THERMODYNAMICS 1

Basic Principles, Concepts and Definition

OVERVIEW

The first part of this module is all about the concept, definitions and principles of
thermodynamics. It is required to have a good and strong foundation of the aforementioned
topics so that you can be able to understand the succeeding lessons with ease.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this module, you should be able to:

To know the principles underlying the utilization of energy in the thermal systems; open
and closed systems; and introduction to gas and vapor cycles.

LEARNING CONTENT:

Thermodynamics
- Study of heat and work and those properties of substances that bear a relation to
heat and work.
- derived from Greek words therme, meaning “heat” and dynamis , meaning “strength”
particularly applied to motion.

Working Substance
- A substance to which heat can be stored and from which heat can be extracted.

1. Pure substance – a working substance whose chemical composition remains the same
even if there is a change in phase. ( most common example is water)
2. Ideal gas – a working substance which remains in gaseous state during its operating
cycle and whose equation of state is PV= mRT most common example is air.

PROPERTIES OF WORKING SUBSTANCE:

1. Pressure
Definitions:
a. Pressure is the force per unit area. It may be described as a measure of the
intensity force.
b. Since air has mass and is subject to the action of gravity, it exerts a pressure
that is known as the atmospheric pressure.
c. Barometers are instruments used to measure the pressure of the
atmosphere.
d. Pressure gauges are used to measure fluid pressure in a closed vessel.
e. Pressure gages commonly used in the refrigeration industry are manometer
and bourdon tube.
f. Absolute pressure is understood to be the “total” or true pressure of a fluid,
whereas gage pressure is the pressure as indicated by a gage.
g. Absolute pressure is the pressure measured relative to absolute vacuum.,
that absolute zero pressure.
h. Vacuum pressure is a pressure that is less than atmospheric pressure. A
vacuum pressure is also a negative pressure.
i. Gage pressure is the pressure measured relative to atmospheric pressure.

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 j. Perfect vacuum- a space that is devoid of matter, and in which the pressure
is “zero”
k. Manometer is use to measure small and moderate pressure difference.
l. Bourdon tube is commonly used mechanical pressure measurement
device.

Formulas:

1. Pressure is defined as force per unit area.

FORCE KN lb kg
P= , , ,
AREA m2 in2 cm2

2. Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure

P = P𝑔 + P𝑎𝑡𝑚

3. 1 atm = 0 Kpag
= 101.325 Kpaa
= 14.7 psi
= 29.92 in Hg
= 760 mmHg

1 torr = 1/760 atm

1 Bar = 100 Kpa

= 0.1 Mpa

4. Hydrostatic Pressure, P

P = ρh

Where:
ρ = density of fluid
h = height of fluid
P = Hydrostatic pressure, gage

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 5. If the acceleration due to gravity (g) will vary:
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = (ρ)(g)(h), pascals

Where:
ρ= density, kg/𝑚3
g= acceleration due to gravity, m/𝑠 2
h= height, m

2. Temperature
Definitions:
a. Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance or body.
b. Temperature measure the level of the thermal pressure of a body.
c. The most frequently used instrument for measuring temperature is the
thermometer.
d. Pyrometer measures the temperature of high temperature gases.
e. Heat will pass from one body to another when and only when a difference
in temperature exists between the two bodies.
f. Boiling temperature of water = 100˚C = 212˚F
g. Freezing temperature of water = 0˚C = 32˚F
h. Critical temperature of water is 375˚C
i. Absolute zero temperatures are -460˚F and -273˚C
j. Latent heat of fusion of water = 335 KJ/kg = 144 Btu/lb
k. Latent heat of vaporization of water = 2257 Kj/kg
= 970 Btu/lb
l. Triple point of water = 0.01˚C
m. Triple point pressure = 0.6113 Kpa

Formulas:

