3/10/2022 Tension

AIN SHAMS UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Properties and Testing of Materials

CBE 152

1- BEHAVIOR OF METALLIC MATERIALS UNDER

STATIC TENSION
LECTURE 1
DR. IBRAHIM ABDEL_LATIF
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING - AIN SHAMS UNIVERSITY
SPRING 2022

Classification of Metals
Metals can be divided to two main categories :
1) Ferrous Metals
(Steel – Cast iron – Wrought Iron ….)
2) Non Ferrous Metals
(Copper – Nickel – Aluminum - ….)

Ferrous Metals are among the most widely used

engineering materials due to their:
 Availability
 Workability
 High Strength
 Durability

1
3/10/2022 Tension

Steel Products
Steel products used in construction can be classified
into:
 Structural steel for use in plates, pipes, structural
shapes.
 Reinforcing steel bars (Rebars) for use in
reinforced concrete.
 Miscellaneous for use in forms, pans ….etc.

Types of Reinforcing steel bars

Deformed Bars Plain Bars

Steel meshes
Normal Mild Steel
Carbon content not more than 0.2%
High Tensile Steel
Carbon content not more than 0.3%
Cold Worked Steel
Cold formed Mild steel to increase its tensile strength

2
3/10/2022 Tension

Steel Products for Construction

Rebars

Steel Products for Construction

Steel sections Bolts

Steel frames

3
3/10/2022 Tension

Steel Constructions

Industrial Residential

Plane Shelters
Commercial

Importance of Tension Test

1) The tensile test is probably the simplest and most
widely used test to characterize the mechanical
properties of a material.
2) Many common engineering structural components are
designed to perform under tension.
3) The tensile test is used for quality control purposes

4
3/10/2022 Tension

Definition:
The body considered
in the case of tension
if it subjected to
centric load cause
stretch (elongation) of
the body, so that
generates tension
stresses on the body
section

Direct tension test

In order to study the behavior of steel
under static tension, we have to draw the
load-elongation diagram P- ∆L.
From this diagram, all the mechanical
properties of steel can be easily
determined.
To draw the P- ∆L diagram, we need :
-Test specimen
-Loading machine to apply and measure
the load
-Extensometer to measure the
elongation for every load increment

5
3/10/2022 Tension

Test Specimen
Gage length
Short proportional specimen 5.65
5
Long proportional specimen 11.3
10

Metals behavior under static tension

Metals are also
classified according to
their behavior under
static tension into:
- Ductile Metals (MS)
- Semi-Ductile Metals
(HTS)
- Brittle Metals (CI)

6
3/10/2022 Tension

Behavior of Ductile Metals under Static Tension

B-D
large elongation with
almost constant load

D-E
increasing the
elongation with
increasing the load

E-F
O–A decreasing the load and
Extension is increasing the elongation
proportional to load
13

Yielding

-Increasing the spacing between atoms in the atomic lattice to

the extent that change the location of these atoms with respect
to each other
- Yield is a state of internal instability which cause sliding of
atoms. This sliding will be stopped when reaching the
equilibrium state because of the “Strain Hardening”
14

7
3/10/2022 Tension

Strain hardening
During the sliding of the metal particles, the surface of this particles
will be fractured and there will be a friction between the external
surfaces of these particles. This friction will cause increased
resistance to the sliding and sliding will be stopped

Yielding

15

Necking
-Sliding of particles will be occurred on the max. shear stress surfaces
(surfaces those are inclined with 45o from the axe of the specimen)
-This sliding will cause “eccentric loading” and the specimen will be
unstable.
-The specimen is stable so that the loading should be concentric.
- To avoid the eccentricity, the 45o surfaces should be rotate
-Rotation of these surfaces will decrease the diameter of the specimen
causing “Necking” accompanied with large elongation.

