Materials and Their Properties

Materials and Their Properties

Precipitation hardening, also
called age hardening, is a heat
treatment technique used to increase
the yield strength of malleable
materials, including most structural
alloys
of aluminum, magnesium, nickel, 
titanium, and some stainless steels.
In superalloys, it is known to
cause yield strength
anomaly providing excellent high-
temperature strength. It relies on
changes in
solid solubility with temperature to
produce fine particles of an
impurity phase, which impede the
movement of dislocations, or defects in
a crystal's lattice.
Materials and Their Properties
Alloy is a mixture or solid solution composed of
a metal and another element. An alloy contains one or
more of the three: a solid solution of the elements (a
single phase); a mixture of metallic phases (two or more
solutions); an intermetallic compound with no distinct
boundary between the phases.  Examples of alloys
are solder, brass, pewter, phosphor bronze and
an amalgam.

Alloying Elements in steel are usually considered to be

the metallic elements added for the purpose of modifying
the properties.
Materials and Their Properties
Aluminum is an efficient deoxidizer, an alloy in
nitriding steels ( nitralloys) and it promotes fine grain
size.

Boron-in very small amounts (0.001% or less) is an

economical hardenability agent in low-or medium carbon
deoxydized steels. It has no effect in tensile strength.

Chromium- improves hardenability economically,

resistance to corrosion (with other alloys), strength at
high temperatures, and wearing properties (high carbon).

Cobalt- improves red hardness.

Materials and Their Properties
 Anisotropy is the characteristic of exhibiting different
properties when tested in different directions (as tensile
strength “ with grain” or “ across the grain”.

 Brittleness is the tendency of a material to fracture or

fail upon the application of a relatively
small amount of force, impact, or shock.

Cold shortness-Brittleness when metal is at a low

temperature.

Damping Capacity-is the ability of the material to

absorb or damp vibrations, which is a process of
absorbing kinetic energy of vibration owing to
hysteresis. The absorbed energy is eventually dissipated
to the surrounding as heat.
Materials and Their Properties
 Columbium- is often used to stabilize stainless steel
(that is, it preempts the carbon and forestalls the
formation of undesired carbides).

 Copper improves steel’s resistance to atmospheric

corrosion; up to 4% Cu, it increases the fluidity of the melt;
it improves tensile strength and the yield ratio in the
normalized condition.

Lead-improves machinabilty, but affects different alloys

differently.

Manganese-improves strength and increases

hardenability moderately, counteracts brittleness from
sulfur. Present in all steels, manganese becomes an
alloying elements when its amount exceeds about 0.6%.
Materials and Their Properties
 Molybdenum- increases hardenability markedly and
economically, tends to counteract temper brittleness,
improving creep strength and red hardness; it improves
wear by forming abrasion-resistant particles.

Nickel- strengthens unquenched and annealed steels,

toughness steel (especially at low temperatures), and
simplifies heat treatment by lessening distortion. It is the
most effective alloy for improving strength at high
temperatures. It is one of the principal alloys for stainless
steel.
Phosphorus- increases hardenability, strengthens low-
carbon steels, improves machinability of free-cutting
steels, and improves resistance to corrosion.
Materials and Their Properties
 Selenium- improves machinability of stainless steel;
also added to leaded resulfurized carbon steels for the
same purpose.

Silicon-strengthens low alloy steels and improves

resistance to high-temperature oxidation; it is a good
general purpose deoxidizer and promotes fine grain.

Tantalum- is a stabilizer.

Titanium- is used for deoxidation and for stabilizing

austentic stainless steels (preventing intergranular
corrosion and embrittlement); it increases the hardness
and strength of low-carbon steel and improves creep
strength.
Materials and Their Properties
 Tungsten- increases hardenability markedly in small
amounts and improves hardness and strength at high
temperature. An expensive alloy, it is used only where a
particular advantage results, as in hign speed tool steel
in which it forms a hard, abrasion resisting carbide.

Vanadium-promotes fine grain structure, improves the

ratio of endurance strength to ultimate strength of
medium carbon steels, increases hardenability storngly
when dissolved, and results in retention of strength and
hardness at high temperature; it is the most effective
element in retarding softening during tempering.
Materials and Their Properties
 Cold working is the process of deforming a metal
plastically at a temperature below the recrystalization
temperature and at a rate to produce strain hardening.
Cold drawn steel is frequently used because it increases
strength and machinability, and improves surface finish.
It reduces ductility. Commercial amounts of cold working
steel are at the order of 10-20%.

