I.

THERMODYNAMICS

Thermodynamics is the study of heat and work.

A pure substance is a working substance whose chemical composition remains the same even if there is a change
in phase. (most common example is water)

An ideal gas is a working substance which remains in gaseous state during its operating cycle and whose equation
of state is PV = mRT. (most common example is air)

PROPERTIES OF WORKING SUBSTANCE

1. PRESSURE

Pressure, in general, is the ratio of force per unit area.

Gage pressure is the pressure reading from the gage pressure instrument P Ih
which is higher or lower than the atmospheric pressure.

Vacuum pressure is a pressure that is less than atmospheric pressure.

Pressure = Force , KN/m2, lb/in2 Above atmospheric

Area
Pgage
Absolute pressure (Pabs) = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric Pressure
Iatmospheric
Pabs = Pg + Patm Pabs
Pvac
Below atmospheric
A. Pressure Conversions
Pabs
1 atm = 0 kPag = 101.325 kPa = 14.7 psi = 29.92 in Hg = 760 mm Hg

B. Hydrostatic Pressure, P P = wh

where: w = density of fluid = (SG x ww)

h = height of fluid ww = density of water
= 1000 kg/m3 = 9.81 KN/m3 = 62.4 lb/ft3 = 1 kg/li P h

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2. TEMPERATURE
Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance or body.

A thermometer is an instrument used to measure the temperature

of a body or a substance.

A pyrometer is an instrument used to measure high temperature gases.

A. Relation between °C and °F scales

°C = 5/9 (F – 32) °F = 9/ 5 C + 32

B. Absolute temperatures:

°K = °C + 273 °R = °F + 460

C. Temperature Difference:

D°C = 5/9 D°F D°F = 9/5 D°C

D°C = D°K D°F = D°R

D. Absolute-Zero Temperature = -273oC = -460oF

3. DENSITY, SPECIFIC VOLUME AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY:

Density is defined, in thermodynamic terms, as the mass per unit volume of a substance

Specific volume is the volume per unit of mass in a substance. It is also the reciprocal of density.

Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a standard (water for liquid and air
for gas).

A. w = m = 1 B. v = V 1 C. SG =
Density of any fluid
=
V v m w Density of water

If two fluids are mixed together:

m1 + m2 m1 + m2 V1 + V2 m / v + m2 / v 2 wm
wm = = vm = = 1 1 SGm =
V1 + V2 m1 / v1 + m2 / v 2 m1 + m2 m1 + m2 w water
SGm = specific gravity of mixture wm = density of mixture

4. INTERNAL ENERGY(U)
Internal energy is the heat energy due to the movement of molecules within the brought about its temperature.

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5. FLOW WORK

Wf = Pressure x Specific Volume Wf = P(V2 - V1) , KJ Wf = P(v2 - v1), KJ/kg

6. ENTHALPY, H

h = Internal Energy + Flow Work h = U + Pv or h = U + (P2v2 – P1v1)

7. STAGNATION ENTHALPY

hs = ho + vo2 /2000 where: vo = initial velocity, ho = ordinary enthalpy

8. ENTROPY

s = Q/T

GENERAL FLOW EQUATIONS

1. Volume flow rate, (Q) m3/sec Q = Area x Velocity = A x v = m v

where: A = p / 4 D2 (for circular cross section) A = L x w (for rectangular)

2. Mass flow rate, (m), kg/sec m = Q/v m = Av / u = A v w

Where: w = density u = specific volume

A1 v1 A v
3. For steady flow process: m1 = m2 = 2 2 A1 v1 w1 = A2 v2 w2
u1 u2

4. If Q is constant:

Q1 = Q2 A1 v1 = A2 v2
p p
(D1)2 V1 = (D1)2 V2 (D1)2 V1 = (D1)2 V2
4 4
Where: A1 = inlet area A2 = exit area
v1 = inlet velocity v2 = exit velocity

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 II. CONSERVATION OF MASS AND ENERGY
The law of conservation of mass states that the total mass is a constant. This means that the total mass entering
to a system is equal to the total mass leaving.