16

8
3/10/2022 Tension

Necking

V V . Cos
  Shear stress
A\ A
.A
 
P
P sin   sin   cos
cos A
1
but sin  cos   sin (2 )   2A
P
sin 2
2
P
if   45    max 
2A

17

Failure

- Failure will be occurred at location of necking.

- Separation of atoms due to tensile stress will be happened at
the middle part of the cross section of necking. Separation will
happen perpendicular to the direction of tension (Rough
surface).
- At the edges of the cross section of necking, sliding of
particles will happen at 45o surfaces (i.e. surfaces of max.
shear) (Smooth surface).

9
3/10/2022 Tension

19

Behavior of Semi-Ductile Metals Under

Static Tension
Stress
(f) elastic plastic
B
1- From 0 to A, stresses  strains fp
2- No yield A
3- Proof stress represents elastic
stress
4- May or may not show slight
necking
0
5- Failure at point B .002 Strain (e)

10
3/10/2022 Tension

Behavior of Ductile Brittle Metals under Static

Tension

Stress
(f)

1)No elastic zone (No proportion)

2)No Yield fmax
3)No Necking
4)Failure happen at the max. load due to
tension only (perpendicular to the tension
load) (Rough surface)
5)Elongation is very small (difficult to be Strain (e)
determined) 0

Ordinary Stress – Strain Diagram

P (load )
f ( Stress )  ∆
A0 (C.S . Area )

22

11
3/10/2022 Tension

Tensile Mechanical Properties

Proportional Limit
 It is the end point of the straight line. It can be determined
only form the load-elongation curve.
- The curve should be drawn very accurately in order to be able
to determine the proportional limit.

Upper Yield Limit

Lower Yield Limit

Elastic Limit
Proportional Limit
23

Elastic limit
Elastic limit is the max. stress which after removing it, the material
returns bach to its original shape and dimension. i,.e. no permentant
deformation.
Value of elastic limit is very close to the value of the proportional limit

Upper Yield Limit

Lower Yield Limit

Elastic Limit
Proportional Limit
24

12
3/10/2022 Tension

The yield stress

-Yield limit : The stress which large elongation is happen at almost a
constant load.
-Lower yield limit represent the yield limit (i.e. material property)
while upper yield limit is not a material property (it depends on
many factors like temperature, rate of loading, ….).
-Yield limit is used to calculate the working stress (or design stress).
-Practically :
Yield limit = Elastic limit = Proportional limit

Upper Yield Limit

Lower Yield Limit

Elastic Limit
Proportional Limit
25

Proof stress
 The proof stress is the stress
corresponding to plastic elongation
(non proportional elongation) which
equals a specified percentage from
the gage length
 (usually δ = 0.2% Lo = 0.002Lo)
 Proof stress is determined for
non proportional
metals have no yield. elongation
 Proof stress is used to calculate the
working or design stress (instead of
yield stress) P
F proof 
proof
kg/cm2
26
Ao

13
3/10/2022 Tension

Strength
a) Elastic Strength

For Mild steel : elastic strength = yield strength

For High tensile steel : elastic strength = proof stress

Py P
Fy  Fmax  max
Ao Ao

It used to calculate the design stress.

Fy
F working = F design = F allowable = or F pr.
n
:Where n = factor of safety n
27

 b) Tensile Strength

The max. stress can be resisted by the metal. For all types of
steel it can be calculated from :

Pmax
F max 
Ao
This strength is much lower than the true strength because at failure
the cross sectional area (Ai)is much lower than the original area
(Ao). Using this value for design purposes will increase the safety
factor.

