DEFINITIONS the recrystallization temperature and at a

rate to produce strain hardening.

AGE HARDENING (PRECIPITATION
HARDENING) - Occurs in some metals, COLD DRAWN - Frequently used because
notably curtain stainless steel, aluminum, it increases strength and machinability,
and copper alloys, at ambient and improves surface finish.
temperature after solution heat
DAMPING CAPACITY - Ability of a material
treatment, the process of being one of a
to absorb or damp vibrations, which is a
constituent precipitating from solid
process of absorbing kinetic energy of
solution.
vibration owing to hysteresis.
ARTIFICIAL AGING - Aging at moderately
DECARBURIZATION - Is a loss of carbon
elevated temperature expedites the
from the surface of steel, occurring during
process.
hot rolling, forging and heat treating.
ALLOY - Is a substance with metallic
DUCTILITY - Property that permits
properties, composed of two or more
permanent deformation.
elements of which at least one metal.
Indices of Absolute Measure of Ductility:
ALLOYING ELEMENTS - The metallic
elements added for the purpose of PERCENTAGE ELONGATION
modifying the properties. PERCENTAGE REDUCTION OF AREA

ANISOTROPY - Characteristic of DUCTILE MATERIAL - Elongation greater

exhibiting different properties
tested in different directions.
BRITTLENESS - Is a tendency to fracture
without appreciable deformation.
CHARPY TEST - A specimen, supported at
both ends as a simple beam, is broken by
the impact of a falling pendulum. The
energy absorbed in breaking
specimen is a measure of the impact
strength of the metal.
COLD SHORTNESS - Brittleness of metals
at ordinary or low temperatures.
COLD WORKING - Process of deforming a
metal plastically at a temperature below
when than 5% in 2-in gage.
BRITTLE MATERIAL - Elongation less than
5% in 2-in gage.
ELASTICITY - Ability of a material to be
deformed and to return to the original
shape.
EMBRITTLEMENT - Involves the loss of
the
ductility because of a physical or chemical
change of the material.
FREE CARBON - Part of the carbon content
of steel or iron that is in the form of
graphite or temper carbon.
HARD DRAWN - Temper produced in a
wire, rod, or tube by cold drawing.
HOMOGENEOUS MATERIALS - Have the PHYSICAL PROPERTIES - Exclude
same structure at all points. mechanical properties, and are the other
physical properties such as density,
ISOTROPIC - Have the same properties in
conductivity, coefficient of thermal
all directions.
expansion.
IZOD TEST - A specimen, supported at one
PLASTICITY - Ability of a metal to be
end as a cantilever beam, is broken by the
deformed considerably without rupture.
impact of a falling pendulum. The energy
In a plastic deformation, the material
absorbed in breaking the specimen is a
does not return to its original shape.
measure of the Impact Strength.
POISSON'S RATIO - Is the ratio of the
KILLED STEEL - Steel that has been
lateral strain (contraction) to the
oxidized with a strong deoxidizing agent,
longitudinal strain (extension) when the
such as silicon or aluminum, in order to
element is loaded with a longitudinal
eliminate a reaction between the carbon
tensile force.
and oxygen during solidification.
PRECIPITATION HEAT TREATMENT -
MACHINABILITY - Somewhat indefinite
Brings about the precipitation of a
property that refers to the relative case
constituent from a supersaturated solid
with which a material can be cut.
solution by holding the body at an
MALLEABILITY - Is a material's elevated temperature, also called
susceptibility to extreme deformation in artificial aging. In some alloys,
rolling or hammering. The more malleable precipitation may also occur at ambient
the metal, the thinner the sheet into temperatures, a process called aging.
which it can be formed (usually cold).
PROOF STRESS - Causes a specified
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES - Those that permanent deformation of a material,
have to do with stress and strain: usually 0.01% or less.
Ultimate Strength and Percentage
RED SHORTNESS - A brittleness in steel
Elongation, for example.
when it is red hot.
PERCENTAGE ELONGATION - The
RELAXATION - Associated with creep, is