Decarburization is a loss of carbon from the surface of

steel, occurring during hot rolling, forging, and heat
treating, when the surrounding medium reacts with the
carbon (as oxygen and carbon combining).
Materials and Their Properties

Ductility- is that property that permits permanent

deformation before fraction in tension. There is no
absolute measure of ductility, but the percentage
elongation and the percentage reduction area are used
as indices; the higher these indices, the more ductile the
material. It is the opposite of brittleness.
Ductile material- elongation greater than 5% in 2-in
gage.
Brittle material- elongation less than 5% in 2-in gage.
Materials and Their Properties

Elasticity- is the ability of the material to be deformed

and to return to the original state.

Embrittlement- involves the loss of ductility because of

a physical or chemical change of the material.

Free Carbon- is that part of the carbon content of steel

or iron that is in the form of graphite or temper carbon.

Hard drawn- is a temper produced in a wire, rod, or

tube by cold drawing.

Homogenous material- (have homogeneity) have the

same structure at all points.
Materials and Their Properties
Isotropic- materials that have the same properties at all
directions.

Killed steel- is the steel that has been deoxidized with a

strong deoxidizing agent, such as silicon or aluminum, in
order to eliminate a reaction between the carbon and
oxygen during solidification.

Machinability- is somewhat indefinite property that

refers to the relative ease with which a material can be
cut.

Malleability-is a material’s susceptibility to extreme

deformation in rolling or hammering. The more malleable
the metal, the thinner the sheet into which it can be
formed.
Materials and Their Properties
Mechanical Properties- are those that have to do with
stress and strain.

Percentage elongation- is the extension in the vicinity

of the fracture of a tensile specimen, expressed as a
percentage of the original gage length, as 20% in 2 in.

Percentage of reduction area- is the smallest area at

the point of rupture of a tensile specimen divided by the
original area.

Physical Properties-exclude mechanical properties, and

are other physical properties such as density,
conductivity, coefficient of thermal expansion.
Materials and Their Properties
Plasticity- is the ability of a metal to be deformed
considerably without rupture. In a plastic deformation,
the material does not return to its original shape.

Poisson’s ratio- is the ratio of the lateral strain

(contraction) to the longitudinal strain (extension) when
the element is loaded with a longitudinal tensile force.

Precipitation heat treatment- brings about the

precipitation of a constituent from a supersaturated solid
solution by holding the body at an elevated temperature,
also called artificial aging.

Proof stress- is that stress which causes a specified

permanent deformation of material, usually 0.01% or less.
Materials and Their Properties
Red shortness- is the brittleness in steel when it is red
hot.

Relaxation- associated with creep, is the decreasing

stress at a constant strain; important for metals in high-
temperature service.

Residual stress- are those not due to applied loads or

temperature gradients; the exist in various reasons, as
unequal cooling rates, cold working, etc.

Rimmed steel- is incompletely deoxidized steel. Ingots

of these steel have a surface layer quite free of slag
inclusions and gas pockets, which results in the optimum
surface on rolled sheets.
Materials and Their Properties
Solution Heat Treatment- is the process of holding an
alloy at a suitably high temperature long enough to
permit one or more constituents to pass into solid
solution and then cooling fast enough to hold the
constituents as a supersaturated solution.

Stiffness- is the ability to resist deformation. It

measured by the modulus of elasticity in the elastic
range; the higher the modulus, the stiffer is the material.

Strain Hardening- is increasing the hardness and

strength by plastic deformation at temperatures lower
than recrystallization range.
Materials and Their Properties
Temper- is a condition produced in a non-ferrous metal
by mechanical or thermal treatment; for example
annealed temper (soft), hard temper, spring temper.

Toughness- is the capacity of the material to withstand

a shock load without breaking.

Transverse strength- refers to the results of a transverse

bend test, the specimen being mounted as a simple beam;
also called rupture modulus. It is frequently applied to
brittle materials, especially cast iron.

Work hardening- is the same as strain hardening.