28

14
3/10/2022 Tension

Stiffness
Stiffness is the resistance to deformation. It can be measured by the
Young’s Modulus “E”.
E = slope of the straight line in stress/strain curve

P
f f A P L
E   o   o
  L L Ao
‹ Lo

29

Resilience
Resilience is the energy stored in the specimen during loading and
return back again after removing the load.
Resilience = area under the straight line of the load-elongation
diagram.
Modulus of Resilience (MR) = elastic strength of the material to
dynamic load
Modulus of Resilience (MR) = Resilience / volume
Modulus of Resilience (MR) = area under the straight line of the
stress-strain curve.
1
Resilience = P  L
2 P.L P.L
Re silienc
Modulus of Resilience = Volume
1
P  L
P.L 1
 2
P.L
 F e kg mm/mm3
A L 2 P.L P.L
o o
30

15
3/10/2022 Tension

Toughness
Toughness is the maximum energy required to cause failure of the
specimen. Toughness = the total area under the load-elongation diagram.
Modulus of toughness (MT) = Ultimate strength of the material to
dynamic load
Modulus of toughness (MT)= Toughness / volume
Modulus of toughness (MT) = the total area under the stress-strain
curve.
: ‫ﻟﻠﻣﻌﺎﺩﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﻁﻳﻠﺔ‬
Py  Pmax
Toughness (kg. mm) =  L max
2
Toughness F y  Fmax
Modulus of toughness (kg. mm/mm3) =    max
Volume 2
: ‫ﻟﻠﻣﻌﺎﺩﻥ ﻧﺻﻑ ﺍﻟﻣﻁﻳﻠﺔ‬
2
Toughness (kg. mm) =  Pmax  Lmax
3
Toughness 2
Modulus of toughness (kg. mm/mm3) =   Fmax   max
Volume 3
31

32

16
3/10/2022 Tension

Ductility
Elongation can be measured by :
1- % Elongation (usually used)

Li  Lo
  100  L  100
Lo Lo

2- % Reduction of area

Ao  Ai d o2  d i2
  100   100
Ao d o2

33

-Elongation distribution over the gage length will be uniform within

the elastic zone
-Outside the elastic zone, elongation distribution over the gage
length will be non-uniform. Elongation will be concentrated within
the neck zone and decreased gradually by going far from the neck
zone.

34

17
3/10/2022 Tension

* Elongation % is inversely proportional to the gage length

* Standard Specification states that
the failure location should be within
the middle third of the specimen to
include the elongation% inside the
gage length. If failure occurred
outside the gage length, the
calculated elongation% is not true

35

Elongation can be expressed as : L  bLo  c Ao

So that the %elongation will be :
c Ao
Elongation % = b
Lo
where: ( b , c Unwin’s Constants ).

b&c can be determined by plotting the relationship between the gage

length and corresponding elongation for different values of gage
length

From the previous equation it is clear that the elongation % is not a

material property and depends on the ratio :
So that this ratio should be standardized. That is why we should use
the Proportional test pieces
36

18
3/10/2022 Tension

Factors Affecting Tensile Properties

1- Over strain
 Loading and reloading will
increase the proportional
limit

37

2- Carbon content in steel

 Increasing the carbon
content will increase the
ultimate tensile strength
but will decrease the
elongation percentage

38

19
3/10/2022 Tension

3-Temperature
 Raising the temperature over 250o will decrease the
ultimate tensile strength and increase the elongation
percentage

39

Reinforcement Steel for Concrete

Tension test (Mechanical Properties) ES 262-2/2015
Load

5· Elongation

∆ . ∆ .
.
Upper Limit Yield Strength
Tensile Strength
π 2/4 d is the nominal diameter
∆ .
100 Elongation % at the Maximum Load
∆ .
Elongation % at the Failure Load
100

20
3/10/2022 Tension

Reinforcement Steel for Concrete

Tension test (Mechanical Properties) ES 262-2/2015

The Grade of RFT

Steel for reinforcement

concrete Ductility P Plain Bars
R Ribbed Bars

B 240 A - P

Upper Limit Yield

Strength (N/mm2) (-) : No welding Steel
(W) : welding Steel

Reinforcement Steel for Concrete

Tension test (Mechanical Properties) ES 262-2/2015

Plain Bars

21
3/10/2022 Tension

Reinforcement Steel for Concrete

Tension test (Mechanical Properties) ES 262-2/2015

Ribbed Bars

22