extension in the vicinity of the fracture of
the decreasing stress at a constant strain;
a tensile specimen, expressed as a
important for metals in high-temperature
percentage of the original gage length, as
service.
20% in 2 in.
RESIDUAL STRESSES - Those not due to
PERCENTAGE REDUCTION OF AREA - Is
applied loads or temperature gradients;
the smallest area at the point of rupture
they exist for various reasons, as unequal
of a Tensile specimen divided by the
cooling rates, cold working, etc.
original area.
RIMMED STEEL - Incompletely deoxidized WORK HARDENING - Is the same as strain
steel. Ingots of this steel have a surface hardening.
layer quite free of slag inclusions and gas
WROUGHT STEEL - Steel that has been
pockets, which results in the optimum
hammered, rolled, or drawn in the process
surface on rolled sheets.
of manufacture; it may be plain carbon or
SOLUTION HEAT TREATMENT - Process of alloy steel.
holding an alloy at a suitably high
HEAT-TREATMENT TERMS - An operation
temperature long enough to permit one or
or combination of operations involving
more constituents to pass into solid
the heating and cooling of metals or an
solution and then cooling fast enough to
alloy in the solid state for the purpose of
hold the constituents as a supersaturated
altering the properties of the material.
solution. (Precipitation may occur with
time). AGING (AND AGE HARDENING) - Is a
change in a metal by which its structure
STIFFNESS - Ability to resist deformation.
recovers from an unstable or metastable
It is measured by the modulus of
condition that has been produced by
elasticity in the elastic range; the higher
quenching or cold working.
the modulus, the stiffer is the material.
ANNEALING - Is a heating and slow
STRAIN HARDENING - Increasing the
cooling of a solid metal, usually done to
hardness and strength by plastic
soften it; Altering the mechanical and
deformation at temperatures lower than
physical properties, producing a
the recrystallization range.
particular microstructure, removing
TEMPER - Is a condition produced in a internal stresses (stress relieving), and
non-ferrous metal by mechanical or removing gases.
thermal treatment.
CRITICAL RANGE - Has the same meaning
TOUGHNESS - The capacity of material to as Transformation Range.
withstand a shock load without breaking.
DRAWING - Often used to mean
The impact strength though not an
tempering, but this usage conflicts with
absolute measure, evaluates toughness.
the meaning of the drawing of a material
TRANSVERSE STRENGTH - Refers to the through a die, and is to be avoided.
results of a transverse bend test, The
GRAPHITIZING - (and annealing process),
specimen being mounted as a simple
Causes the combined carbon to transform
beam; also called rupture modulus. It is
wholly or in part into graphitic or free
frequently applied to brittle materials,
carbon.
especially cast iron.
HARDENING - Is the heating of certain
steels above the transformation range
and then quenching, for the purpose of
increasing the hardness. In general,
hardening is any process of increasing the
hardness of a metal.
MALLEABLIZING - Is an annealing process
whereby combined carbon in white cast
iron is transformed wholly or in part to
temper carbon.
NORMALIZING - Is the heating of an iron-
base alloy to some 100°F above the
transformation range with subsequent
cooling to below that range in still air at
room temperature. The purpose is to
produce a uniform structure.
SPHEROIDIZING - Is any heating and
cooling of steel that produces a rounded
or globular form of carbide.
STRESS RELIEVING - (Thermal) is the
heating of a metal body to a suitable
temperature (generally just below the
transformation range for steel, say 1100 -
1200°F) and holding it at that
temperature for a suitable time (1 to 3
hours for steel) for the purpose of
reducing internal residual stresses.
TEMPERING - Is a reheating or hardened
or normalized steel to a temperature
below the transformation range, followed
by any desired rate of cooling.
TRANSFORMATION RANGE - For ferrous
metals, is the temperature interval during
which austenite disappears during
