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PRESSURE
Thermodynamics NORMAL FORCE per unit AREA.
F Force
P= ¿
THERMODYNAMICS
A Cross−Sectional Area
Is a science that treats of
the
lbs
various N phenomena of
¿energy
2
− psi ¿
and −Pascal
2 its conversion from
¿ m
one form to another or vice
versa. KINDS OF PRESSURE
1.Power Generation
GAUGE PRESSURE ( P g )
- Power Plants
PRESSURE measured by a GAUGE.
Transportation
- Kinetic
2. Energy
VACUUM PRESSURE (Pvac )
Conversion of Electricity into
A NEGATIVE GAUGE PRESSURE.
cooling - Refrigeration
and Air Condition
3. BAROMETRIC PRESSURE ¿
PRESSURE measured by a
1. FORCE BAROMETER.
A vector quantity that tends
to ATMOSPHERIC
4. ALTER the MOTION of a( PBODY.
PRESSURE atm )
PRESSURE near the SEA LEVEL or
Newton DATUM
2nd Law of Motion
PLANE.
5. ABSOLUTE PRESSURE ¿
PRESSURE affected by the
BAROMETRIC PRESSURE.
5.1 = P|¿|¿F =
net=ma
P¯¿+ P ¿
g
2. MASS
6. HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE ( P B )
AMOUNT of MATTER in a BODY.
is the PRESSURE due to the
HEIGHT & PROPERTY of FLUID.
ρ∙ g
PB =Pf =¿γh ; γ=¿
g0
General Formula:
P2 Z2
ρ∙ g
3. WEIGHT ∫ dP=∫ g0
dZ
FORCE of GRAVITY. P1 Z1
1
UNITS OF PRESSURE 7. SPECIFIC WEIGHT (γ )
The WEIGHT of SUBSTANCE per
lbs UNIT VOLUME.
1 atm = 14.7 2
∨ psi
¿
1 atm = 760 mm Hg or torr W m∙g ρ∙ g
1 atm = 76 cm Hg γ= =γ = =γ =
V g0V g0
1 atm = 29.92 In Hg
1 atm = 33.94 (33.90) ft H20
8. SPECIFIC VOLUME (ν)
1 atm = 1.01325 bar
VOLUME of SUBSTANCE per UNIT
1 atm = 101325 pascal
MASS.
1 bar =
10 pascal v 1
ν= ; ν=
1 bar =
101.325 kPa m ρ
1 bar =
0.101325 MPa
1 bar 9.
SPECIFIC atm
=
0.986923 GRAVITY ( s ∙ g)
RATIO of the SPECIFIC WEIGHT
of kPa
1 Pa = 0.001 SUBSTANCE over the SPECIFIC
WEIGHT
1 Pa = 0.000001 of WATER REFERENCE.
MPa
νs ρs
1 kPa = 1000 Pa s ∙ g= ; s ∙ g=
ν H 20 referenc e ρH 20 reference
1 MPa = 100000 Pa
@ Standard Equation:
5. TEMPERATURE
MEASURE of the HOTNESS and
lbs
ν H 20 reference =62.4
COLDNESS of the 3
BODY.
ft
ENGLISH kg
ν H 20UNIT:
reference =1000 3
m
Degreeν Fahrenheit kg (°F)
20 reference =1
Degree HRankine l
(°R) – ABSOLUTE
1000 l=1 m ;1 kg=9.81 N
3 EXAMPLE:
SI UNIT: A cylindrical tank 2m in diameter
and a height of 3m is filled with a
Degree Celsius (°C) kg
fluid whose density is 500 3
Degree Kelvin (°K) - ABSOLUTE m
Determine:
RELATIONSHIP OF TEMPERATURE A. V f
B. M f
9 m
°F = ¿ °C) + 32 C. ν f if g = 9.25 2
5 s
°R = 460+ ¿°F D. ν f
E. s∙g of fluid
5
°C = ¿ °F - 32)
9
°K = 273 + °C Filled
6. DENSITY ( ρ) with fluid
The RATIO of MASS and the
VOLUME of SUBSTANCE.
M lbs N kg
ρ= ¿ ∨ ∨
V ft 3 ¿3 cm 3 2
GIVEN: 11. ENERGY CONCEPT
kg ENERGY - The ABILITY or the
ρ=¿500
m3 CAPACITY to do WORK.
SOLUTION:
FOR V f (1) 11.1 WORK
2 W = F ∙ d
2 πd h W =
V f =V T =π r h=
4 F Cos(θ ) ∙ d
π 2 m2 3 m
V f =V T =
4
3
V f =V T =3 π m
FOR M f (2) 11.2 POTENTIAL ENERGY (PE)
Vf ENERGY by virtue of the
ρf= ; M f =ρ f V f
Mf POSITION of the MASS.
kg 3
M f =500 3 ∙ 3 π m P2 Z2
m m∙ g
∫ dP=∫ g0
dZ
P1 Z1
m
FOR ν f if g = 9.25 2 (3)
s
kg m
500 3 ∙ 9.25 2 m∙ g
ρ ∙g m s P = Z
ν f = f =ν f = g0
g0 m
9.81 2
s CHANGE IN
FOR ν f (4)
1 1 POTENTIAL ENERGY
=
ν f = ρf kg
500 3 m∙ g
m ∆P = ¿]
3 g0
ν f = 0.002 m
12. KINETIC ENERGY (K)
FOR s∙g of fluid (5) kg
ENERGY by virtue of the MOTION
of the MASS.
kg
500 3
ρs m
K2 V2
m
s ∙ g=
ρH 20 reference
=
kg ∫ dK=∫ g dV
1500 3 K1 V1 0
m
10. CONSERVATION OF MASS
m 2
K = V
2 g0
CHANGE IN KINETIC
ENERGY
m
13. POWER ∆K = ¿]
m1+ ∆ m=m2 2 g0
WORK per UNIT TIME.