Wrought steel-is steel that has been hammered, rolled,

or drawn in the process of manufacture; it may be plain
carbon or alloy steel.
Materials and Their Properties
Heat Treatment- is an operation or combination of
operations involving the heating and cooling of metal or
an alloy in the solid state for the purpose of altering the
properties of material.

Aging- is a change in a metal by which its structure

recovers from an unstable or metastable condition that
has been produced by quenching or cold working.

Annealing- is a heating and slow cooling of a solid

metal, usually done to soften it. Other purposes include
those of altering the mechanical and physical properties,
producing a particular microstructure, removing internal
stress (stress relieving) , and removing gases.

Drawing-is often used to mean tempering.

Materials and Their Properties
Graphitizing- causes the combined carbon to transform
wholly or in part into graphitic or free carbon; it is
applied to cast iron, sometimes to high-carbon steel.

Hardening-is the heating of certain steels above the

transformation range and then quenching, for the
purpose of increasing the hardness.

Malleablizing- is an annealing process whereby

combined carbon in white cast iron is transformed wholly
or in part to temper carbon. Temper carbon is free
(graphitic) carbon in the form of rounded nodules,
characteristics forms in graphitizing and malleablizing
Materials and Their Properties
Spheroidizing-is any heating and cooling of steel that
produces a rounded or globular form of carbide.
Typically, it is a prolonged heating at a temperature
slightly below the transformation range, usually
followed by slow cooling; or, for small objects of high-
carbon steel, it may be prolonged heating alternately
within and slightly below the transformation range.

Stress relieving-is the heating of a metal body to a

suitable temperature (generally just below the
transformation range of steel) and holding it at that
temperature for suitable time ( 1 to 3 hours for steel) for
the purpose of reducing internal residual stresses.
Materials and Their Properties
Tempering-is a reheating of hardened or normalized
steel to a temperature below the transformation range,
followed by any desired rate of cooling.

Transformation range-for ferrous metals is the

temperature interval during which austenite is formed
during heating; it is also the temperature interval during
which austenite disappear during cooling.
Materials and Their Properties
Hardness – is a measure of its resistance to indentation
and is one of the most significant properties because
,properly interpreted, it says much about the condition of
the metal.

Most Common instruments used to determine hardness:

1. Brinell
2. Rockwell
3. Vickers
4. Shore scleroscope

Brinell Hardness number (BHN) is determined by a

standard pressure (3000 kgs. 500 kgs. For soft metal)
applied to a 10 mm ball which presses for 10 seconds or
more on the surface of the matereial being tested.
Materials and Their Properties
- The load in kilograms divided by the area of the
surface of the indentation square millimeters is the BHN.

Rockwell Tester – Faster than Brinell ang widely used

commercially, Utilizes several different indenters and in
effect measures the depth of the penetration by the
indenter.
Rockwell B – 1/16 inch ball, 100 kg load for medium soft
metals as for many copper alloys and soft steel.
Rockwell C - diamond indenter , 150 kg. load for hard
metals as hard as steel.
Rockwell A – diamond indenter, 60 kg load for
extremely hard metals such as tungsten carbide.
Rockwell D – diamond indenter, 100 kg load,
sometimes used for cased hardened metal.
Materials and Their Properties
Rockwell E – 1/8 inch ball, 100 kg. load, for soft metals,
such as bearing metals and magnesium.
Rockwell superficial tester – a different machine, is
used for a piece of material too thin for the standard
tester.

Vickers Tester – has a square base, diamond pyramid

indenter and the vickers number is the load in kilograms
divided by the impressed area in square millimeters.

Shore scleroscope – numbers is obtained by letting a

freely falling hammer with a diamond point strike the
object to be tested and measuring the height of rebound.
The height is the shore number, the higher the rebound
the harder the material.
Materials and Their Properties
AISI and SAE specification numbers – there are numerous
“standard” materials specification. Every organization
have standard on its own.
AISI – American Iron and Steel Institute
ASME – American Society of Mechanical Engineers
SAE - Society of Automotive Engineers.
ASTM – American Society for Testing Materials
SAE and AISI specification numbers are alike for steel
except that AISI uses prefixes B,C,D and E to indicate the
method of manufacturing the carbon grades. See table 2.1
STEEL DESIGNATION:
XXXX – first digit or the first two digit represents a type
of steel.
- the last two digits invariably gives the approximate
or average carbon content in points or hundred of
percent.
Materials and Their Properties
AISI Prefixes has the following meaning:

B – acid bessemer steel

C – basic open hearth carbon steel
D – acid open hearth carbon steel
E – electric furnace steel ( usually alloy )

94 B 40 or 11 L 41 – letters B and L in the middle indicates

boron and lead are added.
9840 H – letter H at the end indicates that the material can
be brought on hardenability specification.
Materials and Their Properties
Example:

1xxx – is a plane carbon steel

11xx – is a plain carbon steel with a greater sulfur content
for free cutting
2xxx – is a nickel steel

SAE 1030 – is 30 % carbon content same as AISI 1030

SAE 8620 – is 20% carbon content

Note: carbon is used to increase the strength of material

but its ductility decreases.
Materials and Their Properties
Typical Uses of Plain Carbon Wrought Steel is as Follows:

10-20 % Carbon – 10xx group – used for tubing, forging, pressed steel
parts , screws, rivets and for carburized case hardened parts.
10-20 % Carbon – 11xx group – due to higher sulfur content in a
certain grades , it is free cutting and good for used of
automatic screw machines for miscellaneous parts , including
screws. These steels are not usually welded.
20-30 % - general purpose grades, used for forged and machine
parts; screws; also for boiler plates and structural steel.
30-55 % - frequently used for miscellaneous forged and machine
parts ; shafts. Frequently heat treated for improved mechanical
properties . Cold finish for shafting and similar parts.
Materials and Their Properties
Carbon, 60-95 points. May be hardened to a good cutting edge,
especially in the higher ranges of carbon : used for tools. Also for
springs. High strength, low ductility. Nearly always heat treated ,
say, to a Brinell hardness of 375 or higher.

ALLOY STEEL. Wrought alloy steel is steel that contains significant

quantities of recognized alloying metals, the most common being
aluminum, chromium, cobalt, copper, manganese, molybdenum,
nickel, phosphorus, silicon, titanium, tungsten, and vanadium. Alloys
are used to improve the hardenability of steel, to reduce distortion
from heat treatment, to increase toughness and tensile strength.

-With alloys, steel may be heat treated to the desired hardness with
less drastic quenching and with less trouble from distortion and
cracking.
Materials and Their Properties
Alloy steels may be classified as :

(A). Low-allow structural steels ( not heat treated ). These steels

( Sy greater than or equal to 50 KSI as rolled ) were developed for
structural uses where light weight is important ( but not extremely so
as in aeronautics ), such as in the transportation in industry, but they
are also used in other structures. They weld easily and do not air-
harden.

(B). Low-carbon alloy steel ( 0.10-0.25% C ) AISI steels, used chiefly

for carbonizing.

(C). Medium-carbon alloy steels ( 0.25-0.50% C ) usually quenched

and tempered to hardness between 250 and 400 Brinell.

(D). High-carbon alloy steels ( 0.50-0.70 C ), ordinarily heat treated

to hardness between 375-500 Brinell, for uses as springs ,wear resisting
parts, etc.
(E). High-alloy steels, such as stainless steels.
Materials and Their Properties
A few brief remarks about the principal alloying elements will
suggest other functions of alloys .

Aluminum ( Al ) is an efficient deoxidizer, an alloy in nitriding

steels ( nitralloys ), and it promotes fine grain size.

Boron (B) in very small amounts ( 0.001% or less ) is an economical

hardenability agent in low- or medium-carbon deoxydized steels. It
has no effect on tensile strength.

Chromium (Cr) improves hardenability economicaly, resistance to

corrosion ( with other alloys ), strength at high temperatures, and
wearing properties ( high carbon ).

Cobalt (Co) improves red hardness.

Columbium (Cb) is often used to “stabilize” stainelss steel ( that is,

preempts the carbon and forestalls the formation of undesired
carbides).
Materials and Their Properties
Copper (Cu) improves steel’s resistance to atmospheric corrosion ;
up to 4% Cu, it in increases the fluidity of melt; it improves tensile
strength and the yield ratio in the normalized condition. Yield ratio =
Sy/Su. With more than 0.75% Cu, steels can be precipitaion hardened.