cooling.
HARDNESS - Is a measure of its
resistance to indentation, and is one of
the most significant properties because,
properly interpreted, it says much about
the condition of the metal.
BRINELL HARDNESS NUMBER (BHN) - Is
determined by a standard pressure
(3000kg standard, 500 kg for soft metals)
applied to a 10-mm ball which presses for
10 sec. or more on the surface of the
material being tested. The load in
kilograms divided by the area of the
surface of the indentation in square
millimeters is the BHN.
ROCKWELL TESTER - Faster than the
Brinell and widely used commercially,
utilizes several different indenters and, in
effect, measures the depth of the
penetration by the indenter.
Rockwell A for Extremely Hard Metals
Rockwell B for Medium Soft Metals
Rockwell C for Hard metals
Rockwell D for Sometimes used for Case-
Hardened Metal
Rockwell E for Soft Metals
ROCKWELL SUPERFICIAL TESTER - A
different machine, is used for a piece of
material too thin for the standard tester.
VICKERS TESTER - Has a square-base,
diamond pyramid indenter, and the
Vickers number is the load in kilograms
divided by the impressed area in square
millimeters.
SHORE SCLEROSCOPE NUMBER - Is
obtained by letting a freely falling
hammer with a diamond point strike the
object to be tested and measuring the
height of rebound. This height is the
Shore number; the higher the rebound, reduce distortion from heat treatment, to
the harder is the material. increase toughness, ductility, and tensile
strength, and to improve low-
AISI AND SAE SPECIFICATION NUMBERS
temperature or high-temperature
American Society for Testing Materials properties.
(ASTM)
LOW-ALLOY STRUCTURAL STEELS - (Not
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) heat treated) These steels were
developed for structural uses where light
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)
weight is important such as in the
10XX – Plain Carbon transportation industry, but they are also
11XX – Free Cutting used in other structures.
13XX – Manganese
LOW-CARBON ALLOY STEELS - Used
14XX – Boron
chiefly for carburizing
2XXX – Nickel
3XXX – Nickel-Chromium MEDIUM-CARBON ALLOY STEELS -
303XX – Heat and Corrosion Resistant Usually quenched and tempered to
4XXX – Molybdenum hardness between 250 and 400 Brinell.
41XX – Molybdenum-Chromium
HIGH-CARBON ALLOY STEELS - Ordinarily
43XX – Molybdenum-Chromium-Nickel
heat treated to hardness between 375 and
46XX – Molybdenum-Nickel
500 Brinell, for use as springs, wear
47XX – Molybdenum-Chromium-Nickel
resisting parts, etc.
48XX – Molybdenum-Nickel
5XXX – Chromium HIGH-ALLOY ALLOY STEELS - Such as
514XX – Heat and Corrosion Resistant stainless steels.
515XX – Heat and Corrosion Resistant
ALUMINUM (Al) - Is an efficient
6XXX – Chromium-Vanadium
deoxidizer, an alloy in nitriding steels
8XXX – Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum
(nitralloys), and it promotes fine grain
92XX – Silicon-Manganese
size.
9XXX – Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum
except (92XX) BORON (B) - An economical hardenability
agent in low or medium-carbon
ALLOY STEEL - Wrought Alloy Steel is steel
deoxidized steels. It has no effect on
that contains significant quantities of
tensile strength.
recognized alloying metals, the most
common being aluminum, chromium, CHROMIUM (Cr) - Improves hardenability
cobalt, copper, manganese, molybdenum, economically, resistance to corrosion
nickel, phosphorus, silicon, titanium, (with other alloys), strength at high
tungsten, and vanadium. Alloys are used temperatures, and wearing properties
to improve the hardenability of steel, to (high carbon).
COBALT (Co) - Improves red hardness TITANIUM (Ti) - Is used for deoxidation
and for stabilizing austenitic stainless
COLUMBIUM (Cb) - Often used to
steels (preventing intergranular
"stabilize" stainless steel
corrosion and embrittlement)
COPPER (Cu) - Improves steel's resistance
TUNGSTEN (W) - Increases hardenability
to atmospheric corrosion
markedly in small amounts and improve
LEAD (Pb) - Improves machinability, but hardness and strength at high
affects different alloys differently temperature.