FORMS OF ENERGY

1. Potential Energy, P - is an energy produced due to the change in elevation.

P = mgh DP = P2 - P1 = mg(h2 - h1)

where: m = mass of the body h = height or elevation

Unit Analysis: (SI Unit – English Unit)

mgh mh kJ Btu
PE = PE = kJ, Btu kW, Btu/min
1000 778 kg , lb
m Not known kg, lb kg/s, lb/min
(m = 1 kg/kg, 1lb/lb)
h m, ft m, ft m, ft

2. Kinetic Energy, KE - is an energy produced due to the mass and velocity.

1 1 1
KE = mv2 DKE = m( v 12 - v 2 2 ) DKE = m( v 12 - v 2 2 )
2 2 2
where: m = mass W = weight v = velocity
g = acceleration due to gravity

3. Work, W - is the product of the displacement of the body and the component of the force in the
direction of the displacement.

Work = Force x Distance

Note: 1. Work done by the system is positive (out from the system)
2. Work done on the system is negative (entering to the system)

5. Heat, Q - heat is formed due to the temperature difference.

Q = mcp(t2 - t1)

where: m = mass cp = specific heat t = temperature

Note: 1. Heat is positive when heat is added to the system.
2. Heat is negative when rejected from the system.

III. LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

1. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that when the two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with the
third body, they are in thermal equilibrium with each other and hence are at the same temperature.

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 2. First Law of Thermodynamics

States that one form of energy may be converted into another form.
All energy entering = All energy leaving

A. P1 + K1 + Wf1 + U1 + W = P2 + K2 + Wf2 + U2 + Q
B. W = (P2 - P1) + (K2 - K1) + (U2 - U1) + (Wf2 -Wf1) + Q
C. W = DP + DK + DU + DWf + Q But: Dh = DU + DWf
D. W = DP + DK + Dh + Q
E. Neglecting Potential energy, Kinetic energy & Heat: W = Dh = h2 - h1

3. Second Law of Thermodynamics

Kelvin-Planck Statement: “It is impossible to construct a heat engine which operates in a cycle and receives a
given amount of heat from a high temperature body and does an equal amount of work”

4. Third Law of Thermodynamics

States that the absolute entropy of a pure crystalline substance in complete internal equilibrium is zero at zero
degrees absolute.

IV. IDEAL GAS

Ideal gas is a substance that has the equation of state:

PV = mRT PV = 8.314 n T

where: P = absolute pressure m = mass of gas V = volume of gas

R = gas constant T = absolute temperature n = number of mols

Boyle’s Law: (T = C ) P1 V1 = P2 V2

V1 T1 P1 T1
Charles’s Law: (P = C and V = C) = =
V2 T2 P2 T2

BASIC PROPERTIES OF IDEAL GAS

1. Relationship between cp, cv, R and k

R Rk cp
A. cp = cv + R B. cv = C. cp = D. k =
k -1 k -1 cv
k = 1.4 for cold air k = 1.3 for hot air
where: cp = constant pressure specific heat cv = constant volume specific heat
k = specific heat ratio R = gas constant

For air: cp = 1.0 KJ/kg-K = 0.24 Btu/lb-R

cv = 0.7186 KJ/kg-K = 0.171 Btu/lb-R
R = 0.287 KJ/kg-K = 53.3 ft-lb/lb-R

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2. Universal gas constant of any gas is given by:

8.314 , KJ/kg-K = 1545 ft-lb/lb-R

R =
M M

where: M = no. of moles of gas

For common gases:

Ammonia, NH3 ( M = 17) Helium (M = 4, k = 1.667) Air (M = 28.97)
Oxygen, O2 (M = 32) Nitrogen, N2 (M = 28) Carbon dioxide, CO2 (M = 44)