CONTINUITY EQUATION
A ν A ν W F∙d d
p1 A 1 ν 1=p 2 A 2 ν2 1 1 = 2 2 PW = = ; =v
p1 p2 t t t
;if same density A 1 ν 1=A 2 ν 2 PW =F ∙ v 3
UNIT OF POWER SOLUTION:
lbs−ft lbs−ft ∆ u=Q−W
1 hp = 550 =33000
sec min
1 hp = 0.746 kW ¿ 746 W For W
V2 V2
BTU BTU
1 hp = 42.4 =0.71 W =∫ PdV =P∫ dV
min sec V1 V1
14. WORK NON-FLOW (w) W = P(V2 - V1)
BTU
V2 lb f if p = c 3 144 ¿2 lb f
W = 15 2 (30 - 10)ft x 2 x
W =∫ pdV ¿W = p(V 2−V 1 ) ifft v = 778
V 1
c ft 2
W = 55.53 BTU W = 0
For ∆ u
CLOSED∆ u=Q−W
SYSTEM
∆ u=30 BTU
- a SYSTEM −55.53
where BTUis NO MASS
there
the GIVEN BOUNDARY, only
CROSSING
∆ u=−25.53 BTU
the ENERGY
OPEN SYSTEM
1st Law of Thermodynamics: - a SYSTEM where there BOTH the
MASS and ENERGY are CROSSING the
GIVEN BOUNDARY.
Q=∆ u+W
∆ u=Q−W → 1st Law of Thermodynamics
C v =¿
CONSIDER: REQUIRED:
a. Adiabatic (Q = 0) WS in Hp
b. ∆ H =0 du=C v dT
u2 T2
SOLUTION:
Q - W S = ∆ P+ ∆ K +∆ H ∫ du=∫ C v dT
u1 T1
Q - W S = ∆ P+ 2 T ∆ K +∆ H
∆ u = ∫ C v dT
-W S = ∆ P+ ∆ K1 T
C v is a function of Temperature
Since no mention about Z, if C v is constant and for in lb mass
Assume Z2 = Z1 ∆ u = mC v (∆ T ¿
∆ u = mC v ( T 2−T 1 )
FOR ∆ P
mg b. SPECIFIC HEAT AT CONSTANT
∆ P= [ Z −Z 1 ]
g0 2 PRESSURE (CP)
∆ P=0
The AMOUNT of ENTHALPY NEEDED
FOR ∆ K to RAISE the TEMPERATURE of
1lb of substance if 1°F
mg
∆ K=
2 g0 2
[ V 2−V 12 ]
lb C P =¿
2 2
sec
[ ( 1175) −(2775) ] ft2
2 2
∆K=
ft s
2( 32.2 2 )
s dH = C P dT
lb ⋅ ft 1 hp
x
∆K = -196273.2919 s lb ⋅ ft u2 T2
550
FOR WS s ∫ du=∫ C v dT
-W S = ∆ P+ ∆ K u1 T1
T2
-W S = 0−¿356.86 hp
∆ H = ∫ C P dT
T1
W S = 356.86 hp C P is a function of Temperature
For m lb of mass & C p is constant
SPECIFIC HEAT ∆ H =mC p ∆ T
- The AMOUNT of HEAT NEEDED to ∆ H =mC p ( T 2−T 1 )
RAISE the TEMPERATURE of 1lb of
substance BY 1°F
5
3. GAY LUSSAC'S LAW (V=C)
(Volume is Constant)
RELATIONSHIPS OF SPECIFIC HEATS
Cp P
1. K = K = Gas Ratio: P∝T = T ∝ P P = CT C=
Cv T
2. R = C p−C v R = Gas Constant
R @pt 1 @pt 2
3. C v = From: C p=k C v
k−1 P1 P2
= C = C
T1 T2
kR C
4. C p= From: C v = p
k−1 k P1 P2 P2 T2
IDEAL GAS = PERFECT GAS = =
- When MOLECULES COLLIDE with EACH T 1 4. TEQUATION
2 OF PSTATE
1 T1
OTHER without DISTORTION. (Ideal Gas Law)
PV ∝ mT
PV = RmT PV = mRT
1. PVT Relations
Answer:
P1V 1 P2V 2
PV = mRT
T1 T2
2. Wn⋅F
Answer:
V2
GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS
W =∫ PdV If P=C If V=C
Gives
V 1
the MASS FRACTION OF
COMPONENT in the mixture APPLICABLE
P(V2 -LIQUID,
to SOLID, V1) = 0
or GAS.
