Hydrodesulphurzation of Diesel

Design of 35,000 BPSD Hydrodesulphurization of Diesel
This report is submitted to Department of Chemical Engineering, Wah,Engineering

College, University of Wah for the partial fulfilment of the requirements for the
Bachelor’s Degree in Chemical Engineering.
Internal Examiner: Name:
Sign.
External Examiner: Name:
Sign.
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
WAH ENGINEERING COLLEGE,
UNIVERSITY OF WAH, WAH CANTT.
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We express gratitude and praise to ALLAH ALMIGHTY, the creator of universe, who is
beneficent and merciful, guided us in difficult and congeal circumstance, who endowed us
with the will to undertake this design project.
We would like to thank the Head of Chemical department Prof. Dr.A.K Salariya and our
kind teacher Mr Ejaz Haider & Ms Ammara Waheed for sharing their knowledge and
expertise in the design of 35000 BPDS of Hydrodesulphurization of Diesel. We would also
like to thank both of them for their help and encouragement when we needed it most.We
would also like to thank our colleagues, who support us during our study.
We would especially like to thank our beloved parents for all of their love and support. It’s
all because of their motivation that we have come to this platform and studying in such a
dynamic institution.
ii
ABSTRACT
In December 1, 2010 the EPA reduced the allowable sulphur content in diesel fuel to 15 ppm,
which is now known as ultra-low sulphur diesel (ULSD). In order to reach the 15 ppm
sulphur maximum, the hydrodesulphurization unit is installed. This group has been tasked to
develop catalytic hydrodesulphurization unit for a refinery that can treat 35,000 barrels per
stream day (BPSD) of liquid feedstock containing 5000 ppm sulphur. The desulfurization
reaction kinetics are based on the reduction of dibenzothiophene There are two famous
methods to remove sulphur from diesel. We have selected Hydrodesulphurization method
being very efficient. The objective of the project is to control Sox gases being produced by
burning of sulphur in diesel.it causes air pollution that affect environment. The aim of this
study is to recommend design calculations of 35000 BPSD of Hydrodesulphurization of
Diesel production along with the relevant aspects such as Manufacturing Process, Material
balance and Energy balance, Equipment design, Cost estimation, Instrumentation, HAZOP
study and Environmental aspects. The project goals are to achieve a 99% recovery of diesel
fuel while reducing the sulphur content below 15 ppm. The liquid feedstock will be run
through a packed bed reactor filled with CoMo/Al 2O3 catalyst where the sulphur compounds
will react with hydrogen gas to form hydrogen sulphide gas. An amine contactor will be used
to remove sour gas from the recycle hydrogen stream and a distillation column will produce
diesel.
iii
Nomenclature
A: heat transfer area (ft2)