Lead (Pb) improves machinability, but affects different allots

differently.
Manganese (Mn) improves strength and increases hardenability
moderately, counteracts brittleness from sulfur. Present in all steels,
manganese becomes an alloying element when its amount exceeds
about about 0.6%, as in the 13XX steels. Medium-carbon manganese
steels are subject to embrittlement at temperatures above 600 F.

Molybdenum (Mo) increases hardenability markedly and

economically (when Mo > Cr), tends to counteract tempre brittleness,
improving creep strength and red hardness ; it improves wear by
forming abrasion-resistant particles. It is the most effective alloy for
improving strength at high temperature.
Materials and Their Properties
Nickel (Ni) strengthens unquenched and annealed steels,
toughness steel |( especially at low temperature ) and simplifies heat
treatment by lessening distortion. It is the most effective element for
reducing the brittleness of steel at very low temperature; see 2.22. it is
one of the principal alloys for stainless steel ( 2.15 )

Phosporus (P) increases hardenability strengthens low-carbon

steels, improves machinability of free – cutting steels, and improves
resistance to corrosion.

Selenium ( Se) improves machinability of stainless steel : also

added to leaded resulfurized carbon steels for the same purpose.

Silicon (Si) strengthens low-alloy steels and improves resistance

to high-temperature oxidation ; it is a good general-purpose
deoxidizer and promotes fine grain.

Tantalum (Ta) is a stabilizer ( see Columbium )

Materials and Their Properties
Titanium (Ti) is used for deoxidation and for stabilizing austenitic
stainless steels (preventing interangular corrosion and embrittlement)
; it increase the hardness and strength of low-carbon steel and
improves creep strength.

Tungsten (W) increases hardenability markedly in small amounts

and improves hardness and strength at high temperature. An
expensive alloy, it is used only where a particular advantage
resuslts, as in high-speed tool steel in which it forms a hard, abrasion-
resisting carbide.

Vanadium (V) promotes fine-grain structure, improves the ratio of

endurance strength to ultimate strength of medium-carbon steels
(average about 0.57), increases hardenability strongly when
dissloved, and resuslts in retention of strength and hardness at high
temperature; it is the most effective element in retarding softening
during tempering.
Materials and Their Properties
Since alloy steels are most costly than plain carbon steels, an
alloy should not be employed unless its use yields some advantage.
Since alloys generally improve the mechanical properties, their
strength/weight ratio is higher, and therefore their use may result in
smaller parts which partly offsets the increased cost per pound. Note
the modulus of elasticity E ( and G ) carbon and alloy steels and that
therefore of rigidity is the basis of design, there is no advantage is
using alloy steel. If an alloy steel is used, it should, in general, be heat
treated in order to obtain the best properties for the purpose.

Illustrative of the uses of alloy steels, we have :

AISI 2330 : bolts, studs, tubing subjected to torsional stresses.
AISI 2340 : quenched and tempered shafting, connecting rods, very
highly stressed bolts, forgings.
AISI 2350 : high-capacity gears shafts, heavy machine parts.
AISI 3130 : shafts, bolts, steering knuckles.
AISI 3140 : aircraft- and truck-engine crankshafts, oil-well tool
joints, spline shafts,axles,earth moving equipment.
Materials and Their Properties
AISI 3150 : wear-resisting parts in excavating and farm machinery,
gears, forgings.
AISI 3240 : shafts, highly stressed pins and keys, gears.
AISI 3300 series : for heavy parts requiring deep penetration of
the heat treatment (hardenability) and high fatigue strength per unit
of weight.
AISI 4063 : leaf and coil springs.
AISI 4130,4140 : automotive connecting rods and axles m, aircraft
parts and tubing.
AISI 4340 : crankshafts, axles, gears, landing, gear parts ; perhaps
the best general purpose AISI steel.
AISI 4640 : gears, splines shafts, hand tools, miscellaneous heavy
duty machine parts.
AISI 8630 : connecting rod, bolts, shapes, air hardens after
welding.
AISI 8640, 8740 : gears, propeller shafts, knuckles, shapes.
Alloy with 10-20 points carbon are widely carbonized (2.8) in
producing pins, bolts ,gear (teeth), shafts ( at wearing surfaces), cams,
and worm threads.
Materials and Their Properties
HARDENABILITY.