3. Density of air, w P 1
w= =
RT v

4. Specific volume of air, v RT 1

v = =
P w

5. Standard density of air, w = 1.20 kg/m3 = 0.0749 lb/ft3

Standard temperature of air = 70oF = 21.11oC
Standard pressure of air = 14.7 psi = 101.325 kpa

PROBLEMS:
PRESSURE & TEMPERATURE

1. Find the pressure at the 100-fathom depth of water in kpag.

A. 1,793.96 kpag B. 1,893.96 kpag C. 1,993.96 kpag D. 1,693.96 kpag

2. Convert 750oR to oK.

A. 390.33oK B. 395.33oK C. 410.33oK D. 416.33oK

3. The barometer of a mountain hiker reads 930 mbars at the beginning of a hiking trip and 780 mbars at the end.
Neglecting the effect of altitude on local gravitational acceleration, determine the vertical distance climbed.
Assume g = 9.7 m/s2
A. 1274.21 m B. 1289.00 m C. 1267.34 m D. 1583.34 m

DENSITY, INTERNAL ENERGY & ENTROPY

1. 100 g of water are mixed with 150 g of alcohol (density = 790 kg/m3). What is the specific volume of the
resulting mixtures, assuming that the fluids mixed completely?
A. 0.82 x 10-3 cu.m/kg B. 0.88 x 10-3 cu.m/kg
-3
C. 0.63 x 10 cu.m/kg D. 1.16 x 10-3 cu.m/kg

2. Steam flows through a nozzle at 400oC and 1 Mpa (h = 3263.9 KJ/kg) with velocity of 300 m/s. Find the
stagnation enthalpy.
A. 3300 KJ/kg B. 3290 KJ/kg C. 3320 KJ/kg D. 3309 KJ/kg

3. Given steam pressure of 900 lb/ft2, temperature of 300oF, specific volume of 5.8 ft3/lb. If the specific enthalpy is
9500 ft-lb/lb, what is the internal energy per lb of the system?

MASS AND VOLUME FLOW

1. Air enters a nozzle steadily at 2.21 kg/m3 and 30 m/s. What is the mass flow rate through the nozzle if the inlet
area of the nozzle is 80 cm2?
A. 0.35 kg/s B. 3.5 kg/s C. 5.3 kg/s D. 0.53 kg/s

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2. A pipe has a diameter of 4” at section AA, and a diameter of 2” at section BB. For an ideal fluid flow, the velocity
is given as 1 ft/sec at section AA. What is the flow velocity at section BB?
A. 4 ft/sec B. 0.5 ft/sec C. 1.0 ft/sec D. 2.0 ft/sec

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY (FIRST LAW)

1. Steam turbine is receiving 1014 lbm/hr of steam, determine the horsepower output of the turbine if the work done
by steam is 251 Btu/lbm
A. 100 Hp B. 462.7 Hp C. 200 Hp D. 6002.7 Hp

2. Steam enters a turbine stage with an enthalpy of 3628 kJ/kg at 70 m/s and leaves the same stage with an
enthalpy of 2846 kJ/kg and a velocity of 124 m/s. Calculate the power if there are 5 kg/s steam admitted at the
turbine throttle?
A. 4597.45 kW B. 3976.55 kW C. 3883.81 kW D. 1675.42 kW

IDEAL GAS

1. If the initial volume of an ideal gas is compressed to one-half its original volume and to twice its temperature, the
pressure:
A. Doubles B. Quadruples C. Remains constant D. Halves

2. Find the mass of carbon dioxide having a pressure of 20 psia at 200oF with 10 ft3 volume.
A. 1.04 lbs B. 1.14 lbs C. 1.24 lbs D. 1.34 lbs

3. Find the work possessed for a Helium gas at 20oC.

A. 609 KJ/kg B. 168 KJ/kg C. 229 KJ/kg D. 339 KJ/kg

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I. PROCESSES OF IDEAL GAS
1. Reversible Process: No friction loss

