FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DESIGN II
MED200S

Material selection

Lecture Slides – Shigley’s CH2

Lecture #2

Lecturer: Dr Ali Rugbani

rugbania@cput.ac.za

Second Semester - 2019

MED200S – S3 – 2019 Semester 2

Dr Ali Rugbani
 Standard Tensile Test
 Used to obtain material characteristics and strengths
 Loaded in tension with slowly increasing P
 Load and deflection are recorded

Fig. 2–1

The stress is calculated from

where is the original cross-sectional area.

The normal strain is calculated from

where l0 is the original gauge length and l is the current length

corresponding to the current P.
MED200S – S3 – 2019 Semester 2
Dr Ali Rugbani
 Stress-Strain Diagram

 Plot stress vs. normal strain

 Typically linear relation until the proportional limit, pl
 No permanent deformation until the elastic limit, el
 Yield strength, Sy , defined at point where significant plastic
deformation begins,
 Ultimate strength, Su , is the maximum stress on the diagram

Ductile material Brittle material

Fig. 2–2 MED200S – S3 – 2019 Semester 2

Dr Ali Rugbani
 Elastic Relationship of Stress and Strain

 Slope of linear section is Young’s Modulus, or modulus of

elasticity, E. From Hooke’s law:

 E is relatively constant for a given type of material (e.g. steel,

copper, aluminum)
 See Table A-5 for typical values
 Usually independent of heat treatment, carbon content, or
alloying

MED200S – S3 – 2019 Semester 2

Dr Ali Rugbani
 Toughness

 Toughness – Capacity of a material to absorb energy without fracture

 Modulus of Toughness, uT
◦ Energy absorbed per unit volume without fracture
◦ Equals area under the stress-strain curve up to the fracture point

 Resilience – Capacity of a material to absorb energy within its elastic

range
 Modulus of Resilience, uR
◦ Energy absorbed per unit volume
without permanent deformation
◦ Equals the area under the stress-strain
curve up to the elastic limit
◦ Elastic limit often approximated by
yield point
MED200S – S3 – 2019 Semester 2
Dr Ali Rugbani
 Cold Work
 Cold work – Process of plastic straining below recrystallization
temperature in the plastic region of the stress-strain diagram

 Loading to point i beyond the yield point,

then unloading, causes permanent plastic
deformation, ϵp
 Reloading to point i behaves elastically
all the way to i, with additional elastic
strain ϵe

Fig. 2–6 (a)

MED200S – S3 – 2019 Semester 2

Dr Ali Rugbani
 Cold Work
 The yield point is effectively increased to point i
 Material is said to have been cold worked, or strain hardened
 Material is less ductile (more brittle) since the plastic zone
between yield strength and ultimate strength is reduced
 Repeated strain hardening can lead to brittle failure

Fig. 2–6 (a)

MED200S – S3 – 2019 Semester 2
Dr Ali Rugbani
 Hardness
 Hardness – The resistance of a material to penetration and/or
scratches by a pointed tool
 Two most common hardness-measuring systems
◦ Rockwell
 A, B, and C scales
 Hardness numbers are relative
◦ Brinell
 Hardness number HB is the applied load divided by the
spherical surface area of the indentation
 For steels

 For cast iron

MED200S – S3 – 2019 Semester 2

Dr Ali Rugbani
 Creep

 Creep – a continuous deformation

under load for long periods of
time at elevated temperatures
 Often exhibits three stages
◦ 1st stage: elastic and plastic
deformation; decreasing creep
rate due to strain hardening
◦ 2nd stage: constant minimum
Fig. 2–10
creep rate caused by the
annealing effect
◦ 3rd stage: considerable reduction
in area; increased true stress;
higher creep rate leading to
fracture
MED200S – S3 – 2019 Semester 2
Dr Ali Rugbani
 UNS Numbering System

 UNS system established by SAE in 1975

 Letter prefix followed by 5 digit number

 Letter prefix designates material class

◦ G – carbon and alloy steel

◦ A – Aluminum alloy

◦ C – Copper-based alloy

◦ S – Stainless or corrosion-resistant steel

MED200S – S3 – 2019 Semester 2

Dr Ali Rugbani
 UNS for Steels
 For steel, letter prefix is G
 First two numbers indicate composition, excluding carbon content

 Second pair of numbers indicates carbon content in hundredths of

a percent by weight
 Fifth number is used for special situations
 Example: G52986 is chromium alloy with 0.98% carbon
MED200S – S3 – 2019 Semester 2
Dr Ali Rugbani
 Heat Treatment of Steel
Time and temperature controlled processes that modifies material properties
 Annealing
◦ Heated above critical temperature, held until the carbon in the structure
redistributes itself, then slowly cooled in the furnace
◦ Refines grain structure, the steel softens, increases ductility
◦ Erases memory of prior operations
 Normalizing
◦ The steel is treated at a higher temperature, then air cooled outside the
furnace (slow quenching)
◦ Yields a slightly harder and stronger part.
 Quenching
◦ Rapid cooling of the low carbon and medium carbon alloy steel part by
water or oil from above 425oC to below 204oC
◦ Forms the strongest part possible.
◦ Increased strength, hardness, brittleness MED200S – S3 – 2019 Semester 2
Dr Ali Rugbani
 Heat Treatment of Steel

 Tempering
◦ The stress relieving of quenched steel by heating back to
below the critical temperature (between 204oC and 425oC)
and holding for a suitable time to acquire specific properties.
◦ Relieves internal stresses
◦ Increases ductility, slight reduction in strength and hardness

 Case hardening
◦ The hardening of an outer layer of a part by carburising in a
carbon-rich environment at elevated temperatures for a time
depending on desired depth of carbon penetration.
◦ Retains ductility and toughness in the core.