Hardenability is the capacity of steel to through-harden when

cooled from above its transformation range. It is determines from a
standard 1-in. round specimen, Fig- 2.1. Flats are ground
longitudinally on opposite sides of the cooled specimen, after which
the Rockwell C hardness is determines at each 1/16 inch interval from
the quenched end. The hardness of a quenched surface is largely
dependent on its carbon content while hardenability depend on
amount of carbon, alloy content and grain size.

The most effective alloys in improving hardenability are boron,

vanadium, manganese, chromium, molybdenum, phosporus, tungsten
and to a lesser extent, nickel and silicon. Through hardness is not
always wanted. A softer core may be an asset.
Materials and Their Properties
Some steels, frequently designated by H as a suffix to the AISI
number (table 2.1), may be bought on the basis of hardenability by
specifying, for example, the limits of hardness of a Jominy specimen
at a certain point along its length. Suppose that a hardness of Rc = 40
is desired at a certain depth and that this corresponds to Rc= 45 at
12/16 inch in the Jominy test ; the H band of Fig 2.2 shows that AISI 4140
would be satisfactory in this respect.

CASE HARDENING

Case hardening of iron base alloys is a process of surface

hardening whereby the surface or case is substantially harder than
the core or inside metal. Case hardening is done by carburizing,
cyaniding, nitriding, carbonitriding, induction hardening and flat
hardening.
Materials and Their Properties
The purpose of case hardening is usually to provide a hard, wear
resistant surface while retaining great toughness in the core. It is also
used for increasing the endurance strength of certain machine parts
and for other purposes where high strength and hardness on the
surface are advantageous.

(A) Carburizing. Carburizing is a process of adding carbon to the

surface of steel by exposing it to hot carbonaceous solids, liquids, or
tempering at 300-450 Fahrenheit for the purpose of relieving residual
stresses adding carbon are pack ( or box ) carburizing and gas
carburizing. In pack carburizing, the part is heated in contact with
solid carburizing compounds of various constituents, including
charcoal, burned bone, charred leather etc.the depth of the case and
the rapidity of the process depend in part on the soaking temp,
which is of the order of 1650-175- fahrenheit.
Materials and Their Properties
In gas carburizing, which has been developed to an efficient and
economic procedure, especially for large quantities, the part is
heated in carburizing gases, such as methane, ethane, propane and
CO. In liquid carburizing the part is immersed in a molten salt bath
that imparts a case similar to that obtained with gas or pack
carburizing except that the case is thinner, usually not in excess of
about 0.025 inch.

for heavy duty. As in some gear teeth, a case thickness of 0.06 to

0.09 inch may be desired. It would seem that a safe design value of
the surface hardness of carburized steel would be about 600 BHN. The
hardness should generally fall between the limits

55 < Rc < 65 or 560 < BHN < 730.

Carburizing steels are low carbon steels, say 0.15 – 0.25 % carbon.
Materials and Their Properties
(B) Cyaniding . As in liquid carburizing, cyaniding is accomplished
by immersing the part in a hot ( about 1550 Fahrenheit ) liquid salt
bath, sodium cyanide (NaCN) being a common medium in both
processes. The so called cyanided case has more nitrogen, which is
alsi a hardening agent, the thickness of the case of liquid carburized
parts may be somewhat greater than 0.02 in., the cyanided case is
seldom thicker than 0.010 inch. Low and ledium carbon steels are
usually used for cyaniding.

(C) Nitriding . In surface hardening by nitriding, the machine and

heat-treated part is placed in a nitrogenous environment, commonly
ammonia gas, at temperature much lower than those used in the
previously describes processes, say 1000 Fahrenheit. This process
avoids the distortion that accompanies quenching sometimes a big
advantage especially for complicated shape. This process contain
nitroalloys containing aluminum as alloy and nitroalloy range 0.20-
0.40% of carbon.
Materials and Their Properties
(D) Carbonitriding is a process of case hardening steel by the
simultaneous absorption of carbon and nitrogen from a surrounding
hot gaseous atmosphere. This is used for both batch and continous
processes. The use of small quantities of ammonia in combination
with quenching is cheaper than using larger amount of ammonia.
This process is used as a low-cost substitute for cyaniding and
produces a product of good quality. The result of this process have
been reported to wear many times longer than the best cyanided or
carburized case.