Ac: Cross sectional area (m2)
AR: Area of effective refractory surfaces (ft2)
AT: Total area of furnace surfaces (ft2)
B: Baffle spacing (ft)
Cp: Specific heat (Btu/lb-°F)
Ci: concentration of specie i (mol/dm3)
c:Total concentration (mol/dm3)
do: Outside diameter of tube(inch)
de: Equivalent diameter (inch)
di: Inside diameter of tube (inch)
dn: Nozzle diameter (m)
Ds: Shell diameter (inch)
Dc: Diameter of column (m)
Dvd: Vessel inside diameter (inch)
Di: Internal diameter (m)
Dm: Mean diameter of vessel (m)
e: Furnace efficiency
f: Design stress (N/mm2)
G’: Ratio of air to fuel
G: Superficial mass velocity (g/dm2.s)
GS: Mass velocity (lb/hr-ft2)
L: Mean length of beam (ft)
LMTD: Log mean temperature difference (°F)
MOC: Material of construction
Mx: Bending moment (Nm)
Nt: Number of tubes
Nmin: Minimum number of plates
Nf: Feed plate
P: Total pressure (psia)
P*: vapor pressure (bar)
Pi: Operating pressure (bar)
Pd: Design pressure (bar)
PT: Tube pitch (ft)
Q: Heat flow rate (Btu/hr)
iv
Qv: Vapor volumetric flow rate (m3/sec)
QRC: Radiant heat flow (Btu/hr)
Qs: Sensible heat flow (Btu/hr)
Qw: Heat loss through furnace wall (Btu/hr)
q: Heat flux (Btu/hr. ft2)
R: Heat of reaction (Btu/hr)
Rmin: Minimum reflux ratio
T: Temperature (°F)
Ts: Mean temperature of reservoir (°F)
T1: Inlet Temperature (°F)
T2: Outlet Temperature (°F)
TH: Holdup time (min)
Ts: Surge time (min)
t: Minimum thickness required (mm)
U: Overall heat transfer coefficient (Btu/hr-ft-°F)
Ut: Terminal velocity (m/sec)
Uf : Flooding vapor velocity (m/sec)
V: Vapor flow rate (lb-mol/hr)
VH: Holdup volume (m3)
vo: Entering volumetric flow rate (dm3/s)
W: Weight of catalyst (kg)
W: Fuel rate (lb/hr)
Wv: Mass flow rate of vapors (kg/hr)
WL: Mass flow rate of liquids (kg/hr)
Wi: Weight of insulation (N)
α: Effectiveness factor
è: Emissivity
ΔPT: Total plate pressure drop Pa (N/m2)
ΔT: True LMTD (°F)
ʎ: Latent heat (Btu/lb)
α: Relative volatility
ρv: Density of vapors (kg/m3)
ρL: Density of liquids (kg/m3)
ϬW: Dead weight stress (N/mm2)
Ϭs: Compressive stress (N/mm2)
Ϭbs: Bending moment stress (N/mm2)
ΣQ: Combined radiant and convection heat flow (Btu/hr)
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Introduction to Hydrodesulphurization of Diesel..........................................................1
1.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................2
1.2 Thermodynamic Data and Physical Properties............................................................3
1.3 Industrial Application...................................................................................................3
1.4 Handling, Storage and safety & Shipping of Product..................................................3
1.5 Shipping of Product......................................................................................................4
1.6 Feasibility and current status in world.........................................................................4
1.7 Consumption of Diesel.................................................................................................5
2 Manufacturing Processes.................................................................................................7
2.1 Production Methods.....................................................................................................8
2.2 Hydrodesulphurization of diesel..................................................................................8
2.3 Oxidation-Extraction Method of Desulphurization......................................................9
2.3.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................9
2.4 Oxidation-Extraction Method of Desulphurization....................................................10
2.4.1 Intoduction..........................................................................................................10
2.5 Oxidation and extraction of crude oil.........................................................................10
2.6 Comparison Table......................................................................................................11
2.7 Capacity Selection......................................................................................................11
3 Material Balance.............................................................................................................16
3.1 Material balance on Reactor.......................................................................................17
3.2 Balance on Separator S-101.......................................................................................18
3.3 Balance on Distillation D-101....................................................................................19
3.4 Balance on Absorption Column T-201......................................................................21
4 Energy Balance................................................................................................................22
4.1 Energy Balance on Heat Exchanger E-101................................................................23
4.3 Energy Balance on Furnace F-101.............................................................................25
vi
4.4 Energy balance on Reactor R-101..............................................................................26
4.6 Distillation Column D-101.........................................................................................28
4.7 Absorption Column T-201.........................................................................................29
5 Equipment Design...........................................................................................................38
5.1 Reactor Design...........................................................................................................39
Introduction...........................................................................................................................39
5.2 Types of Reactors.......................................................................................................39
5.3 Classification of Reactors...........................................................................................39
5.4 Types of multiphase flow reactors.............................................................................40
5.4.1 Packed Column Reactor......................................................................................40
5.4.2 Plate Column Reactor.........................................................................................41
5.5 Selection Criteria of Reactor......................................................................................41
5.6 Equipment Selection..................................................................................................41
5.7 Fixed-Bed Catalytic Reactors.....................................................................................43
5.8 GAS LIQUID SEPARATOR.....................................................................................50
5.8.1 Liquid Level Monitoring.....................................................................................50
5.9 Gas-Liquid Separator (S-101)....................................................................................50
5.10 ABSORBER...............................................................................................................54
5.10.1 Types of Absorption...........................................................................................54
5.10.2 Physical Absorption............................................................................................54
5.10.3 Chemical Absorption..........................................................................................54
5.10.4 Types of Absorber...............................................................................................55
5.10.5 Design of Absorber (T-201)................................................................................60
5.11 FURNACE.................................................................................................................66
5.12 Distillation Column....................................................................................................73
Purpose of Unit.....................................................................................................................73
5.13 Heat Exchanger Design E-101...................................................................................84
6 Mechanical Design..........................................................................................................95
6.1 FIXED BED CATALYTIC REACTOR....................................................................96
6.2 Heads and closures.....................................................................................................97
6.3 Comparisons of Heads...............................................................................................97
vii
6.4 Types of supports.......................................................................................................98
6.5 MULTI-STAGE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP..............................................................102
6.6 MULTI-STAGE CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR...............................................105
7 Cost Estimation.............................................................................................................110
7.1 Cost Estimation........................................................................................................111
7.1.1 Capital Investment............................................................................................111
7.1.2 Methods for Estimating Capital Investment.....................................................111
7.2 Cost of Preheater (P-101).........................................................................................111
7.5 Cost of Separator......................................................................................................112
7.6 Cost of Reactor (R-101)...........................................................................................112
7.7 Cost of Reactor (R-102)...........................................................................................113
7.8 Cost of Compressor (CS-101)..................................................................................113
7.9 Cost of Furnace (F-101)...........................................................................................113
7.10 Cost of Absorber......................................................................................................113
7.11 Cost of Distillation Column (DC-101).....................................................................114
7.12 Cost of Pump (P-101)...............................................................................................114
7.13 Total Cost of Purchased Equipment’s......................................................................115