2. Adiabatic Process: No heat gain. No heat loss. The system is perfectly insulated

3. For Any Process: Is a process where there is no change in mass (m1 = m2)

A. P1V1 = P2 V2 B. Dh = m cp (T2 - T1) C. DU = m cv (T2 - T1)

T1 T2

Dh cp
D. =
DU c v

4. Constant Volume Process (V1 = V2):

Another term: Isometric, Isochoric, Isovolumic. For example: rigid tank, air tank, rigid vessel.
P T
A. Relation between P and T, 1 = 1 B. Q = m cv (T2 - T1) C. W = 0
P2 T2

T2
D. Dh = m cp (T2 - T1) E. DU = m cv (T2 - T1) F. Ds = mc ln
v T1

5. Constant Pressure Process (P1 = P2) Another term: Isobaric process

V T
A. Relation between V and T, 1 = 1
V2 T2

B. Q = mcp(T2 - T1) C. W = P(V2 - V1) D. Dh = mcp(T2 - T1)

T2
E. DU = mcv(T2 - T1) F. Ds = mcp ln
T1

6. Constant temperature process (T2 =T1) Another term: Isothermal process, Hyperbolic process

A. Relation between P and V: P1V1 = P2V2

P1 V2 V P
B. W = P1V1 ln = P1V1 ln = mRT ln 2 = mRT ln 1
P2 V1 V1 P2

P1 V2 V P
C. Q = P1V1 ln = P1V1 ln = mRT ln 2 = mRT ln 1
P2 V1 V1 P2

V2 P1
D. Dh = 0 E. DU = 0 F. Ds = mR ln = mR ln
V1 P2

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 7. Isentropic Process (PVk = c) - is a reversible adiabatic process

A. Relation among P,V and T,

k -1
T2 V1 T2 P2
P1V1k = P2 V2k = ( )k - 1 =( ) k k = ln (P1 / P2 )
T1 V2 T1 P1 ln (V2 / V1)

B. W = P2V2 - P1V1 = mR(T2 - T1)

1- k 1- k

C. Q = 0 D. Dh = mcp(T2 - T1) E. DU = mcv(T2 - T1) F. Ds = 0

8. Polytropic Process (PVn = c)

Is an internally reversible adiabatic process

If n = 1 - the process is constant temperature.

If n = 0 - the process is constant pressure.
If n ® ¥ - the process is constant volume.
If n = k – the process is isentropic

A. Relation among P,V and T

n -1
T2 V1 T2 P2
P1V1n = P2 V2n = ( )n - 1 =( ) n n = ln (P1 / P2 )
T1 V2 T1 P1 ln (V2 / V1)

B. W = P2V2 - P1V1 = mR(T2 - T1) C. Q = mcn (T2 - T1) where: cn = c ( k - n )

1- n 1- n v 1- n

T2
D. Dh = mcp(T2 - T1) E. DU = mcv(T2 - T1) F. Ds = mcn ln
T1

II. GAS CYCLES

1. Carnot Cycle
Is the most efficient thermodynamic cycle. P - V diagram T - s diagram

Formulas: 4 QA
QA
Temperature, T

A. QA = heat added = T1(s1 – s4)

Pressure, p

1
T= 4
T=c
c
B. QR = heat rejected = T2(s1 – s4) 1
S=

S=c S=c
c

C. W = QA - QR = (T1 – T2)(s1 – s4)

=

3 T=c
c

3 2
QR T=c 2
Q Q W QR
D. Ds = A = R =
T1 T2 T1 - T2 Volume, V Entropy, s

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 W Q A - QR W T -T
E. Cycle Efficiency = = = = 1 2
QA QA W + QR T1
Process 1- 2: S = c
Process 2- 3: T = c
W
F. Mean Effective pressure, Pm Pm = Process 3- 4: S = c
VD
Process 4- 1: T = c
where: VD = V2 – V3

Note: 1. High temperature source is known as a temperature source.

2. Low temperature source is known as a temperature sink.
3. Heat is added during constant temperature process.
4. Heat is rejected during constant temperature process.
5. The process is two constant temperature and two isentropic process.
6. The efficiency of the cycle is a function of temperature.
7. If the temperature difference increases, its cycle efficiency will increase.