1. Relation between ˚C and ˚F scales

5
˚C = (F – 32)
9

9
˚F = C + 32
5

2. Absolute temperatures:
K = ˚C + 273
R = ˚F +460

3. Relation between R and K

R = 1.8K
K = 0.555R
4. Temperature Difference:
Δ˚C = 5/9 Δ˚F Δ˚F = 9/5 Δ˚C
Δ˚C = Δ˚K Δ˚F = Δ˚R

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3. Density, Specific Volume and Specific Gravity

a. Density, (ρ) – may be defined as the mass divided by the volume or

reciprocal of specific volume.

m 1
ρ=V = 𝑣

where: m = mass of object

V = volume
ρ= density of water = 1000 kg/𝑚3 = 62.4 lb/𝑓𝑡 3

b. Specific weight – is the ratio of weight of object and volume of object.

W
w = specific weight =
V

where: W = weight of object

w = specific weight of water = 9.81 KN/𝑚3

c. Specific Volume, 𝑣 – is the volume of a substance divided by its mass or

reciprocal of density.
V 1
𝑣= =
m ρ

d. Specific gravity, SG – is the ratio of the density of any substance to the

density of water which is known as the standard density.

Density of any fluid

SG = Density of water

e. If two fluids are mixed together:

𝜌𝑚 = density of mixture

𝑚1 +𝑚2
𝜌𝑚 =
V1 + V2

𝑣𝑚 = specific volume of mixture

V1 + V2
𝑣𝑚 =
𝑚1 +𝑚2

𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑆𝐺𝑚 = 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

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 4. Internal Energy
Definitions:
a. Internal Energy, (U) – heat energy due to the movement of
molecules within the brought about its temperature.
b. Internal energy is a constant specific heat process
c. Internal energy is also called molecular energy.
d. The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy is called the internal
energy.
5. Flow Work, 𝐖𝒇
Is the product of pressure and volume or specific volume.

W𝑓 = Pressure x Specific Volume

W𝑓 = P(𝑣2 − 𝑣1 ), KJ/ kg

W𝑓 = Pressure x Volume
W𝑓 = P (V2 − V1 ), KJ

Where:
P = pressure
V = Volume
𝑣 = specific volume

6. Enthalpy
-is the sum of internal energy and flow work. It is also a function of temperature.

Enthalpy, h = Internal Energy + Flow Work

h= U +PV
7. Entropy
-is a measure of molecular disorder or molecular randomness. As a system
becomes more disordered, the positions of the molecules become less
predictable and the entropy increases.
- is an extensive property of a system and sometimes is referred to as total
entropy.

Q
s= T

where: Q= heat
T = absolute temperature
General Flow Equations

𝑚3
1. Volume flow rate , (Q), 𝑠𝑒𝑐

Q = Area x Velocity
Q = mass x specific volume

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 2. Mass flow rate, (m), kg/sec

Q Av
m= = =Avρ
v 𝑣

where: ρ= density
𝑣 = specific volume
v= velocity

3. For steady flow process:

𝑚1 = 𝑚2

A1 v1 A2 v2
= A1 v1 𝜌1 = A2 v2 𝜌2
𝑣1 𝑣2

4. When two streams of fluids are mixed:

𝑚3 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2

A1 v1 A2 v2
𝑚3 = 𝑣1
+ 𝑣2

𝑚3 = A1 v1 𝜌1 + A2 v2 𝜌2

Phases of a Substance

1. Melting – occurs when a solid turns to a liquid.

2. Freezing or Solidifying – occurs when a liquid turns to a solid
3. Vaporization – occurs when a liquid turns to a gas
4. Condensation – occurs when a gas turns to a liquid
5. Sublimation – occurs when a solid turns to a gas
6. Process – is simply a change in the system state
7. Triple Point – is the point in which solid, liquid and vapor occur.
8. Heat energy that causes or accompanies a change in the temperature of a
substance is called sensible heat.
9. Heat energy that causes or accompanies a change in the phase of a substance is
known as latent heat.
10. When the change occurs between the solid and liquid phases in either direction,
the latent heat involved is known as latent heat of fusion.
11. When the change occurs between the liquid and vapor phases in either direction,
the latent heat involved is called latent heat of vaporization.