7.14 Annual operating cost...............................................................................................115
7.15 Variable Cost............................................................................................................115
7.16 Profitability Analysis................................................................................................117
Depreciation........................................................................................................................117
7.17 Rate of Return..........................................................................................................117
8 Process Control and Instrumentation.........................................................................118
8.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................119
8.2 Procedures for Control System Design....................................................................120
8.3 Typical Control Measurement..................................................................................121
8.4 Control system for Distillation column....................................................................124
9 Hazard and Operability Study....................................................................................127
9.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................128
9.2 Distillation Column..................................................................................................130
viii
10 Environmental Impact Assessment.............................................................................132
10.1 Safety and Assessment.............................................................................................133
10.2 Properties of Hydrogen............................................................................................133
10.3 Environmental Impact Statement.............................................................................135
10.4 Impact Categories.....................................................................................................136
10.5 Environmental Regulations......................................................................................138
10.6 Process Improvements to reduce environmental burdens........................................139
11 References......................................................................................................................140
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 :Production of Diesel................................................................................................4
Figure 1.2: Production of Diesel................................................................................................5
Figure 1.3: Production of Diesel................................................................................................5
Figure 1.4: Future trend of Diesel..............................................................................................6
Figure 2.1 : Production of Diesel............................................................................................12
Figure 2.2 : Capacity Selection................................................................................................12
Figure 3.1: Balance around Reactor........................................................................................17
Figure 3.2: Balance on Separator.............................................................................................18
Figure 3.3:Balance on distillation............................................................................................20
Figure 3.4 : Balance around Absorber.....................................................................................21
Figure 4.1: Heat Exchanger E-101...........................................................................................23
Figure 4.2: Heat Exchanger E-102...........................................................................................24
Figure 4.3 : Furnace F-101.......................................................................................................25
Figure 4.4 : Reactor R-101.......................................................................................................26
Figure 4.5 : Absorption Column..............................................................................................29
Figure 5.1: Fixed-Bed Catalytic Reactor.................................................................................43
Figure 5.2: Levenspil Plot........................................................................................................45
Figure 5.3: Gas Liquid Separator.............................................................................................50
Figure 5.4 : Absorber...............................................................................................................60
Figure 5.5: Fire Heater Furnace...............................................................................................67
Figure 5.6 :Distillation Column...............................................................................................74
Figure 5.7 : Heat Exchanger....................................................................................................84
Figure.6.1: Fixed Bed Reactor.................................................................................................96
Figure 6.2: Brackets supports..................................................................................................98
Figure 6.3 : Multi-Stage Centrifugal Pump...........................................................................102
Figure 8.1:Diaphragm valve..................................................................................................122
Figure 8.2: Flanged valve......................................................................................................123
Figure 8.3:Non-return valve...................................................................................................123
Figure 8.4: Gate type valve....................................................................................................123
Figure 8.5: Diagram to show Instrument type and location...................................................124
Figure 11.1: Tax Collection...................................................................................................155
x
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1: Thermodynamic data of Diesel ................................................................................3
Table 1.2: Physical Properties of Diesel ....................................................................................3
Table 2.1:Production of Diesel................................................................................................11
Table 3.1:Balance around Reactor...........................................................................................18
Table 3.2: Balance around Separator.......................................................................................19
Table 3.3: Balance around Distillation.....................................................................................21
Table 3.4: Balance around Absorber........................................................................................21
Table 4.1:Heat Exchanger E-101.............................................................................................23
Table 4.2: Heat Exchanger E-102............................................................................................24
Table 4.3: Energy Balance on Reactor.....................................................................................26
Table 4.4: Heat Exchanger E-102............................................................................................28
Table 4.5: Energy Balance on Absorber..................................................................................30
Table 5.1: Comparison between Fixed Bed and Slurry Reactors............................................42
Table 5.2 :Conversion(X) vs Inverse of rate law.....................................................................44
Table 5.3: Assumption of Furnace Design...............................................................................66
Table 5.4: Material Balance.....................................................................................................75
Table 6.1 : Comparison of Heads.............................................................................................97
Table 7.1: Fixed Capital Cost.................................................................................................116
Table 8.1: Distillation Column Control..................................................................................125
Table 9.1: A list of guide words.............................................................................................129
Table 10.1:Summary of environmental burdens by different impact categories...................137
Table 10.2: Summary of pollutant standards to be followed by refineries............................138
xi
Chapter # 01 Introduction
Chapter No.1
1 Introduction to Hydrodesulphurization of Diesel
1
1.1 Introduction
Diesel fuel in general is any liquid fuel used in diesel engines, whose fuel ignition takes place,
without any spark, as a result of compression of the inlet air mixture and then injection of
fuel. (Glow plugs, grid heaters and block heaters help achieve high temperatures for
combustion during engine startup in cold weather.) Diesel engines have found broad use as a
result of higher thermodynamic efficiency and thus fuel efficiency. This is particularly noted
where diesel engines are run at part-load; as their air supply is not throttled as in a petrol
engine, their efficiency still remains very high.[1]
The most common type of diesel fuel is a specific fractional distillate of petroleum fuel oil,
but alternatives that are not derived from petroleum, such as biodiesel, biomass to
liquid (BTL) or gas to liquid (GTL) diesel, are increasingly being developed and adopted. To
distinguish these types, petroleum-derived diesel is increasingly called petrodiesel. Ultra-low-
sulfurdiesel (ULSD) is a standard for defining diesel fuel with substantially
lowered sulfur contents.Diesel fuel is produced from various sources, the most common
being petroleum. Other sources include biomass, animal fat, biogas, natural gas, and coal
liquefaction.[2]
Types of diesel
 Petroleum Diesel
Petroleum diesel also called Petro diesel. It is obtained from fractional distillation of crude oil.
 Synthetic Diesel
Synthetic Diesel is produced from carbonaceous material like biomass, biogas, natural gas
and coal.
 Biodiesel
Bio-diesel is obtained from vegetable oil or animal fat, which are transesterified with
methanol.
Table 1.1: Properties of Hydrocarbon [1]
S.No Hydrocarbon General Characteristics