mass of icomponent wi lbi
fmi = = →
mass of mixture wm lbm
3. −∫ vdp
Where:
Answer: fmi = is the mass fraction of component i
If P=C If V=C wi = Represents the sum of the masses of
−∫ vdp=0 −∫ vdp=¿ V(P2 - P1) the i components in the mixture 7
VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS For the MASS FRACTION OF COMPONENT i
Is FREQUENTLY USED to DESCRIBE
MIXTURE OF GASES. Bi M i N i Mi
fmi = = ∑ [IDEAL GAS]
∑
Bi M i N i Mi
i i
AMAGAT’S LAW (ADDITIVE VOLUME LAW)
The TOTAL VOLUME of a MIXTURE OF
GASES is EQUAL to the SUM OF THE Converting VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS TO
VOLUMES that would be OCCUPIED BY GRAVITMETRIC ANALYSIS:
THE VARIOUS COMPONENTS each at the
( )( )
PRESSURE Pm and TEMPERATURE Tm. lb i pmolei f mi pmole i
f mi =
lb m M i lb i Mi lb m
From the above statement applying ideal
gas law
For the MOLE FRACTION OF EACH COMPONENT
P V n R Tm Va na
i:m a = a ; = = Xa
PmV m nm RT m Vm nm
Note: f mi
Where:
i = Means component Mi
Xnim = ∑ ni
( )
ni - mixture f
∑ Mmi
i
In GENERAL FORM, the MOLE FRACTION of the
i COMPONENT OF GAS MIXTURE in THERMAL ∑ Pi
EQUILIBRIUM is: From DALTON’S
i LAW OF ADDITIVE
∑ PRESSURE:
i
ni Pi Pi
Vi Pm = ; Xi = =
Xi = [ ∑ X i=1 ]
∑ ni ∑i
= Pi Pm
Vi
∑ ρi P
the∑DENSITY
i
For i OF MIXTURE:
RT
In the MOLE FRACTION of the i COMPONENT i i m
P m P
in a mixture is Xi then FOR MOLES: From PV = mRT ; = ; ρ =
RT v RT
( Xi
pmolei
pmole m )( Mi
lb i
pmolei ) = Xi Mi =
lb i
pmole m =
Pm
1545T m
=
PROPERTIES OF MIXTURE:
Where:
mi = is the molecular mass of component i GIBBS-DALTON PRINCIPLE
Statement:
For the EQUIVALENT MOLECULAR MASS OF The VALUE of ANY EXTENSIVE PROPERTY
MIXTURE: ∑ Xi M i of an IDEAL GAS MIXTURE is the SUM
i
of those PARTICULAR PROPERTIES that
Mm = XaMa + XbMb + ⋯ each INDIVIDUAL COMPONENT would have
if it EXISTED ALONE in the
PARTICULAR VOLUME.
For SPECIFIC GAS CONSTANT OF MIXTURE:
8
R 1545 ft−lb
Rm = =
Mm Mm lb−° R
1.0 SPECIFIC ENTHALPY OF MIXTURE: 8.0 MOLAL SPECIFIC HEAT AT CONSTANT
VOLUME OF GAS MIXTURE:
h m = f m ha + f m hb + f m hc + ⋯ ± ∑ f m hi
Cv = Cv Xa + Cv Xb + Cv X c + ⋯ ± ∑ X i C vi
a b c i
i
m a b c
Also:
Hm = ∑ W i hi (a) C vm = C pm−R
2.0 SPECIFIC INTERNAL ENERGY: C pm
(b) K m =
C vm
±∑ f m Ui (c) U m = h m−R T
Um = f m U a + f m U b + f m U c + ⋯
a b c i
i
[( )]
T
C p dT Pi m
Um = ∑ W iUi Sm = ∑ hi Si +∫
o
T
−R ln o
i i T P o
Cp = fm Cp + fm Cp + fm Cp + ⋯
m a a b b c c
±∑ f m C p
i
i i
i [(
Pi
Sm = ∑ X i Si −R ln o
o
P )]
4.0 SPECIFIC HEAT AT CONSTANT VOLUME Note:
OF MIXTURE: If Pi is in atmospheres Po = 1
If the mixture is at 1 atm, Pm = Po = 1
±∑ f m Cv
Cv = f m Cv + f m Cv + f m Cv + ⋯
m a a b b c c
i
i i
Pi Pi
= = Xi
5.0 FOR MOLAL ENTHALPY AND TOTAL Pm Po
MOLAL ENTHALPY:
Where values of:
± ∑ X i hi
h m = X a h a + X b h b + X c hc + ⋯ i Sio are found in table 11 & item B11
H m =∑ ni hi 11. If i components of an IDEAL GAS
i
MIXTURE are INITIALLY in INDIVIDUAL
EQUILIBRIUM STATES defined by Pi and T i 1 1
6.0 MOLAL INTERNAL ENERGY AND TOTAL The CHANGE OF ENTROPY during their
MOLAL INTERNAL ENERGY: ADIABATIC MIXING TO an EQUILIBRIUM
±∑ Xi Ui
[( )]
STATE is: Pi TOTAL
U m = X aU a + X bUb + X c Uc + ⋯ i ∆ S=∑ n i Ø i −Ø i −R ln AMOUNT
2
i
2
Pi 1
1
U m =∑ ni U i
[( )]
i
Pi PER MOLE
∆ S=∑ X i Ø i −Ø i −R ln 2
MIXTURE
i
2 1
Pi
7.0 MOLAL SPECIFIC HEAT AT CONSTANT
1
( )
Tm X O M O = (0.217)(32) = 6.944
∆ Ø i=C p ln
2 2
Ti X CO M CO = (0.348)(28) = 9.744
1
9.744
o fm = fm = 0.555
13. THE ABSOLUTE ENTROPY Sm of a CO
17.558 CO
constant (b) The partial pressure of PCO = (0.348)(200) PCO = 69.6 psia
O2 and (C) The Volume occupied V m. P H = (0.435)(200) P H = 87.0 psia
2 2
23 M CO = 28
10 MH = 2 To Check:
XH = = 0.435 2
2
23 1545 nm T m 1545(23)(500)
Vm = = Vm = 616.93ft
10
3
Pm 200(144)
(b) the mass of each constituents THEORETICAL POWER CYCLE
(c) mols of each constituents in the
mixture and (d) Rm POWER CYCLE
Is a cycle that OPERATES for
SOLUTION: the PURPOSE of PRODUCING WORK
or POWER.