Example

1. The pressure reading of 35 psi in kpaa is?

Solution:

1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 101.325 𝑘𝑝𝑎

P𝑔 = 35 psi (14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖 ) ( )
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚

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 = 241.25 kpag

P𝑎𝑏𝑠 = P𝑔 + P𝑎𝑡𝑚

= 241.25 + 101.325
𝐏𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 342.57 kpaa

2. Given steam pressure of 900 lb/𝑓𝑡 2 , temperature of 300˚F, specific volume of 5.8 𝑓𝑡 3 /lb.
If the specific enthalpy is 9500 ft-lb/lb, what is the internal energy per lb of the system?
Solution:

h = u + Pv
9500 ft-lb / lb = u + 900 lb/𝑓𝑡 2 (5.8 𝑓𝑡 3 /lb)
u = 4280 ft-lb/lb

3. An iron block weighs 5 N and has a volume of 200 𝑐𝑚3 . What is the density of the iron
block?
Solution:
𝑚
ρ= 𝑉

1𝑘𝑔
mass = 5 N ( )
9.81𝑁
mass = 0.5097 kg

1
Volume = 200𝑐𝑚3 (100 𝑐𝑚)3
Volume= 0.0002 𝑚3

0.5097 𝑘𝑔
ρ = 0.0002 𝑚3

ρ = 2548.42 kg/ 𝒎𝟑

4. A batch of concrete consisted of 200 lbs fine aggregate, 350 lbs coarse aggregate, 94
lbs cement and 5 gallons water. The specific gravity of the sand and gravel may be
taken as 2.65 and that of the cement as 3.10. What was the weight of concrete in
place per cubic foot?

Solution:
1 𝒇𝒕𝟑 1 𝑙𝑏
Weight of water = 5 gal (7.481 𝑔𝑎𝑙)( 62.4 𝒇𝒕𝟑)
= 41.7 lb

200+350(𝑙𝑏)
Volume of sand and gravel = 2.65(62.4𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3 )
= 3.326 𝑓𝑡 3

94
Volume of cement = 3.10(62.4)
= 0.486 𝑓𝑡 3

Total weight = 41.7 + 200 + 350 + 94

= 685.7 lbs

Total Volume = 5/7.481 + 3.326 + 0.486

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 = 4.48 𝑓𝑡 3

Weight of concrete per cu. Ft. concrete = 685.7/4.48

= 153.058 lb/𝒇𝒕𝟑

5. A cylindrical tank is filled with water at the rate of 5,000 gal/min. The height of water in
the tank after 15 minutes is 20.42 ft. What is the diameter of the tank?

Solution:

After 15 mins.
V = 5000(15)
= 75,000 gal
1 𝒇𝒕𝟑
= 75,000 gal (7.481 𝑔𝑎𝑙)
= 10,025.39 𝑓𝑡 3
𝜋
Volume = 𝐷2h
4
𝜋
10,025.39 =4 𝐷2 (20.42)
D = 25ft
ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES/TOOLS

Solve the following problems:

1. The suction pressure of a pump reads 540 mm Hg vacuum. What is the absolute
pressure in Kpa?
2. A batch of concrete consisted of 200 lbs fine aggregate, 350 coarse aggregate,
94 lbs cement and 5 gallons water. The specific gravity of the sand and gravel may
be taken as 2.65 and that of the cement as 3.10. How much by weight of cement
is required to produce one cubic yard?
3. A certain fluid is flowing in 0.5 m x 0.3 m channel at the rate of 3 m/sec and has a
specific volume of 0.0012 𝑚3 /kg. Determine the mass of water flowing in kg/sec.
4. What is the equivalent Rankine of 400 Kelvin?
5. 100 g of water are mixed with 150 g of alcohol (ρ = 790 kg/𝑚3 ). What is the specific
volume of the resulting mixtures, assuming the fluids mixed completely?

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