Formula
1 CnH2n+2 (Straight n- paraffin Low specific gravity &high cetane
chain) number
3 CnH2n-6 Benzene Low specific gravity &high cetane
number
4 CnH2n+2 Iso-paraffins Higher sp.gr than 1 but lower cetane
(Branch Chain) number
2
1.2 Thermodynamic Data and Physical Properties
Table 1.2: Thermodynamic data of Diesel [1]
Flash Point 52-96℃

Heat Capacity kJ
2.05
kg ℃
Enthalpy kj
4482
g
Thermal Conductivity W
0.13
mk
Thermal Energy MJ
45
kg
Heat of Combustion Btu
-18540
hr
Latent Heat of Vaporization Btu
110
hr
Table 1.3: Physical Properties of Diesel [2]
Density Ib
6.4-7.4
gal
Boiling Point 370-650 ℉
Reid Vapour Pressure 0.2 PSI
Cetane Number 40-55
Freezing Point -40 ℉
Specific Gravity 0.85
Kinematic Viscosity mm 2
2.90
s
1.3 Industrial Application

 Diesel is use for power generation.
 Diesel is use in automotive vehicle
 They are used as central stations for power supplies.
 Diesel engine is more popular in bigger car and have use in small car
 Larger transportation application (truck, buses, etc.) also benefit from the diesel
reliability and high torque output.
 Non Transport Uses (Generator, irrigation pump, corn girder).
3
1.4 Handling, Storage and safety & Shipping of Product

It is often helpful to remember that fuel is subject to change and contamination as it moves
through the distribution and storage system network. Diesel fuel distribution starts with
production of fuel at the refinery and includes all aspects of storage and delivery until the fuel
is ultimately burned in an engine. Once produced at the refinery, diesel fuel is usually
maintained in temporary storage on site until it is put into a pipeline for transport. It may also
be loaded on other forms of conveyance, such as rail cars, tankers, ships, or barges for
transport downstream. The next stop is usually a terminal where it is put in a storage tank
prior to delivery to the end user.
Tanker transports receive the finished fuel at the terminal and deliver it to other intermediate
storage or directly to the fuel marketer, where the fuel is placed in storage tanks until it is
delivered to vehicle or equipment fuel tanks for use in the engine.[3]
1.5 Shipping of Product

Refined products are spread to the companies and consumers who economically transported
supply of these products. Gasoline and diesel fuel supplies are transported to the market place
by pipelines from refineries to local distribution centers. Tankers, trucks carry gasoline only
few miles of the journey to specific service stations. Major American airports rely almost
entirely on pipelines, and these pipelines to transport diesel directly to the airport. Diesel fuel
is used in the diesel engines found in most freight trucks, trains, buses, boats, and farm and
construction vehicles. Some cars and small trucks also have diesel engines. Diesel fuel is also
used in diesel engine generators to generate electricity. Most remote villages in Alaska, and in
many other locations, use diesel generators to supply electricity.
1.6 Feasibility and current status in world

Pakistan will import low sulphur diesel from foreign countries. Paksitan will required 500ppm
sulphur that are import from Kuwait Petroleum Corp (KPC) starting from
2017,January.Pakistan and Indonesia are some of the few remaining Asian countries still
using high-sulphur diesel.
Pakistan refinery are not ready to change the sulphur standard.40% Pakistan refinery are
upgrading their unit to produced low sulphur diesel but remaining are working.
6000
5000
thousand metric tons/day
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
years
4
Figure 1.1 :Production of Diesel [6]
Production of diesel in World

Use of diesel products is increasing day by day so to meet the growing rate of refined
products, their production is also increasing yearly as shown in graph below. In 2015 the
production of refined products are 4,200 Mt.[5]
Figure 1.2: Production of Diesel [7]
1.7 Consumption of Diesel

A correctly tuned diesel engine consumes fuel according to its power requirements. Simple
really, the more power you produce the more fuel you use.[8] The fuel consumption rate for
many makes of Diesel Engines can be found in a range between 0.380 & 0.450 lbs/hp hour;
172 & 181 grams/hp hour; 231 & 243 grams/kW hour. This does not represent a big
difference in fuel consumption per power unit between most normal naturally aspirated diesel
engines, while turbocharged engines are not significantly better.[9]
5
500
Thousand Barrel per day 450
400
350
300
250
200
production
150 consumption
100
50
0
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
98
00
02
04
06
08
10
12
14
16
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
Years
Figure 1.3: Production of Diesel [8]
Future trend
Figure 1.4: Future trend of Diesel [8]
6
Chapter#02 Manufacturing Process
Chapter No 2
2 Manufacturing Processes
7
Manufacturing Process
The present invention relates to a novel process for desulfurization of diesel with reduced
hydrogen consumption. More particularly the subject invention pertains to an integrated
process comprising diesel hydro de-sulfurisation (DHDS) or diesel hydrotreatment (DHDT)
with reduced severity to desulfurize high sulfur (1.0-2.0 wt %) diesel stream to a much lower
level of sulfur content of 350-500 ppm in the depleted diesel stream, followed by a
Hydrodesulphurization method procedure for effecting deep desulfurization to reduce overall
sulfur content to less than 10 ppm with reduced hydrogen consumption, as compared to high
severity DHDS.
2.1 Production Methods
 Hydrodesulphurization of Diesel
 Oxidation method
2.2 Hydrodesulphurization of diesel
Reaction
CoMo/Al2O3
C12H8S+H2 C12H10 +H2S
Middle distillates contain large amount of sulphur species and the sterically hindered di-
benzothiophene are among the most difficult to remove sulphur content when ultra-low
sulphur content requird.In general, Sulphur distribution in crude oil is proportional to sulphur
increase along with boiling point of distillation fraction,[10] for example Middle Distillate
range, Diesel (DBT) will have higher sulphur content as compared to low-boiling range
gasoline.Di-Benzothiophene have 20 wt. % (5000 ppm) of sulphur in the liquid feed blend
was solely from the DBT compound. Our target to reduce sulphur from diesel at 15ppm. The
DBT reacts with hydrogen in presence of CoMo/Al2O3.[12]
Catalyst & Yield
Hydrodesulphurization is take place in fixes-bed reactor in presence of molybdenum-based
catalyst, most commonly a cobalt-molybdenum (CoMo) catalyst. The catalyst increase the
rate at which hydrogen react with organically sulphur in hydrocarbon feed, and it reduce the
amount of energy required for this process and enable to complete remove the suplur.The
products from this process are formed hydrogen sulphide gas, which may be converted into
sulphuric acid to be sold, and low sulphur hydrocarbon, which form the final diesel product.
The catalyst is not consumed during the desulphurization reaction, it goes slowly deactivate
during the cycling limiting the production cycle of plant to around two years. At the end of
two year operation of hydrodesulphurization plant, the catalyst is regenerated to remove coke
formation that has form on its surface and so reduce or reverse activity loss in the catalyst.
Regeneration the catalyst mean it can be used further cycle before it’s considered spent, at
which point the molybdenum, cobalt and nickel are recycle use in steel industry.
C12H8S + 2H2 C12H10 + H2S
When Di-Benzothiophyene is reacted with hydrogen in presence of catalyst yield hydrogen
sulphide and biphenyl which is the desulfurized form of the DBT.The reaction of
Hydrodesulphuration of diesel, DBT is reacted with hydrogen in presence of CoMo/Al 2O3
catalyst. It is high temperature and high pressure reaction. This reaction is take place in
presence of 50 psig pressure and temperature is 330℃ . There is no side reaction.[13]
8
By-Product and their handling
C12H8S + 2H2 C12H10 + H2S
H2S is formed as a by-product in this reaction. Hydrogen-Sulphide is moved toward amine-
contractor in which amine solution (Methyl Di Ethanol Amine) dissolve hydrogen-sulphide
gas in it and Rich hydrogen is move upward in amine contractor and hydrogen is used for
recycle. Rich Amine is moved toward stripping section in which amine solution is recovered
and H2S gas is moved toward Claus Process. In Claus Process H 2S gas is converted into
elemental Sulphur.[14]
2.3 Oxidation-Extraction Method of Desulphurization