fm
Substance fm mi i
i
mi GAS CYCLES
O2 0.32 32 0.01 Are POWER CYCLE in which the
CO2 0.44 44 0.01 WORKING SUBSTANCE IS GAS
N2 0.24 28 0.0086
CONSIDERATION IN GAS ANALYSIS:
fm 1. Heat Supplied
∑m i
= 0.01 + 0.01 + 0.0086 = 0.0286
2. Heat Rejected
i
3. Net Work
4. Efficiency
(a) Molicular weight of mixture (M m) 5. Mean Effective Pressure
∑ Xi M i
Mm = XaMa + XbMb + ⋯
i
ELEMENTS OF THERMODYNAMICS ENGINE:
1. Working Substance
Mm = 11.2 + 15.4 + 8.4 2. Source of Heat
lbs 3. Heat Sink
Mm = 35 4. Engine
mole
i
0.01
XO = = 0.349 = 0.35 MOLS O2
2
0.0286
0.01
X CO = = 0.349 = 0.35 MOLS CO2
2
0.0286
0.0086
XN = = 0.300 = 0.30 MOLS N2
2
0.0286
(d) Rm 11
R 1545 ft−lb
Rm = =
Mm Mm lb−° R
ANALYSIS: (OTTO CYCLE) 4. Cycle
1. QA = mCv(T3–T2) W net
l cycle = x 100 %
2. QR = mCv(T4–T1) QA
3. Wnet = QA–QR (Network) mC p ( T 3−T 2 )−mC v ( T 4 −T 1 )
= mCv(T3–T2) - mCv(T4–T1) =
= mCv[(T3–T2)-(T4–T1)] mC p ( T 3 −T 2 )
4. Cycle (Cycle Thermal Efficiency) m kr mR
k−1
[ T 3−T 2 ] −
k−1 4
( T −T 1 )
=
W net mkR
l cycle = X 100 % [ T −T 1 ]
k −1 3
QA
=
Q A−Q R
QA
x 100 % = 1−
{[ ( T 4−T 1 )
k ( T 3−T 2 )]} x 100%
[ 1
]
= 1− k −1 x100%
( rk )
5. MEP
W net W net
V1 V D + CV D MEP = = =
C+1 VD V 1−V 2
rk = = = C =
V2 CV D C mC p ( T 3−T 2 )−mC v ( T 4 −T 1 )
1 V 1−V 2
r k −1
DUAL COMBUSTION CYCLE/ENGINE (SVPSV)
Where: THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE that
r k = Compression Ratio COMBINES the OTTO CYCLE and
C = Percent Clearance DIESEL CYCLE.
Also known as LIMITED PRESSURE
5. Mean Effective Pressure (MEP) DIESEL CYCLE (SPSV)CYCLE
or MIXED
SEILIGER or SABATH CYCLE
mc v
[ ( T 3−T 2 )−( T 5−T 1 ) ] +mc p ( T 4 −T 3 ) x 100 %
mc v ( T 3−T 2 ) +mc p ( T 4−T 3 )
Note:
l cycle = 1− 1
(r k)
k−1
[ r p x ( r c k −1 )
( r p−1 ) + kr p ( r c −1 ) ]
V1
rk = Comparison Ratio =
V2
P3
rp = Pressure Ratio =
P2
V4
rc = Cut-off Ratio =
V3
BRAYTON CYCLE (SPSP)
CONSTANT PRESSURE CYCLE named
after GEORGE BRAYTON (1830-1892)
The American Engineer who
developed it.
Also known as JOULE CYCLE
It is an OPEN SYSTEM but
Processes:
THERMODYNAMICALLY ANALYZE as
1-2 CLOSED
Isentropic Compression (Compressor)
SYSTEM.
2-3 Constant Pressure Heat Addition
Application in COMMERCIAL and
3-4 MILITARY
Isentropic Expansion
AIRCRAFT. (Turbine)
4-1 Constant Pressure Heat Rejection
1. QA = mcp(T3-T2)
2. QR = mcp(T1-T4) = -mcp(T4-T1)
3. Wnet = QA-QR
= mcp(T3-T2)-mcp(T4-T1)
= mcp[(T3-T2)-(T4-T1)]
13
4. Cycle Also
W net R T1
l cycle = x 100 % PV = mRT V 1=
QA P1
mc P [ ( T 3−T 2 ) −( T 4−T 1 ) ] ( kJ=kN−m)
= x 100 % (0.2871 )(300 K )
mc P ( T 3 −T 2 ) kg−K
V 1= V1 =
kN
100 2
W net m
5. Mep = m
3
VD 0.861
EXAMPLE (OTTO CYCLE) kg
An Engine operates on air standard
Otto Cycle. The condition at the start V1 V1
rk = ; V2 =
of compression are 27°C and 100 kPa. V2 rk
kJ
The heat added is 1840 . The
kg m
3
3
compression ratio is 8. V2 = 0.861 V 2 = 0.108 m
kg
kg
8
Determine: Process (2-3) (V=C)
a. P, V, T at each point m3
b. Thermal Efficiency V2 = V3 = 0.108
kg
c. Pmep P1 P2 P
Given: = T 2 = T 1( 2 )
T1 T2 P1
rk = 8
kJ
QA = 1840 1837.92kPa
kg T 2 = 300K( ) T 2 = 5513.76K
P1 = 100 kPa 100 kPa
ALSO
QA
QA = mCv(T3–T2) T3 = +T
Cv 2
kJ
1840
kg
T3 = +5513.76K T3 =
kJ
0.7186
kg−K
8074.29K
100 kPa
Process (3-4) (PVk=C)
( )
T1 = 27 k
+273 k k
P3 V4
P3 V 3 =P4 V 4 =
300 K P4 V3
SOLUTION:
Consider Process (1-2) (PVk=C) m3 m3
But V4=V1 = 0.861 ; V3=V2 = 0.108
kg kg
( )
k
k k
P2 V1
P1 V 1 = P 2 V 2 = P3
P1 V2
R T3
( )
k
PV=mRT P 3= P4 = V4
V3
( )
k
V1 V1 k V3
But = rk ; P 2 = P1 = P1 ( r k )
V2 V2
( kJ =kN −m )
(0.2871 )(8074.29 K ) 14
P2 = 100 kPa ( 8 ) 1.4
P2 = 1837.92 kPa kg−K
P 3= 3
m
0.108
kg
b. l cycle P2 = 100 kPa ( 16 )1.4 P2 = 4850.29 kPa
l cycle = 1−
[ ( rk )
1
k −1
]
x100%
PV = mRT
R T1
V 1=
P1
= 1−[
( 8 )1.4−1
1
]
x100%
V 1=(0.2871)
(kJ =kN−m)
kg−K
¿(300 K ) ¿
kN V1 =
l cycle = 56.47% 100 2
m
c. Pmep m3
0.861
W net mC v [(T 3 – T 2)−( T 4 – T 1)] kg
MEP = =
VD V 1−V 2
V1 V1
rk = ; V2 =
V2 rk
MEP =
( kJ =kN −m )
(0.7186 )[( 8074.29 K – 5513.76 K )−(8074.27 K – 300 K)]m3
kg−K
3
V 2 = 0.861 kg V 2 = 0.054
m
(0.861−0.108) 16
EXAMPLE (DIESEL CYCLE) kg 3
m
An engine operates on a standard
kg
Diesel Cycle. The condition at the
start of compression are 27°C and
100kPa. The heat supplied is 1840
kJ
kg
.
