Republic of the Philippines

CAVITE STATE UNIVERSITY

Don Severino delas Alas Campus
Indang, Cavite

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Department of Civil Engineering

LECTURE 1 : INTRODUCTION TO STEEL STRUCTURES AND

FAMILIARIZATION OF VARIOUS STRUCTURAL SHAPES
(CENG 130 – Principles of Steel Design)

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

After completion of this lecture, students will be able to:

1. Identify advantages and disadvantages of steel and civil engineering structures

for which the use of structural steel is applicable for use;
2. Understand the typical stress – strain characteristics of steel in simple tension
and evaluation of its mechanical properties;
3. Know the availability of steel grades in the country and elsewhere;
4. Identify rolled sections, built – up sections
5. Determine cross – sectional properties of structural shapes; and
6. Utilize manuals, charts, and tables already available.

DEFINITION OF STEEL OR STRUCTURAL STEEL

Steels used in construction are generally carbon steels, alloys of iron and carbon. The
carbon content is ordinarily less than 1% by weight. The chemical composition of the steel
is varied, according to the properties desired, such as strength and corrosion resistance,
by the addition of other alloying elements, such as silicon, manganese, copper, nickel,
chromium, and vanadium, in very small amounts. When a steel contains a significant
amount of any of such alloying elements, it is referred to as an alloy steel. Steel is not a
renewable resource, but it can be recycled, and its primary component, iron, is plentiful.

The structural steel is the steel used for the manufacture of rolled structural steel sections,
fastenings and other elements for use in structural steel works. The principle requirements
are strength, ductility, weldability, and corrosion resistance.

Common shapes of steel that are formed with a specific shape include I-beam or Wide
Flange (WF), HSS, Channels, Angles and Plate. These are hot rolled products with
chemical composition to suit a project’s applicable specifications.
ADVANTAGES STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

1. High Strength
Strength is measure of the materials ability to resist deformation and to maintain
its shape. It is quantified in terms of yield stress or ultimate strength. The high
strength of steel per unit of weight means that the weight of structures will be small.
This fact is of great importance for long – span bridges, tall buildings, and structure
situated on poor foundations.

2. Elasticity
Elasticity is the ability of an object or material to resume its normal shape after being
stretched or compressed. It follows the Hooke’s law, wherein the stress is directly
proportional to the strain or deformation.

3. Ductility
The property of a material by which it can withstand extensive deformation without
failure under high tensile stresses is its ductility. In structural members under
normal loads, high stress concentrations develop at various points. The ductile
nature of structural steels enables them to yield locally at those points, thus
preventing premature failures.

4. Toughness
Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb energy in large amounts. Structural
steels are tough as they can be subjected to large deformations during fabrication
and erection without fracture – thus allowing them to bent, hammered, and
sheared, and to have holes punched in them without visible damage.

5. Additions to Existing Structures

Steel structures are quite well suited to having additions made to them. New bays
or even entire new wings can be added to existing steel frame buildings, and steel
bridges may often be widened.

6. Miscellaneous
Several other important advantages of structural steel are as follows:
(a) Ability to be fastened together by several connection devices, including welds
and bolts;
(b) Adaptation to prefabrication;
(c) Speed of erection;
(d) Ability to be rolled into a wide variety of sizes and shapes
(e) Possible reuse after a structure is disassembled;
(f) Scrap value, even though not reusable in its existing form. Steel is the ultimate
recyclable material.
DISADVANTAGES STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

1. Corrosion
Most steels are susceptible to corrosion when freely exposed to air and water, and
therefore must be painted periodically. The corrosion – fatigue failures can occur
where steel members are subject to cyclic stresses and corrosive environments.

2. Fireproofing costs
Since steel is an excellent conductor of heat, non – fireproofed steel members may
transmit enough heat from a burning section or compartment of a building to ignite
materials with which they are in contact in adjoining sections of the building. As a
results, the steel frame of a building may have to be protected by insulating
materials and to include sprinkler system if it is to meet the building code
requirements of the locality.

3. Susceptibility to buckling
As the length and slenderness of a compression member is increased, its danger
of buckling increases. For most structures, the use of steel columns is very
economical because of their high strength to weight ratios. Occasionally, however,
some additional steel is needed to stiffen them so they will not buckle. This tends
to reduce their economy.