2.3.1 Introduction
The oxidation-extraction desulphurization of Arabian crudes was conducted with hydrogen-
peroxide oxidation system. DMF was used as extract. The desulphurization rate of 35.1% and
oil recovery of 95% was obtained at 70℃ with the molar ratio of peracetic acid to sulphur of
8:1, the molar ratio of acetic acid to hydrogen peroxide of 2:1 and the volume ration of extract
of oil of 1:1.[15]
With rapid development of economy and technology and increasing demand for crude oil
exploitation, the content of sulphur-contenting compounds in the crude oil is ever
increasing, leading to poor oil quality. The dissolved sulfides, such as hydrogen sulfide,
sulfoether, mercaptan, disulfide, and thiophene, may corrode the equipment in the
exploitation, transportation and refining process directly affecting the safe production and
even polluting the environment. Therefore, the technology of crude oil desulfurization has
attracted more and more interests, and the extensive researches mainly on the non-
hydrogenation desulfurization (NHDS) are received. The ultrasonic oxidation and bacteria
desulfurization methods that remove some sulfides of the heavy crude oil are developed by
Sulphco U.S Company and Iran Sharif University of Technology, respectively.
Additionally, the desulfurizer GX ~201D in Changing desulfurization process could be
added into crude oil directly, but it was non-renewable. [16]
At present, the industrial desulfurization processing technologies of crude oil are still
immature. Especially, the desulfurization effect on organic sulphur compounds is
insignificant. In view of advantages of mild reaction conditions, high selectivity and low
cost, the deep oxidation desulfurization process has received more concern recently which
can remove the refractory sulphur compounds significantly. The oxidants commonly used
include NO2/HNO3, O3, per oxyacid and tertbutyl hypochlorite. H 2O2 (as oxidant) with
organic acid (as oxidation accelerator) among them is widely used in light oil
desulfurization process but hardly in crude oil. Moreover, there are few researches
systematically on the oxidation desulfurization mechanism. [17]
In this paper, the 30 wt% H 2O2–acetic acid oxidation system was utilized to remove the
sulfides from the Saudi Arabian crudes. The optimization of oxidation and extraction
conditions was studied, including peracetic acid dosage, HAc/H 2O2 ratio, temperature,
reaction time, selection of extractant. The desulfurization effect of different fractions in
crude oil was also investigated [14]
9
2.4 Oxidation-Extraction Method of Desulphurization
2.4.1 Intoduction
A process for reducing the sulfur content of diesel fuel comprising the steps of: Contacting a
diesel fuel containing sulfur compounds in a reactor with an oxidant selected from the group
consisting of sulfuric acid, peracetic acid, hydrogen peroxide, sodium hypochlorite, perchloric
acid, nitric acid, sodium or potassium peroxidisulfate or peroxymonosulfate, and mixtures
thereof, in the presence of a homogeneous or heterogeneous oxidation catalyst selected from
the group consisting of {(C8H17)4N}3PW4O24, Mo2W7O30.2N(CH2PO)3,
MoO2NH(CHCH3CH2O)2, N(CH2PO)3(WO5)9, H5BiMo12O40.4H2O, and
Na4C32H12N8S4O12Co(II)O2, at a temperature in the range of from about 50° C. to about 150°
C. for a period of time sufficient to oxidize the sulfur compounds; and Removing the oxidized
sulfur compounds from the diesel fuel by liquid-liquid countercurrent extraction with a water-
soluble polar solvent.The process according including the steps of:
 Stripping the solvent from the diesel fuel; and
 Polishing the diesel fuel by passing it through an adsorbent to remove the remaining
sulphur compounds.
Reaction
Material
A sample of treated crude oil (Sulphur content, 2.5 wt%) was obtained from Saudi Arabia;
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2, 30 wt%), acetic acid (HAc), N, N-dimethylformamide(DMF),
dimethylsulfoxide(DMSO), ethanol, ethylene glycol and furfural were purchased
commercially.
2.5 Oxidation and extraction of crude oil
The oxidation of Saudi Arabian crudes was conducted in a glass flask with an electric stirrer.
An excess amount of 30 wt% H2O2 and acetic acid was used to oxidize the sulphur compounds
thoroughly. First, H2O2 and HAC were mixed at a certain ratio to prepare the peracetic acid,
which was then put into the crude material. Subsequently, the mixture was stirred at the
desired temperature for a certain time.[16]
The extraction of Saudi Arabian crudes was conducted in a three-neck glass flask with an
electric stirrer. The extractant was added to the oxidation reaction system. The extraction
reaction was carried out at 60 °C for 20 min. Thereafter, the treated crude oil was obtained by
centrifuging after the mixture was cooled to room temperature. Finally, oil and solvent were
separated using a separator funnel.
Analysis of Sulphur content in Diesel
10
The sulphur content (wt%) of the crude oil was measured by tubular furnace (Shandong
Xianke Instruments Co., Ltd. SX2-5-1). The desulfurization rate can be calculated by the
following equations:
ω 1−ω 2
η= ω 1 ∗100
where
η: desulfurization rate, %;
ω1: sulfur compounds content of crude oil, %;
ω2: sulphur compounds content of treated crude oil, %.
Reaction Condition
The process serves to desulfurize full range hydrotreated diesel oil with a boiling range of
about 240° C. to about 360° C. The process consists of treating the diesel oil in a
countercurrent or a stirred tank reactor with an aqueous solution of hydrogen peroxide in the
presence of a catalyst and a co-catalyst which is also known as a phase transfer agent. This
action results in effecting the oxidation of the sulfur species present in the hydrotreated (HT)
diesel at a nominal level of 1000 ppm w/w of total sulfur..[17]
2.6 Comparison Table
Hydrodesulphurization of Diesel Oxidation Extraction Method