MED200S – S3 – 2019 Semester 2

Dr Ali Rugbani
 Alloy Steels

Alloying Element Purpose

Chromium, Cr Increases hardness with increased ductility

Nickel, Ni Increases strength without sacrificing resilience

Manganese, Mn Lowers critical temperature and facilitates oil

quenching
Silicon, Si Deoxidises the steel, stabilizes carbides and
increases magnetic permeability
Molybdenum, Mo Lowers transformation temperature, hardens and
helps retain toughness
Vanadium, V Enables hardening at high temperature – thus being
very useful in tool steels
Tungsten, W Helps retain hardness at red hot and adds
toughness
MED200S – S3 – 2019 Semester 2
Dr Ali Rugbani
 Corrosion-Resistant Steels

 Stainless steels
◦ Iron-base alloys with at least 12 % chromium
◦ Resists many corrosive conditions
 Four types of stainless steels
Type of Stainless Steel Characteristics
(i.e.) Cr ≥ 12%

Ferritic Chromium 12% < Cr < 27%

Low C – need high Cr for hardening;
If Cr > 18%, weldability problems result.
Austenitic chromium- Have some Ni as well. Non magnetic,
Nickel Strengthened and magnetised only by cold working;
difficult to machine but weldable.
Precipitation hardenable

MED200S – S3 – 2019 Semester 2

Dr Ali Rugbani
 Cast Iron and Non Ferrous metals

Cast Iron:

Cast Iron Characteristics

(C > 1.7%)

Gray Cast Iron Lowest cost;

Machinable;
difficult to weld; brittle;
100 < Sut < 400 MPa ; 3 < Suc/Sut < 4 ; 75 < E < 150 GPa.
εmax≈ 0.01;
Gray – because of excess graphite flakes in structure.
Ductile / Nodular Malleable due to presence of Mg;
Cast Iron E ≈ 172 GPa ; Suc > Sut.

White Cast Iron No free graphite in structure;

Very hard and brittle.
Malleable Cast Iron Expensive cast iron due to long periods of annealing white CI.
Sut ≈ 350 MPa; εmax≈ 0.18.

MED200S – S3 – 2019 Semester 2

Dr Ali Rugbani
 Nonferrous Metals

 Aluminum:
Good strength-weight ratio, resistance to corrosion, high
thermal and electrical conductivity
 Magnesium:
lightest of all commercial metals, used in the aircraft and
automotive industries, do not have great strength, have a
modulus of elasticity of 45 GPa
 Titanium:
Similar in strength to moderate-strength steel but weigh half as
much as steel. Very good resistance to corrosion, has low
thermal conductivity, nonmagnetic. Its modulus of elasticity is
114 GPa. Used in aircraft structures, marine hardware, chemical
tanks, and human internal replacement devices. Has high cost
compared to steel and aluminium and the difficult in machining.
MED200S – S3 – 2019 Semester 2
Dr Ali Rugbani
 Nonferrous Metals

 Copper-based alloys
◦ Brass with 5 to 15 percent zinc
 Gilding brass, commercial bronze, red brass
◦ Brass with 20 to 36 percent zinc
 Low brass, cartridge brass, yellow brass
 Low-leaded brass, high-leaded brass (engraver’s brass),
free-cutting brass
 Admiralty metal (28% Zn, 1% tin)
 Aluminum brass (22% Zn, 2% Al)
◦ Brass with 36 to 40 percent zinc
 Muntz metal, naval brass
◦ Bronze (3% silicon and 1% manganese)
 Silicon bronze, phosphor bronze, aluminum bronze,
beryllium bronze
MED200S – S3 – 2019 Semester 2
Dr Ali Rugbani
 Plastics

 Thermoplastic – any plastic that flows or is moldable when heat

is applied. Such plastics can be remolded when heated.

 Thermoset – a plastic for which the polymerization process is

finished in a hot molding press where the plastic is liquefied
under pressure. Thermoset plastics cannot be remolded.

MED200S – S3 – 2019 Semester 2

Dr Ali Rugbani
 Composite Materials

 Formed from two or more dissimilar materials, each of which

contributes to the final properties
 Materials remain distinct from each other at the macroscopic
level
 Usually amorphous and non-isotropic
 Often consists of laminates of filler to provide stiffness and
strength and a matrix to hold the material together
 Common filler types:

Fig. 2–14 MED200S – S3 – 2019 Semester 2

Dr Ali Rugbani
Young’s Modulus for Various Materials

Fig. 2–15 MED200S – S3 – 2019 Semester 2

Dr Ali Rugbani