4. Fatigue
Fatigue problems occur only when tension is involved due to large number of stress
reversals or even to a large number of variations of tensile stress. Hence, reducing
the strength of members is done it is anticipated that they will have more than a
prescribed number of cycles of stress variation.
STEEL STRUCTURES

In modern construction, steel structure is used for almost every type of structure including
heavy industrial building, high-rise building, equipment support system, infrastructure,
bridge, tower, airport terminal and petrochemicals plants. Some common types of steel
structures are as follows:
STRESS – STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS IN STRUCTURAL STEEL

A knowledge of the various properties of steel is a requirement if one is to make intelligent

choices and decisions in the selection of particular members. The mechanical properties
of steel are determined by tension test. The test involves the tensile loading of a steel
sample and the simultaneous measuring of load and elongation from which stress and
strain may be calculated using

, = =
−

∆ ℎ ℎ
, = =
ℎ

The results of the test are displayed on a stress – strain diagram as shown below.
STRUCTURAL STEEL PROPERTIES

1. Yield strength or yield stress (Fy)– the material property defined as the stress at
which a material begins to deform plastically in a point called “yield point”. Yield
strengths vary from 35MPa for low strength aluminum to greater than 1400MPa for
very high strength steels.

2. Ultimate strength or tensile strength (Fu) – the maximum stress that can be
sustained by a structure in tension. When a steel reaches its ultimate strength, it
experience necking where the cross – sectional area reduces locally. Ultimate
tensile strengths vary from 50MPa for an aluminum to as high as 3000MPa for very
high strength steels.

3. Young’s modulus of elasticity (E) – the elastic modulus for tensile and
compressive stress in the linear elasticity regime of a uniaxial deformation.
According to Hooke’s law, the stress is proportional to the strain (in the elastic
region), and the slope is Young’s modulus. Young’s modulus is equal to stress
divided by the strain. Hence it is reasonably constant for structural steel. AISC
recommends the value of E to be 200GPa.

4. Shear modulus or modulus of rigidity (G) – measure of the elastic shear

stiffness of a material. It describes the material’s response to shear stress (like
cutting it with dull scissor). The value of G for structural steel is 79.30GPa.

5. Poisson’s ratio (ν) – the ratio of the relative contraction strain normal to applied
load – to the relative extension strain (or axial strain) in the direction of the applied
load. When a material is stretched in one direction, it tends to get thinner in the
other two directions. The value of ν typically used for steel is 0.30.

6. Coefficient of thermal expansion (ε) – necessary in computing deformations and

forces in structures as a results of changes in temperature. When the structural
steel members are subjected to the elevated temperatures of a fire, a substantial
decrease in the steel strength and rigidity will develop over time.
STEEL SHAPES OR SECTIONS
Dimensions, weights, and properties of these sections are given by the American Institute
of Steel Construction, Steel Construction Manual (AISC) Part 1. Rolled steel sections are
fabricated in a number of shapes as shown below figure and designated below table.

 W shapes

This is the most commonly used shape for beams and columns, and is designated by
nominal depth and weigh per foot. It has parallel inner and outer flange surfaces. An
example of the standard designation for a W shape is W24 x 104. This indicates a W
shape that is nominally (approximately) 24in deep from outside of flange to outside of
 flange, and weighs 104lb/ft. The weight difference is created by varying web thickness
and flange width and thickness.

 M shapes

M shapes are miscellaneous shapes and have cross sections that appear to be exactly
like W shapes, but cannot be strictly classified as W shapes, however. These shapes
are rolled by fewer or smaller producers and therefore may not be commonly available
in certain areas. Availability should be checked before their use is specified. Their
application is similar to that of the W shape, as their designation (i.e. M8 x 6.5).

 S shapes

S shapes are American standard beams with tapered flanges that are narrower than
comparable W shapes and provide less resistance to lateral torsional buckling. They
have sloping inner faces on the flanges, relatively thicker webs, and depths that are
mostly full inches.
 HP shapes

HP shapes are bearing pile shapes, and are characterized by a rather square cross
section with flanges and webs of nearly the same or equal thickness (so that the web
will withstand pile driving hammer blows). They are general used as driven piles for
foundation support. They may also be used occasionally as beams and columns but
are less efficient (more costly) for these applications.