Advantage Advantage
In this method we reduces sulphur less than It is evident that the greatest advantages of
0.5 ppm according to EURO-4 method. the ODS process are low reaction
temperature and pressure, and that
expensive hydrogen is not used in the
process
Its is continuous process It is cheaper process
Disadvantage Disadvantage
It required high pressure and high Desulphurization rate of 35.1%
temperature, this process is very costly.
Due to high temperature in Reactor, it cause It is batch process

deactivation of catalyst.
2.7 Capacity Selection

Table 2.4:Production of Diesel [4]
Plant Facility Capacity (BPSD)

Byco Oil Pakistan Limited (BOPL) 20000
Pak. Arab Refinery (PARCO) 35000
National Refinery (NRL) 6200
Pakistan Refinery Limited (PRL) 4600
Attock Refinery Limited (ARL) 15000
Total 92000
11
Production of Diesel
Byco Oil Pakistan Limited

(BOPL)
11% Pak. Arab Refinery (PARCO)
12% 38% National Refinery (NRL)
Pakistan Refinery Limited (PRL)
16% Attock Refinery Limited (ARL)
25%
Figure 2.5 : Production of Diesel [5]
About 40 percent of Pakistan’s refineries have upgraded their units to produce the low sulphur
diesel while the remaining refineries are still working to finish units to reduce the amount of
sulphur in the diesel. The Plant Capacity is 35000 BPD
Figure 2.6 : Capacity Selection [8]
Plant Facility Capacity (BSPD )

Byco Oil Pakistan Limited (BOPL) 20000
Pak. Arab Refinery (PARCO) 35000
National Refinery (NRL) 6200
Pakistan Refinery Limited (PRL) 4600
Attock Refinery Limited (ARL) 15000
Total 92000
12
Figure 2.7: Process Flow Diagram for Hydrodesulphurization of Diesel
13
Stream No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
T (℃) 30 195 300 338 338 365 340 340 220 220 250 275
P(PSI) 1074 1067 1060 1050 1050 930 925 925 875 875 60 60
m(kg/hr) 192434 192434 192434 192434 192434 192434 192434 192434 186922 1022 4631 186822
Diesel 192434 192434 186922 186922 - 186922 - 186922 186922 - 4.5 186922
H2 - - 168 168 - - - 48 - 48 - -
C12H8S - - 5532 5532 56.3 56.3 56.3 56.3 - 1.19 1.19
C12H10 - - - - - - 4631 - 4631 - 4631 4631
H2S - - - - - 1022.4 - 1022.4 - 1022.4 - -
MDEA - - - - - - - - - - - -
Rich Amine - - - - - - - - - - - -
Steam - - - - - - - - - - - -
Cooling Water - - - - - - - - - - 7017 -
Stream No 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
T (℃) 220 175 130 25 25 150 150 65 25 25 25
P(PSI) 60 60 45 1070 1070 60 60 1075 950 14.7 14.7
m(kg/hr) 435 18918 18619 1026 950 4631 4631 488 1278 655 461270
Diesel - 186918 186818 - - 4.5 - - - - -
H2 - - - 1024 950 - 48 480 - - -
C12H8S - - 1.19 - - 1.19 - - - - -
C12H10 - 63.9 4631 - - 4631 - - - - -
H2S - - - - - - 1022.4 - - - -
MDEA - - - - - - - - 1278 - -
RichAmine - - - - - - - - - 2300 -
Steam 26315 - - - - - - - - - -
CoolingWater - - - - - - - - - - 416270
14
Chapter # 03 Material Balance
Chapter No 3
3 Material Balance
16
Chapter#03 Material Balance
Main Reaction
C12H8S + 2H2 C12H10 + H2S
3.1 Material balance on Reactor

The conversion in the reactor is 99% of the total amount of the impure diesel fed to the reactor.
Balance around Reactor
Figure 3.8: Balance around Reactor
C12H8S + 2H2 C12H10 + H2S

Sulphur Present = 5000ppm
Sulphur Flow Rate = 962 kg/hr
H2 + S H2S
Now we calculate amount of H2S that is present in main chemical reaction.
Sulphur: Hydrogen Sulphide
32 kg of S: 34 kg of H2S
34 kg H 2 S
1 kg of S:
32kg S
kg kg
962 of S: 1022.42 of H2S
hr hr
kg
Flow Rate of H2S = 1022.42
hr
C12H8S Flowrate
C12H8S: H2S
kg kg
154 : 34
hr hr
34
∗1022.42
154
17
kg
Flow rate of C12H8S = 5532.8
hr
Calculation of C12H10 Flowrate
C12H10: C12H8S
kg kg
184 : 154
hr hr
154
∗¿ 5532.8
184
kg
Flow rate of C12H10 = 4631.23
hr
Excess H2
kg
Amount of Excess H2 = 48
hr
Table 3.5:Balance around Reactor
Component Input Output