(E) Induction Hardening. Induction hardening consist of heating a

thin surface layer, preferably of annealed or normalized steel, the
transformation range by electrical induction and then cooling, as
required, in water, oil, air, or gas. This process heats a thin layer of
the surface, leaving the core relatively cool, this process is widely
used for surface hardening of steels whose carbon range os 0.35-0.55%
carbon content. This process is appropriate for cams and gears
because it follows well contour part being heated.
Materials and Their Properties
(F) Flame Hardening. Flame hardening, like induction heating, is
a process of heating the surface of an iron-base alloy, which is
preferably annealed or normalized, and then quenching it. Neutral
acetylene flames are played upon the surface to be hardened
followed by jets of waters for cooling. This process is applicable for
0.45% of carbon and it is used for both small and large parts.
Advantage for large parts where selected surfaces are hardened, the
resulting surface hardness should be of the order of 500 Brinell for
0.45% C steels and distortion is negligible.

WORK HARDENING
Work hardening is the result of a metal being stressed at some
point into its plastic range, usually ordinary temperatures ( below
recrystallization temp ) : metal cold worked in this manner becomes
stronger and more brittle. “cold finished” had its cross section
reduced by cold rolling. Additional remarks concerning cold working
of other metals are found below. The cold working of surfaces
( plastic deformation limited to a thin surface layer ) by peening and
rolling.
Materials and Their Properties
WROUGHT IRON. Wrought iron is made by burning the carbon
from molten iron and then putting the product through hammering
and rolling operations. Contain 1-3% slag and 0.1% carbon and this
material is very soft and ductile and is easily forge welded. It is used
principally for rivets, welded steams and water pepes and general
forging purposes. Its most advantageous properties are its ductility
and resistance to corrosion compared to steel.

CAST IRON. Cast iron in a general sense includes white cast

iron, malleable iron, and nodular cast iron. Cast iron is used without a
qualifying adjective, gray cast or gray iron.this contains 2.6-3.6%
carbon that is not malleable at any temperature. Excess carbon is
uncombines and a fracture is gray. The ASTM, in specification A 48-46,
has classified gray iron according to minimum tensile strength. Its
tensile strenght standard is 30 ksi and the higher-strength cast-iron
contain typical alloys.
Materials and Their Properties
Cast iron is sometimes given a heat treatment, but ordinarily
cheaper to improve strength and other properties by reducing silicon
or carbon and increasing alloy by heat treating. Gray iron has
excellent wearing properties that are improved by certain alloy.
White cast iron (fracture is white ) sometimes called chilled iron is
intentionally produced by using an iron plate in the mold to cause
rapid cooling of the surfaces.

MALLEABLE IRON. Malleable iron is heat-treated white cast iron.

This is obtained not by chilling but by using the proper composition in
the melt. The heat treatment of this is substantially all carbon
combines to form iron carbide by annealing or malleabilizing . This
producesstrong, ductile and easily machined castings at low cost
quantity. Pearlitic and normal malleable iron differs on there alloys
and heat treatment.
Materials and Their Properties
NODULAR CAST IRON. Nodular cast iron, also called ductile iron,
has the castability ( for complex forms ), machinability and
wearability of gray iron but higher ductility and strength. This is used
for a wide variety of items, including casings, crankshafts, hubs,
forming dies. It has a good resistance to thermal shock and it
responds well to flame or induction hardening, perhaps with Rc > 55.

CAST STEEL. The combination of highest strength and highest

ductility in a cast ferrous metal is obtained in cast steel. When this are
heat treated, the carbon content generally falls with range 0.25-0.50%.
Steel casting may be plain carbon or alloys steels. not all grade of
cast steel are adapted to welding and a minimum heat treatment is
annealing or normalizing.

STAINLESS STEEL. Stainless steel is relatively expensive, but

where the environment is significantly corrosive or at high or quite
low temperature. There are 3 classes : Austenitic steel ( 200 and 300
series-that includes 3.5-22% nickel for its stabilizing of austenite).
Materials and Their Properties
Second is Martensitic Steel ( usually with no nickel, but some
typres have 2.5% max), and ferritic steels (no nickel) that do not
harden by quenching and tempering. All classes contain chromium ( 4-
26%).
Thank You