 C and MC shapes

These are American Standard Channels and miscellaneous channels. Examples of

their designations are C15 x 50 and MC18 x 58, where the first number indicates the
depth in inches and the second indicates the weight in lb/ft. Their applications are
usually as components of built – up cross sections, bracing and tie member, and
members that frame openings.
 Angles

Angles are designated by the letter “L”, leg length, and thickness. They may be equal
leg or unequal leg angles. For unequal leg angles, the longer leg is stated first. For
examples, L6 x 4 x 5/8” indicates an angle with one leg 6in long and one leg 4in long,
both having a thickness of 5/8in. Angles are commonly used singly or in pairs as
bracing members and tension members.

 Structural Tees

Structural tees are shapes that are produced by splitting or cutting the webs of W, M
or S shapes. The tees are designated WT, MT or ST, respectively. For example, a
WT18 x 105 (nominally 18in deep, 105lb/ft) is obtained from a W36 x 210.
 Hollow structural sections (HSS)

Hollow structural shapes are designated by outside dimensions and nominal wall
thickness. There are three types of hollow structural sections: rectangular, square, and
round. These sections are particularly suited for members that require high torsional
resistance.

 Built – up shapes

If the design requirements for member are large enough and none of the standard
shapes are available, then a built – up section may be needed. Building up sections is
an effective way of strengthening an existing structure that is being rehabilitated or
modified for some use other than the one for which it was designed. Sometimes a
standard shape is augmented by additional cross – sectional elements, as when a
cover plate is welded to one or both flanges of a W – shape.

STEEL GRADES AND AVAILABILITY

Steels are usually specified according to ASTM (American Society for Testing and
Materials) number. Among the most widely used is the structural carbon steel designated
A36. Its yield stress Fy is 36ksi. Material test reports or report of tests made by the
fabricator or a testing laboratory shall constitute sufficient evidence of conformity with the
ASTM standards.

In NSCP Sec. 501.3.1.1, there are several approved structural steel materials that can be
used conforming to ASTM specifications. But, the two types of structural steel grade
commonly used in the Philippines are A-36 an A-50. The important structural properties
for these two materials are shown below.

Property A – 36 A - 50
Yield Stress, MPa (Fy) 248MPa 345MPa
Tensile Stress, MPa (Fu) 400MPa 428MPa

DESIGN CODE AND SPECIFICATIONS

1. National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP)
This code establishes minimum requirements for structural systems using
prescriptive and performance based provisions.

2. National Building Code of the Philippines

This code provides all buildings and structures, a framework of minimum standard
and requirements to regulate and control their location, site, design, quality of
materials, construction, use, occupancy and maintenance.

3. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)

This specification provides for the design of structural steel buildings and their
connections.

4. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

(AASHTO)
This specification covers the design of highway bridges and related structures. It
provides for all structural materials normally used in bridges, including steel,
reinforced concrete, and timber (AASHTO, 2014).

5. American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

(AREMA)
The AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering covers the design of railway bridges
and related structures (AREMA, 2016). This organization was formerly known as
the American Railway Engineering Association (AREA).

6. American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)

This specification deals with cold-formed steel.
Review questions # 1:

1. Define the following:

a. Proportional limit
b. Elastic limit
c. Yield stress

2. Given: American Institute of Steel Construction, Steel Construction Manual

Define the following symbols using the manual: A, Ag, Ix, L, T, rT, ksi.

3. Determine the dimension and unit weight in SI unit (mm, kg/m) for the following
steel shapes:
a. W21 x 62
b. MC10 x 25
c. WT12 x 88
d. L6 x 6 x 1
e. HP12 x 53

4. Calculate the weight (in kg) of a 1m length of a steel built – up member having a
cross section as shown. Show your computation.

5. A tensile test was performed on a metal specimen with a diameter of 13mm and a
gage length (the length over which the elongation is measured) of 100mm. The
data were plotted on a load – displacement graph, P vs ∆L. A best – fit line was
drawn through the points, and the slope of the straight - line portion was calculated
to be P / ∆L = 243,775N/mm. What is the modulus of elasticity? Show your
computation.
References:

American Institute of Steel Construction, Steel Construction Manual, 15th Edition

National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP) 2015
Structural Steel Design, McCormac, J. C., Csernak, S. F.