P1V 1
T1
=
P2V 2
T2
T2 =
[ ]
P2 V 2
T
P1 V 1 1
The Compression ratio is 16.
[ ]
3
m
Determine: (4850 kPa)(0.054
)
kg
a. PVT at all points T2 = 300 K T2 =
m3
b. l cycle (100 kPa)(0.861 )
kg
c. Mep
912.54K
Given:
kJ Process (2-3) (P=C)
Q = 1840 P2 = P3 = 4850.29 kPa
kg
rk = 16
T2
V2
=
T3
V3
V 3=V 2
[ ]
T3
T2
QA
QA = Cp(T3-T2) T3 = + T2
Cp
100 kPa T1 = 27
+273 = 1840
300 K
T3 = kJ + 912.54K T3 =
SOLUTION: 1.0062
kg−K
Consider Process (1-2) (PVk=C)
2741.20K
( )
k
P2 V1 V1
[ ]
3
k
P1 V 1 = P 2 V 2
k
= ; = rk m 2741.20 K m3
P1 V2 V2 V3 = 0.054 V3 = 0.162
kg 912.54 K kg
( )
k
V Process (3-4) (PVk=C) 15
P2 = P1 1 = P1 ( r k )
k
V2
T4 = 1405.24K R T1
PV = mRT V 1=
P1
b. l cycle kJ
mC p ( T 3−T 2 )−mC v ( T 4 −T 1 ) (0.287 )(300 K )
kg−K m3
l cycle = V 1= V =0.861
mC p ( T 3 −T 2 ) kJ 1
kg
100 3
= m
1.0062 ( 2741.20 K−912.54 K )−0.7186 ( 1405.24 K −300 K )
1.0062 ( 2741.20 K −912.54 K ) V V
rk = 1 ; V 2 = 1
V2 rk
l cycle = 56.84%
m3 3
V2 = 0.861 V 2 = 0.06 m
c. MEP kg
W net mC p ( T 3−T 2 )−mC v ( T 4 −T 1 ) kg
15
MEP = =
VD V 1−V 2
MEP =
P1V 1
T1
1.0062 ( 2741.20 K−912.54 K )−0.7186 ( 1405.24 K −300 K )
=
P2V 2
T2
T2 =
P2 V 2
P1 V 1 1
T
[ ]
[ ]
3
m EXAMPLE (DUAL CYCLE)m3
(0.861−0.054) (4431.27 kPa)(0.06 )
kg An ideal dual cycle kg has a compression
T2 = 300 K T2 =
ratio of 15 and a cutoffm
3 ratio of 1.4.
(100 kPa)(0.861
The pressure ratio kg )
during constant
volume heat addition process is 1.1.
926.40K
The state at the beginning of
compression are 100 kPa and 27°C.
Process (2-3) (V=C)
Determine:
P2V 2 P3V 3 3
a. PVT= at all point
; V 2 = V 3 = 0.06 m
T2 l
b. T3 kg
cycle
c. MEP
T3 =
[ ]
P3
P2 2
T ;
P3
P2
= rp T 3 = [ r p] T2
P3 = rp(P2) P3 = 1.1(4431.27kPa)
P3 = 4874.4kPa
T1 = 27
100 kPa
+273 = 300
Process (3-4) (P=C)
K
;
V1
= rk ( )
T3
V3
=
T4
V4
; T4 =
[ ]
V4
T ;
V3 3
V4
V3
= rc
P1 V2 V2
T 4 = [ rc ] T 3 T 4 = [ 1.4 ] 1019.04 K
( )
V1 k T 4 = 1426.66K
P2 = P1 = P 1 ( r k )k
V2 3 16
P2 = 100[ 15 ] 1.4 P2 = 4431.27kPa V 4 = rc(V3) V 4 = 1.4(0.06 m )
kg
[ ][ ]
P4 V 4 P5V 5 P5 V 5 and hydrogen) with oxygen is a
= ; T5 = T4 process
T4 T5 P4 V 4
termed combustion, wherein new
T 5 = 1426.66 K ¿
compounds (chiefly carbon dioxide and
T 5 = 562.38K water vapor) are formed from the
reacting materials and heat is
liberated.
b. l cycle The most important of the fuel
W net materials are the compounds of
l cycle = x 100 % carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that
QA
form the bulk of the mineral fuels,
such as peat, ignite, bituminous
Q A = mcv(T3-T2) + mcp(T4-T3)
coal, anthracite, natural gas, and
Q A = 0.7186(1019.04-926.40) + petroleum as well as their solid,
1.0062(1426.66-1019.04) liquid, and gaseous derivatives. Wood
kJ and carbonaceous agricultural wastes,
Q A = 476.72
kg such as corncobs and bagasse from
sugarcane, are of such as iron,
Q R = mcv(T5-T1) silicon, aluminum, calcium,
Q R = 0.7186(562.38-300)K magnesium, nitrogen, sulfur, sodium,
kJ and potassium, but these add nothing
Q R = 188.55
kg to the fuel value. The natural
mineral fuels are fuels solely by
kJ virtue of the hydrogen and carbon
Wnet = QA-QR Wnet = (476.72-188.55)
kg they contain.
kJ
Wnet = 288.17
kg ANALYSIS OF FUELS
LIQUID FUEL HANDLING AND STORAGE • Liquid fuel dispensing devices, such
as pumps, shall be mounted either on a
• Liquid fuels are usually collected concrete island or be otherwise
from the earth’s crust, and usually protected against collision damage.
made from fossil plants and animals.