MANGANE (Mn) - Improves strength and VANADIUM (V) - Promotes fine-grain

increases hardenability moderately, structure, improves the ratio of
counteracts brittleness from sulfur endurance strength to ultimate strength
of medium-carbon steels. It is the most
MOLYBDENUM (Mo) - Increases
effective element in retarding softening
hardenability markedly and economically
during tempering.
NICKEL (Ni) - Strengthens unquenched
HARDENABILITY - Is the capacity of steel
and annealed steels, toughens steel
to through-harden when cooled from
(especially at low temperatures), and
above its transformation range.
simplifies heat treatment by lessening
distortion. CASE HARDENING - Case Hardening of
iron base alloys is a process of surface
PHOSPHORUS (P) - Increases
hardening whereby the surface or case is
hardenability, strengthens low-carbon
substantially harder than the core or
steels, improves machinability of free-
inside metal.
cutting steels, and improves resistance to
corrosion. (A) CARBURIZING - Is a process of adding
carbon to the surface of steel by exposing
SELENIUM (Se) - Improves machinability
it to hot carbonaceous solids, liquids, or
of stainless steel; also added to leaded
gases above the transformation
resulfurized carbon steels for the same
temperature.
purpose.
PACK (OR BOX) CARBURIZING - Common
SILICON (Si) - Strengthens low-alloy
methods of adding carbon, the part is
steels and improves resistance to high-
heated in contact with solid carburizing
temperature oxidation; it is a good
compounds of various constituents,
general-purpose deoxidizer and promotes
including charcoal, burned bone, charred,
fine grain.
tar, and barium, sodium, and calcium
TANTALUM (Ta) - Is a stabilizer carbonates, especially barium carbonate
and charcoal.
GAS CARBURIZING - Has been developed
to an efficient and economic procedure,
especially for large quantities, the part is
heated in carburizing gases, such as
methane, ethane, propane, and CO.
LIQUID CARBURIZING - The part is
immersed in a molten salt bath that
imparts a case similar to that obtained
with gas or pack carburizing except that
the case is thinner, usually not in excess
of about 0.025 in.
(B) CYANIDING - Is accomplished by
immersing the part in a hot (about
1550°F) liquid salt bath, sodium cyanide
(NaCN) being common medium in both
processes.
(C) NITRIDING - In surface hardening by
nitriding, the machined and heat-treated
part is placed in a nitrogenous
environment, commonly ammonia gas, at
temperatures much lower than those
used in the previously described
processes, say 1000°F or somewhat less.
(D) CARBONITRIDING - Is a process of
case hardening steel by the simultaneous
absorption of carbon and nitrogen from a
surrounding hot gaseous atmosphere,
followed by either quenching or slow-
cooling, as required.
(E) INDUCTION HARDENING - Consists of
heating a thin surface layer, preferably of
annealed or normalized steel, above the
transformation range by electrical
induction and then cooling.
(F) FLAME HARDENING - Is a process of
heating the surface of an iron-base alloy,
which is preferably annealed or
normalized, and then quenching it.
WORK HARDENING - Is the result of a
metal being stressed at some point into
its plastic range, usually ordinary
temperatures (certainly below
recrystallization temperature); metal cold
worked in this manner becomes stronger
and more brittle.
WROUGHT IRON - Is made by burning the
carbon from molten iron and then putting
the product through hammering and
rolling operations.
CAST IRON - In a general sense includes
white cast iron, malleable iron, and
nodular cast iron, but when cast iron is
used without a qualifying adjective, gray
cast iron, spoken as gray iron is meant.
GRAY IRON - The excess carbon is
uncombined, and a fracture is gray.
WHITE CAST IRON - (The fracture is
"white"), most of the carbon is combined
chemically with the iron, and as a result,
the metal is very hard.
CHILLED IRON - When an extremely hard
surface is desired, white cast iron. It is
intentionally produced by using an iron
plate in the mold to cause rapid cooling of
the surface.
MALLEABLE IRON - Is heat-treated white
cast iron. The white cast iron is obtained
not by chilling, but by using the proper
composition in the melt.
MALLEABLIZING - The heat treatment of
the white cast iron, in which substantially
all of the carbon is combined in the form
of iron carbide is an annealing, called
malleablizing.
NODULAR CAST IRON - Also called Ductile
Iron, has the castability (for complex
forms), machinability, and wearability of
gray iron, but higher strength and
ductility.
CAST STEEL - The combination of highest
strength and highest ductility in a cast
ferrous metal is obtained in cast steel.
STAINLESS STEEL
THREE CLASSES:
AUSTENITIC STEELS (200 and 300 Series
that include 3.5 to 22% nickel for its
stabilizing of austenite)
MARTENSITIC STEELS (Usually with no
nickel, but some types have 2.5%
maximum)
FERRITIC STEELS (No Nickel)
(A) COLD WORKING - Which is the usual
way of hardening the austenitic types
because of their potent response to this
treatment.
(B) AGE HARDENING - Usually termed
precipitation hardening with reference to
stainless, which occurs because of the
precipitation of a constituent from a
supersaturated solid solution. It is
generally conducted at elevated
temperatures in order to increase the rate
of precipitation.
(C) QUENCHING AND TEMPERING - As for
usual steels, except that transformations
are so slow that the quenching is by air
cooling for maximum hardness. This is the
common way of hardening the martensitic
types.
COPPER ALLOYS - One of the oldest known
metals, it has been the base of many
alloys, as well as being used in a relatively
pure form.
ALUMINUM ALLOYS - The lighter alloys
are especially adapted for use where it is
desired to reduce the inertia forces of
moving parts and where, in general,
reduced weight is an inherent advantage,
as in airplane construction and in some
parts of trucks, trains, and other vehicles.
MAGNESIUM ALLOYS - Since magnesium
alloys are about two-thirds as heavy as
aluminum, lightness is one of the most
significant characteristics of this metal.
TITANIUM - Since titanium is expensive,
it is not used except where its properties
are important - in particular in extreme-
temperature situations where strength is
needed, especially for aeronautical
purposes.
HIGH-TEMPERATURE SERVICE
SUPERALLOYS OR SUPERSTRENGTH
ALLOYS - These alloys are some
combination of nickel, cobalt, chromium,
iron, molybdenum, tungsten, columbium,
titanium, and aluminum, but never
containing all of these.
CREEP STRENGTH OR RUPTURE STRESS -
When plastic deformations are involved,
the criterion for design at a particular
operating temperature is the creep
strength or the rupture stress at a
specified length of time.

PLASTICS - Have come into use not only

as decorative and unstressed parts but
also as load carrying members.

TWO MAIN CLASSES:

THERMOSETTING - Undergo chemical

change and harden on being heated,
usually under pressure; cannot be
reshaped on heating.

THERMOPLASTIC - Soften as the

temperature rises and remain soft in the
heated state; it may be reshaped on
heating.