactly the way you speak to yourself, with the words you use – the name-
calling, the self-blame, the criticism of specific things that you do, and so on. Also make
a note of the tone that you use with yourself. It might be interesting to hear if you sound
like anyone in your past (a critical parent or teacher, for example)?

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Write down the most common phrases below.
For example:
• “Idiot! Why did you do that?”
• “You’re always getting it wrong”
• “What a loser”
• “Stop being such a lazy cow”
• “That’s pathetic”

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
______________
4.2. Evaluate
Now look back over what you have written and think about whether you would ever
speak this way to someone else that you cared about, like a friend? Especially if that
person was feeling low? It’s unlikely!
You may feel that your critical voice is trying to ‘help’ you – to keep you safe or help
you improve as a person – but it is important to recognize how ineffective it is to do this
in a harsh, self-critical way. Being caring and encouraging in your tone is much more
effective…

112
4.3. Try
KeepSomething Different Journal
a Self-Compassion
See if youway
Another can to change
extend the tone
this and words
exercise to how you
is described by might say it toUS
the leading a friend you cared
self-compassion
about, or else
researcher, Dr imagine how
Kristin Neff, your
who ‘guardian
suggests angel’
keeping might speak to you
a ‘self-compassion – someone
journal’ who
for a week
really
(or longer)
caresinabout
whichyou youand
write
accepts
down theyouthings
and isinalways
your day kindthat
andhavegentle caused
to you.you
Practise
pain,
by
thatwriting it out
you felt here. It about,
unhappy may feel or very
that strange
you judged at first if you are
yourself for, used to taking
and then to use a harsh
her 3
tone with yourself.
components of self-compassion to process the event.
For example: Bring your feelings to your awareness, trying to be accepting and non-
1. Mindfulness:
• “Bad luck
judgemental, just mate!
describing
That must
the feelings
have been without
a bit either
embarrassing
overstatingfor you.
or understating
Never mind,
them. everyone makes mistakes sometimes”
For •example:
“You’re“Ireally
felt tired,
embarrassed
aren’t you?andAre uncomfortable
you up to making when the on
a start tutor
workasked
now,me or doa
question in the seminar and I didn’t
you need a bit of a rest first?” know the answer. I went red and stammered. Then
I felt• more andsee
“I can more anxious
you’re feelingandreally
in the end at
down I said
theI moment.
needed to go you.
Poor to the loo and
Looks left
like you
early”
need a hug!”
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
2. Common Humanity: Now write down how your experience connects to imperfection
____________________________________________________________________________________
and shared pain of the human condition.
____________________________________________________________________________________
For example: “Anyone else would have felt embarrassed and awkward as well – there
____________________________________________________________________________________
were probably lots of others in the seminar who didn’t know the answer and I was just
____________________________________________________________________________________
the unlucky one who got asked! There’ve been so many essay deadlines lately that lots
____________________________________________________________________________________
of us have found it difficult to prepare properly for seminars – it’s not just me”
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________

113
3. Self-Kindness: Then write yourself some kind, understanding words of comfort using a
gentle and reassuring tone.
For example: “Poor you – that was bad luck. It’s not nice to get shown up in public like
that and it’s not surprising you felt embarrassed and awkward. You didn’t need to be
so hard on yourself about getting red and stammering. Maybe next time you can
remember to be kinder to yourself and then you won’t get so anxious afterwards”
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________

114
 Recommended Learning Materials and Resources for Supplementary
Reading
Charlie Waller Memorial Trust . Importance of Self care and Compassion.
https://www.studentsagainstdepression.org/making-changes/the-importance-of-self-
care-and-self-compassion/
Ekman, P. (2010). Taxonomy of compassion from
https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/paul_ekmans_taxonomy_of_compassio
n

Hurst,K. What is self care? from https://www.thelawofattraction.com/self-care-tips/

Neff, K. (2012). The Science of Self Compassion and Wellness in Psychotherapy. NY.
Guilford Press. 79-92. or http://self-compassion,org/the -research
Sammons, A. Culture and stress.
http://www.psychlotron.org.uk/resources/physiological/aqa_as_stress_culturearticle.
pdf
Zimmerman, B. (2002). Becoming learner: Self-regulated overview. Theory into Practice,
41(2), 64-70. Doi: 10.1207/s15430421tip4102_2

Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) Adopted

Online (synchronous) -LMS
Remote (asynchronous)- module, activity, assessment
Assessment Tasks
Assessment Task #1. Open the link https://old.pcij.org/stories/stress-and-the-filipino/.
Make a reflection paper on the article of M. Tan’s Stress and the Filipino

Rubric for Reflection Paper

Criteria Excellent Fair Poor

(5 points) (3 points) (1 point)
Depth of Writing demonstrates an Writing demonstrates a Writing demonstrates
reflection in-depth reflection on the minimal reflection on lack of reflection on the
selected topic, including the selected topic, selected topic, with no
supporting details and including a few details.
examples. supporting details and
examples.
Quality of Information clearly Information clearly Information has little to
Information relates to the main topic. relates to the main topic. do with the main topic.
It includes several No details and/or
supporting details and/or examples are given.
examples.
Structure & Writing is clear, concise, Writing is unclear, and Writing unclear,
Organization and well organized with thoughts are not well disorganized. Thoughts
the use of excellent organized. Thoughts are make little to no sense.
sentence/paragraph not expressed in a
structure. Thoughts are logical manner.
expressed in a logical
manner.

115
Grammar There are no more than There are more than five There are numerous
three spelling or spelling or grammar spelling or grammar
grammar errors per page errors per page of errors per page of
of writing reflection. writing reflection. writing reflection.

GUIDE QUESTIONS
A. How do you feel about the article? What parts of it do you particularly agree and/or
disagree?
B. Knowing the cultural and social dimensions on how Filipinos manage their stress,
what are the ways on how you manage stress?
C. What did you learn about yourself as you read the article? Did it change your view
about how Filipinos handle stress?

Assessment Task #2. Take the “Self Stress Assessment Test” using the College Student’s
Stressful Event Checklist.
A. Choose at least two pressing stress conditions/stressors that you encountered while
answering the checklist.
B. After determining the stresses, give the possible ways of handling these painful
stresses/ stressors, share your experiences during the discussion.

References
Alata, E. et. al. (2018) Understanding the Self. Rex Bookstore, Manila Philippines.
American Institute of Stress. Origin of Stress. Retrieved from https://www.stress.org.
American Psychological Association. Different Types and Categories of Stress. Retrieved
from https://www.psychologytoday.com.
Feldman, R. (2011). Understanding psychology. Boston : McGraw-Hill Higher
Education.
Folkman & Lazarus. Types of Coping Strategies. Retrieved from
https://en.m.wikipedia.org.
Gaerlan, J.E.,Limpingco,D.A.,Tria, G.E.(2008). Principles of Mental Hygiene. 5th
ed.,Phils: KEN, Inc.
George, Fink.(2016). Definition and Origin of Stress. University of Melbourne., RAJRAS;
from https://stressmanagement,psychiatry congress.com.
Personal Stress Management. The social re-adjustment to stress and relievers. Retrieved
from http://www.hooah4health.com/toolbox/stress/secO1alesson2.pdf.
Sources of Stress and coping strategies. Coping Methods. Retrieved from
https://www.hindawi.com
Wellen,W., Lloyd, M.A.,Dunn,D.S., Hammer, E.Y.(2009). Psychology Applied to Modern
Life, Adjustment in the 21st c. CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Tan, M. Stress and the Filipino. Retrieved from https://old.pcij.org/stories/stress-and-
the-filipino/

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