These are categorized depending on the • Flammable liquids may be dispensed in
class of petroleum collected. the open from a tank or from other
Thus, these types were usually vehicles equipped for delivering fuel
contained and stored in tanks and pill to another vehicle only dispensing
proof bars. hoses do not exceed 7 feet in length
and
• liquid fuels not handled by pump
shall be handled and transported only • Any powered dispensing note used are
in portable containers or equivalent of the automatic closing type.
means designed for that purpose.
portable containers shall be metal, SAFETY MEASURES USED
have tight closures with screw or
spring covers and shall be equipped • In case of spillage, filler caps
with spouts or other means to allow shall be replaced, and spillage
pouring without spilling. Leaking disposed of before engines are started.
containers shall not be used. Smoking and open flames shall
be prohibited in areas used for
fueling, fuel storage or enclosed 22
storage of equipment containing fuel.
• Liquid fuels not handled by pump of escaping fuel gas are sufficient,
shall be handled and transported only under certain conditions, to form an
in portable containers or equivalent ignitable mixture.
means designed for that purpose.
Portable containers shall be metal, • There is only a small risk that the
have tight closures with screw or lower ignition limits will be reached
spring covers and shall be equipped in large working areas that have good
with spouts or other means to allow natural ventilation or are in the open
pouring without spilling. leaking air.
containers shall not be used.
• Leaking fuel gases may form ignitable
GASEOUS FUEL HANDLING AND STORAGE mixtures with the surrounding air and
lead to fire or explosions.
• Unlike solid and liquid fuels, gas
fuels have more complicated design GAS FUEL STORAGE
of storage containers. The special
designs are used to make sure that • Stored fuel containers shall be
these fuels won’t leak, preventing it located to minimize exposure to
to have accumulation in an area that excessive temperatures and physical
may lead to gas explosion. damage and containers shall not be
stored near exits, stairways or areas
• The tanks used for gas fuels are normally used or intended for egress.
usually pressurized and been leak Outlet valves of containers in storage
free. The pressure, acts as a preserve or transport shall be closed. relief
to adjust and compress the fuel inside valves shall connect with vapor spaces.
the tank and to store the fuel in a
well state condition. If the pressure DISPENSING GAS FUEL
at the tank decreases, the fuel will
start to move out of the tank. • When removable fuel containers are
used, the escape of fuel when
RISKS OF FLAMMABLE GASES containers are exchanged shall be
minimized by Automatic quick closing
• Acetylene, hydrogen, propane, couplings closing in both directions
propylene, and methane are all when uncoupled! in fuel lines
flammable gases referred to as fuel or closing fuel container valves and
gases. allowing engines to run until residual
fuel is exhausted. pressure relief
• Often these gases are mixed with an valve openings shall be in continuous
oxidant and provided with an ignition contact with the vapor space on top of
source, they will burn. As the the cylinder.
percentage of fuel gas increases, the
risk of fire becomes greater. COAL CLASSIFICATION
• After the concentration has exceeded The three methods of classifying coals
the upper value, the air becomes as related to power plants have been
saturated by the gas and ignition adopted as standards in the United
becomes less likely. States and Canada. In general, they are
based of rank, grade, and type or
If a container is kept inside or in a variety.
confined space, even small quantities 23
Classification by Rank
1. Low volatile bituminous coal Dry FC, 78% or more and less than 86%
(Dry VM, 22% or less and more than 14%)
2. Medium volatile bituminous Dry FC, 69% or more and less than 78%
coal (Dry VM, 31% or less and more than 22%)
II. Dry FC, less than 69% (Dry VM, more than
Bituminous 3. High volatile A bituminous 31%); and moist J, 14.7x106 or more
coal
Moist J, 13.7x106 or more and less than
14.7x106
4. High volatile B bituminous
coal Moist J, 11.6x106 or more and less than
13.7x106
24
Legend:
FC = Fixed Carbon
Classification by Grade
• Diesel Index - one of the methods The octane number of a gasoline is the
extensively employed in measuring and percentage by volume of iso-octane in a
controlling the ignition quality in a mixture of isooctane (C8H18) and normal
fuel. The higher the diesel index, the heptane (C7H16) which produces the same
better the ignition quality of the knock intensity as the given fuel. Thus,
fuel. Diesel index is expressed as a mixture of 70% octane and 30% heptane
follows: has an octane number of 70. It has been
established that pure isooctane is
Diesel Index = practically free from knock, whereas
API gravity x Aniline cloud point pure heptane knocks worse than any known
100 gasoline. The greater the octane number,
the better is the antiknocking property
• Fire Point - the lowest temperature of the gasoline.
of a liquid fuel oil in an open
container at which oil gives off vapor Pour Point
that burns continuously when ignited.
The minimum temperature at which fuel
• Flash Point of Fuel Oil - the oil will not flow freely under specified
temperature at which the vapor will conditions.
flash when exposed to flame. It is of
little value except as a rough Specific Gravity
indication of the volatility of an
oil. The ratio of the weight of any volume
oil at 60°F (15.6°C) to the weight of an
Ignition Quality equal volume of pure water at 60°F
(15.6°C). The API gravity of pure water
This is one of the most important at 60°F (15.6°C) is 10°. The range of
characteristics of fuel oil. It API for fuel oil is approximately from
measures the ability of fuel oil to 10 to 40° API.