Stream 5 (kg/hr) Stream 6 (kg/hr)
Diesel 192466 186922.83
H2 168 48
C12H10 - 4631.23
C12H8S - 55.38
H2S - 1022.42
Total 192634.25 192634.25
3.2 Balance on Separator S-101

An oil/gas separator is a pressure vessel used for separating a well stream into gaseous and liquid
components. They are installed either in an onshore processing station or on an offshore
platform. Based on the vessel configurations, the oil/gas separators can be divided into
horizontal, vertical, or spherical separators. In teams of fluids to be separated, the oil/gas
separators can be grouped into gas/liquid two-phase separator or oil/gas/water three-phase
separator.[18]
18
Figure 3.9: Balance on Separator
Gas Flow Rate

H2S = 1022.42 kg/hr
Excess H2 = 48 kg/hr
Liquid Flow Rate
Diesel = 186922.83 kg/hr
C12H10 = 4631.23 kg/hr
C12H8S = 55.38 kg/hr
Table 3.6: Balance around Separator

Stream8 (kg/hr) Stream 9 (kg/hr) Stream10 (kg/hr)
Diesel 186922.83 186922.83 -
H2S 1022.42 - 1022.42
C12H10 4631.23 4631.23 -
C12H8S 55.38 55.38 -
Excess H2 48 - 48
Total 192634.25 kg/hr 192634.25 kg/hr
3.3 Balance on Distillation D-101

In Distillation column, the Diesel enter in the distillation column and the steam is provided by
the reboiler at the end of the column. In this column, the Diesel separates into various product
that are Biphenyl. The feed flowrate that is diesel is must be equal to products flowrate.[19]
Composition
Composition %
Diesel 97.2
C12H10 2.41
19
C12H8S 0.029
Flow rate
Formula:
Fxf = Dxd + Wxw
Diesel:
Total Feed = 191609 kg/hr
F = D+W
191609 = D+W
191609(0.97) = W(0.99) + D(0.01)
185860.73 = W(0.99) + D(0.01)
D = 191609 - W
Solving eq (iii) & (iv)
D = 4.574 kg/hr
W = 186918 kg/hr
C12H10:
F = D+W
191609 = D+W
191609(0.0241) = D(0.99) + W(0.01)
185860.73 = D(0.99) + W(0.01)
D = 191609 - W
D = 4568.13 kg/hr
W = 63.09 kg/hr
C12H8S:
F = D+W
191609 = D+W
191609(0.000289) = D(0.99) + W(0.01)
185860.73 = W(0.99) + D(0.01)
D = 191609 - W
D = 1.119 kg/hr
W = 54.26 kg/hr
20
Figure 3.10:Balance on distillation
Table 3.7: Balance around Distillation
Components Inlet Output

Stream 9 (kg/hr) Stream 11 (kg/hr) Stream 14 (kg/hr)
Diesel 186922.83 4.574 186918
C12H10 4631.23 4568.13 63.09
C12H8S 55.38 1.119 54.26
Total 191609 191609
3.4 Balance on Absorption Column T-201

0.8 Moles of H2S need 1 mole of MDEA solvent
0.8 moles of H2S: 1 mole of MDEA solvent
1
*1022.4 =1278 kg/hr
0.8
Flow Rate of MDEA solvent = 1278 kg/hr
21
Figure 3.11 : Balance around Absorber
Table 3.8: Balance around Absorber
Components Input Output

Stream-10 Stream-21 Stream-20 Stream-22
(kg/hr) (kg/hr) (kg/hr) (kg/hr)
Solvent MDEA - 1278 - -
Excess H2 48 - 48 -
H2S 1022.4 - - -
Rich Amine - - - 2300.4
Total 1070.4 1278 48 2300.4
Total 2348.4 2348.4
22
Chapter # 04 Energy Balance
Chapter No 4
4 Energy Balance
22
Chapter#04 Energy Balance
4.1 Energy Balance on Heat Exchanger E-101