2. Otto Cycle
Is a spark-ignition type of engine.

Formulas:
k -1 TDC BDC
k -1
T2 æ V1 ö T2 æ P2 ö k
P1V1k = P2V2k =ç ÷ =ç ÷
T1 çè V2 ÷ø T1 çè P1 ÷ø

In terms of compression ratio pressure ratio: QA Ise

nt
ro
Pressure, P

P2
P1
( )
= rk k
T2
T1
( )
= r k k -1 rp = (rk )k
V=C pi
c

Isen
tro V=C QR
rk = compression ratio = V1 / V2 = V4 / V3 pic

rp = compression pressure ratio = P2 / P1

Volume, V
A. QA = heat added = m cv (T3 - T2)

B. QR = heat rejected = m cv (T4 - T1)

C. W = work = QA - QR

D. e = cycle efficiency

W Q A - QR W 1 1
e = = = = 1- = 1 - k -1
QA QA W + QR k -1
rk
r p k

V1
E. rk = compression ratio = = 1+ c where: c = clearance volume
V2 c

W W
F. Pm = mean effective pressure = = where: V1 = mRT1 / P1
VD V1 - V2

G. T3 = maximum temperature, P3 = maximum pressure

Note: 1. Maximum temperature occur after combustion or before expansion.

2. Heat is added during constant volume process.
3. Heat is rejected during constant volume process.
4. The process is two constant volume and two isentropic process.

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 5. If compression ratio increases, its cycle efficiency will increase.
6. The cycle efficiency depends on compression ratio and its specific heat ration.

PROBLEMS:

PROCESSES OF IDEAL GAS

1. Air is compressed adiabatically from 30oC to 100oC. If mass of air being compressed is 5 kg. Find the change of
entropy.
A. 1.039 KJ/oK B. 0.746 KJ/oK C. 0 D. 1.245 KJ/kg

2. Two kilogram of air in a rigid tank changes its temperature from 32oC to 150oC. Find the work done during the
process.
A. 236 B. 170 C. 195 D. 0

3. A perfect gas has a value of R = 58.8 ft-lb/lb-°R and k = 1.26. If 20 Btu are added to 10 lbs of this gas at
constant volume when initial temperature is 90°F, find the final temperature.
A. 97°F B. 104°F C. 154°F D. 185°F

4. Helium gas is compressed in an adiabatic compressor from an initial state of 14 psia and 50oF to a final
temperature of 320oF in a reversible manner. Determine the exit pressure of Helium.
A. 38.5 psia B. 40.5 psia C. 42.5 psia D. 44.5 psia

5. Find the enthalpy of Helium if its internal energy is 200 kJ/kg.

A. 144 kJ/kg B. 223.42 kJ/kg C. 333.42 kJ/kg D. 168 kJ/kg

CARNOT CYCLE

1. A Carnot cycle operates between the temperature limits of 300oK and 1500oK, and produces 600 KW of net
power. The rate of entropy change of the working fluid during the heat addition process is:
A. 0 B. 0.4 KW/K C. 0.5 KW/K D. 2.0 KW/K

2. A Carnot cycle has a maximum temperature of 550 oF and minimum temperature of 100 oF. If the heat added is
4200 Btu/min, find the horsepower output of the engine.
A. 34.53 B. 40.56 C. 44.13 D. 65.40

OTTO CYCLE

1. A spark-ignition engine operates on an Otto cycle with a compression ratio of 9 and a temperature limits of 30oC
and 1000oC. If the power input is 500 KW, calculate the mass flow rate of air.
A. 1.99 kg/s B. 2.19 kg/s C. 2.39 kg/s D. 2.59 kg/s

2. An ideal gasoline engine operates with an initial cycle temperature of 48oC and exhaust temperature of 150oC.
The change in temperature during combustion is 150oK. Calculate the ideal thermal efficiency.
A. 32% B. 33% C. 34% D. 35%

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