[ ]
ignite spontaneously and promptly in 141.5
−131.5
the combustion chamber after °API = S . G. at 60 ° F
injection, thus ensuring a progressive 60 ° F
smooth burning and easy starting. It OR
[ ]
is believed that combustion knock in 141.5
compression-ignition engine is caused −131.5
°API = S . G. at
15.6 ° C
by delay in ignition during the first
15.6 ° C
part of the injection, causing
accumulation of fuel which burns
[ ]
simultaneously with the fuel injected 140
−130
during the latter part of the °Bé = S . G. at
60 ° F
injection. Such a situation occurs 60 ° F
because of an injection lag in the OR 30
[ ]
combustion of the fuel between the
140
time of injection and the actual −130
°Bé = S . G. at
15.6 ° C
15.6 ° C
Viscosity with richer gas or used directly in gas
engines. In blast-furnace operations a
The internal resistance of a fluid to gas is derived from the various
flow, usually expressed in a viscosity reactions occurring throughout the
index Saybolt Seconds Universal (SSU). furnace. The principal combustible
It is determined by measuring the time constituent is carbon monoxide (CO)
in seconds required for a standard resulting from the partial combustion
quantity of oil (60 cc) to flow of coke.
through the orifice of the Saybolt
viscosimeter at a standard The gas contains relatively high
temperature. Another viscosity index percentages of inert gases. A typical
is Saybolt Seconds Furol (SSF). composition percentage of the gas is
Viscosity is an important indicator of CO2, 11.5%; H2, 1.0%; CO, 27.5%; and N2,
how readily the oil will atomize and 60.0%; with a gross calorific value of
how it will affect the injection pump. 3428 kJ/m3 (92 Btu/ft3). Calorific value
ranges from 3354 to 4099 kJ/m3 (90-110
Viscosity Index Btu/ft3).
Where: O
HHV = 8080C + 34460 (H - )
HHV = Higher (gross) heating value, 8
BTU/lb + 2250S kcal/kg
C = Mass of carbon per pound of fuel, lb LHV = HHV – 583W kcal/kg
H = Mass of hydrogen per pound of fuel,
lb Where:
O = Mass of oxygen per pound of fuel, lb W = 9H, kg water vapor/kg fuel
S = Mass of sulfur per pound of fuel, lb H = Mass of hydrogen, kg per kg fuel
2442 = Latent heat of water vapor, kJ/kg
NOTE vapor
583 Latent heat of water vapor, kcal/kg
The percentages of the combustibles are vapor
based on the ultimate analysis of coal.
Part of the hydrogen in coal is assumed NOTE
to be in combination with the oxygen in
the coal. The hydrogen available for The heating value of coal may also be
producing heat is therefore the actual calculated by proximate analysis using
hydrogen minus that already combined with the formula found on Table 4, page 21 of
Oxygen to form water. This of hydrogen this book.
combined with which Oxygen is available
not for combustion is equal to one-eighth Heating Value of Liquid Fuels
of the mass of oxygen present in the
coal. The available or free hydrogen is The heating value of liquid fuels may be
equal to determined by the following methods:
O
(H - ).
8 1. Using the oxygen bomb calorimeter.
The true heating value of liquid fuels
In this book, Dulong's formula as stated can be found by direct calorimeter
in the fuel bulletins of U.S. Geological measurements.
Survey and the Bureau of Mines is used 2. Using the general chemical reaction
for calculating the heating value of equation involving the total enthalpies
coal. Dulong's formula is stated as of reactants and products of combustion.
follows: 3. Using an empirical formula based on
33
specific gravity of the fuel which gives
O approximate values only.
HHV = 14544C + 62028 (H - ) + 4050S
8
Other Suggested Empirical Formulas
Bureau of Standards Formula for all J.N. Le Conte Formula for Anhydrous
Petroleum Products Crude Oils
NOTE
Heating values in kJ/m3 in last column of table 3 are expressed in rounded off
figures.
34
Table 4. Properties of coal based on proximate analysis 4
NOTE
The above table does not include lignites, peats, woods, or cannel coal except
as noted in main parts of report.
35
Table 5. Standard Gross Heating Value of Various Fuels 5
Solid Fuels BTU/lb kJ/kg
Where: 2545
ηtb = x 100 (E.S. Unit)
ηm = Mechanical Efficiency W b x HHV
T = Torque Bhp x 4563
N = No. of revolutions ηtb = x 100 (Metric Unit)
W b x Cv x J
F = Force
r = Radius 7. Overall Combine Thermal Efficiency ( η tc )
3413
3. Frictional Horsepower (Fhp) ηtc = x 100
W k x HHV
Fhp = Ihp – Bhp ηtc = ηti +ηtb
2545 x 2 EXAMPLE
ηti = x 100 (E.S. Unit) A simple acting engine gave the ff. data:
W i x HHV
Ihp x 4563 x 2 Size of Engine 43cm x 58cm
ηti = x 100 (Metric Unit) Cycle 2 stroke
Wi x Cv x J
kg
Imep 4
Where: cm2
lb RPM 257
W i = Rate of fuel consumed Gross Load 580kg
IHP−hr
HHV = Higher Heating Value of Fuel Tare Load 14kg
Brake Lever Arm 198cm
W = Weight
kg
min ( ) Fuel Consumption 91
kg
hr 37
C v = Calorific Value of Fuel
kcal
kg ( ) 25°Bé
CALCULATE FOR: Ihp x 4563 x 2
FOR F (ηti ) ; ηti = x 100
A. Ihp E. HHV W i x Cv x J
B. Bhp F. ηti
C. Bmep G. ηtb ηti =
( )
D. Brake Torque kg−m
( 189.80 hp ) 4563
hp−min
SOLUTION: x 100
FOR A (Ihp) ; Ihp =
PLANn
4563
( 91
kg
x
1 hr
hr 60 min)(
10445.84
kcal
kg
427 )(
kg−m
kcal )
Ihp = ηti = 12.80%
( kg
)(
4 2 58 cm x
cm
1m
100 cm )( π4 ) ( 43 cm ) (257 min
2 rev
) (1 ) FOR F (ηtb ) ; ηtb =
Bhp x 4563
W b x Cv x J
x 100
kg−m
4563
hp−min ηtb =
Ihp = 189.80hp COMBUSTION
- Is the process of uniting oxygen in
2 πTN the air with elements in fuel sufficient
FOR B (Bhp) ; Bhp =
4563 rapidity to produce heat at high
temperature.
For T
T = (Gross Load – Tare Load) x Brake Lever Arm
KINDS OF COMBUSTION
T = [580kg – 14 kg] 198 cm x [ 1m
100 cm ] A. Complete Combustion
T = 1120.68 kg-m
- Occurs when fuel is fully oxidized and
all the energy is released.
Bhp =
( 2 π ) ( 1120.68 kg−m) 257 ( rev
min ) B. Incomplete Combustion
kg−m - Occurs when fuel is not fully oxidized
4563
hp−min and not all the energy is released.
}
and incomplete product of combustion C +O2 → CO 2 Product
and excess air passing to the chimney. 1 of
H 2+ O 2 → H 2 O Combustion
2
Heat
S +O2 → SO 2
- Is a form of energy due to molecular
action.
TO BURN CARBON
FACTORS OF COMBUSTION
1. Air Supply C+ O2 → CO2
2. Temperature of primary and
secondary air 12 kg+(16)2 kg → 44 kg
3. Mixing of primary and secondary air
4. Time of Combustion 32 kg O2 kg O2
¿ 2.67
12 kg C kg C
REASON FOR INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION
1. Insufficient oxygen kg O 2
2. Poor mixing of fuel and oxygen 2.67
kg C kg Air
3. Temperature is too low to support ¿ 11.56
kg O2 kg C
combustion 0.232
kg Air
FUEL LOSSES
TO BURN HYDROGEN
1. Loss due to CO
2. Loss of fuel thru gate
1
3. Unburned fuel H 2 + O2 → H 2 O
2
AIR COMPOSITION
1
2 kg2 + ( 16)2 → 18 kg
2
% By Weight % By Volume
Oxygen 23.2% 21%
16 kg O2 kg O2
Nitrogen 76.8% 79% ¿8
2 kg H 2 kg H 2
SOLID FUELS
kg O2
8
COAL ULTIMATE ANALYSIS kg H 2 kg Air
¿ 34.48
C — % kg O2 kg H 2
H — % 0.232
kg Air
O — %
1
N — % = H 2− M ( Actual Hydrogen)
9 TO BURN SULFUR
8
S — % = O2− M ( Actual Oxygen)
9 S+O2 → SO 2
A — %
M — % 32 kg+(16)2 kg → 64 kg
100 %
32 kg O2 kg O2
¿1
32 kg S kg S
39
kg O2
1
kg S
kg O2
THEORETICAL WEIGHT OF AIR FOR COMBUSTION Percent Excess Air (%EA)
A
OR THEORETICAL AIR/FUEL RATIO (W aT ∨ )
F W aa−W aT
%EA = x 100 %
W aT
A
(W aT ∨ ) = 11.56C + 34.5
F PRODUCT OF COMBUSTION
[ C
]
H− + 4.32 S
8
kg air
kg fuel Weight of Gas (W g)
W g=CO 2 + H 2 0+ SO 2+ N 2
Where: C H O S from the Ultimate Analysis
of fuel
Weight of Dry Flue Gas (W dfg )
4 CO2 + O2+700 kg dfg
Also: W dfg = X C ab=
a ( HV ) 3 ( CO 2+CO ) kg fuel
W aT =
10000
REFUSE ANALYSIS
BTU Kj
If HV in If HV in Ash → %
lb kg
Bituminous Coal Combustible → %
a = 7.6 a = 3.26 Unburned Carbon → %
Liquite Coal 100 %∨1 kg refuse
a = 7.25 a = 3.12
Residual Fuel Oil
a = 7.45 a = 3.21 kg refuse kg ash
C u=W r −A
kg fuel kg fuel
TOTAL WEIGHT OF AIR FOR COMBUSTION OR kg unburned c arbon
C u=
A kg fuel
ACTUAL AIR FUEL RATIO (W aa ∨ )
F
kg carbon kg unburned carbon
C ab=C −Cu
( )
A A kg fuel kg fuel
(W aa ∨Actual ) = ( 1+%Excess Air ) W aT ∨ kg actual Carbon
F F C ab=
A 3.03 N 2 kg fuel
A
(W aa ∨Actual ) = X C ab
F CO2 +CO F kg ash
kg fuel
N 2,CO 2,CO →From flue gas analysis WT= A
kg ash
C ab → Actual Carbon Burned kg refuse
kg refuse
FLUE GAS ANALYSIS (Obtain by Orsat WT=
kg fuel
Apparatus by Volume)
TOTAL WEIGHT OF AIR REQUIRED (W aa ' )
CO 2 — % (For Incomplete
CO — % Combustion of kg coal kg actual air
O2 W aa ' = Wf =W aa
— % Carbon hr kg coal
N2 — % kg actual air
W aa ' = Wf x W aa
100 % hr
kg flue gas
W fg ' =Wf x W fg
hr
Air hp
Fan Efficiency = Brake hp
cfm x ∆ P∈H 2 O
Air hp=
ft 3 −¿
6530
min−hp
m3
x ∆ P∈H 2 O
min
Air hp= 3
m −cm
450
min−hp
41