Product Diesel
T2 = 130℃
15
Diesel
Diesel 1 2 t2 = 195℃
t1 = 30℃
14 E-101
Product Diesel
T1 = 275℃
Figure 4.12: Heat Exchanger E-101
Table 4.9:Heat Exchanger E-101
Flow rate Cp
Component (Kg/hr) (kJ/kg.℃)
Diesel 192634.25 2.44
Product Diesel 186753.9 2.63
Calculation
Cold Medium
Formula:
Q = mcp∆ T
t1=30℃
t2=195℃
m=192634.25 kg/hr
tav = 80℃
Cp = 2.44 kJ/kg℃
Q = 7.3*106 kJ/hr
Hot medium
Formula:
Q = mcp∆ T
Q= 7.3*106 kJ/hr
T1=275℃
m=186753.9 kg/hr
Cp=2.63 Kj/kg℃
T2 = 130 ℃
23
Diesel + H2S
7 T2=300℃
Diesel + H2
Diesel+ H2 4 t2 = 300℃
3
t1 =195℃
6 E-102
Diesel + H2S
T1 = 365℃
Figure 4.13: Heat Exchanger E-102
Table 4.10: Heat Exchanger E-102
Flow rate CP
Component (Kg/hr) (kJ/kg.℃ )
Diesel 192634.25 2.84
Product Diesel 186753.9 2.58
Calculation
Cold Medium
Formula:
Q = mcp∆ T
t1=195℃
t2=300℃
m=192634.25 kg/hr
Cp of Diesel = 2.84 kJ/kg℃
Cp of H2 = 15.49 kJ/kg℃
Cp(mixture) = 3.093 kJ/kg℃
Q = 6.38*106 kJ/hr
Hot medium
Formula:
Q = mcp∆ T
Q= 6.38*106 kJ/hr
T1=365℃
m=186753.9 kg/hr
24
Cp(mixture)=2.58 kJ/kg℃
T2 = 250 ℃
4.3 Energy Balance on Furnace F-101
F-101
Diesel+ H2 Diesel + H2
t1 =300℃ 4 5
t2 = 335℃
Fuel
m= 668.7 kg/hr
Figure 4.14 : Furnace F-101
Calculation
Cold Medium
Formula
Q = mcp∆ T
t1=300℃
t2=335℃
m=192634.25 kg/hr
Cp of H2 = 15.07 kJ/kg℃
Q = 2.1*107 kJ/hr
Fuel Flowrate
Efficiency = 75%
QF = 2.1*107 kg/hr
QF = 2.1*107/0.75
QF = 2.8*107 kg/hr
Calorific Value of C12H10 = 41867.9 kg/hr
2.8∗107
m= = 668.7 kg/hr
41867.9
4.4 Energy balance on Reactor R-101
25
Diesel + H2
5
T1=335℃
m=192634.25 kg/hr
Diesel + H2S+C12H10+C12H8S
T2=365℃
6 m=192634.25 kg/hr
Figure 4.15 : Reactor R-101
Table 4.11: Energy Balance on Reactor

Stream 5 (kg/hr) Stream 6 (kg/hr)
Diesel 192466 186922.83
H2 168 48
C12H10 - 4631.23
C12H8S - 55.38
H2S - 1022.42
Total 192634.25 192634.25
Calculation
Inlet Feed
Formula:
QIN - QOUT + Generation – Consumption =Accumulation
Formula:
Q=mcp ΔT
T1 = 335℃
Tref = 25℃
m=192634.25 kg/hr
Tavg = 180℃
∆ T = 310℃
Cp of Diesel =2.67 kJ/kg℃
26
Cp of H2 = 14.6 kJ/kg℃
Cp (mixture) = 2.66 kJ/kg℃
Qin = 1.5*108 kJ/hr
Heat of Reaction∆ Hr :
Hr at 25℃ = -175 kJ/kg
∆ HR T =∆ HR+∆ CP(T-TR)
At 335℃
∆ HR = 4500 kJ/kg
m=192634.25 kg/hr
∆ HR = 8.6*107 kJ/kg
Qproduct
QOUT = mcp∆ T
Tavg = 350℃
QOUT = 1.95*108 kJ/hr
Qr - ∆ HR + Q = QP
Difference Q = -3.5*107 kJ/hr
Cooling jacket requirement in Reactor
Formula:
Q=mcp∆ t
t1=25℃ t2=45℃
∆ T =20 ℃
3.5*10 7
m= m=416270 kg/hr
4.204∗20
H2S
25 T2=110℃
Water Outlet
Water Inlet 23 24
t1=25℃ t2=50℃
E-104
26
H2S
T1=230℃
Table 4.12: Heat Exchanger E-102
Component Flow rate Cp
27
(Kg/hr) (kJ/kg.℃)
Water 655.5 4.18
H2S 1070.42 1.52
Calculation
Hot Medium Cold Medium
Q=mcp∆ T Q=mcp∆ T
T1=230℃ t1=25℃
T2=110℃ t2=50℃
Tavg = 170℃ Cp=4.18 kJ/kg℃
Cp =1.52 kJ/kg℃ m=655 kg/hr
m=1070.42 kJ/hr
Q=1.9*105 kJ/hr
4.6 Distillation Column D-101
Figure 4.16: Distillation Column
Calculation
Reboiler Duty
Q=m λ
m=187035.3 kg/hr
λ = 242 kJ/hr
Q =4.5*107 kJ/hr
Steam Flowrate
28
m=Q/ λ
λ =1710 kJ/hr
m=26315.7 kg/hr
Condenser Duty
Q=m λ
m=4573.5kg/hr
λ =194 kJ/kg
Q=8.8*105 kJ/kg
Coolant Flowrate
t1=25℃
t2=50℃
m=Q/Cp ΔT
m=7017.5 kg/hr
4.7 Absorption Column T-201
Figure 4.17 : Absorption Column
Table 4.13: Energy Balance on Absorber
29
Components Input Output

Stream-10 Stream-21 Stream-20 Stream-22
(kg/hr) (kg/hr) (kg/hr) (kg/hr)
Solvent MDEA - 1278 - -

Excess H2 48 - 48 -
H2S 1022.4 - - -
Rich Amine - - - 2300.4
Total 1070.4 1278 48 2300.4
Total 2348.4 2348.4
Calculation
Qin – Qout + Generation – consumption = Accumulation
Qin = Qout
Inlet
Solvent
Q=mcp ΔT
t1=32℃
tref = 25℃
Cp = 3.42 kJ/kg℃
Qin = 89595.32 kJ/hr
H2S gas
Q = mcp ΔT
T1=110℃
T2=25℃
Cp=0.92 kJ/kg℃
Qin = 99951.24 kJ/hr
Total Qin = 2.24*105 kJ/hr
Outlet
Excess H2
Q = mcp ΔT
T1=55℃
T2=25℃
Cp=15.3 kJ/kg℃
Qout = 22032 kJ/hr
Rich Amine
Q = mcp ΔT
T1 = 55℃
T2 = 25℃
30
CP = 2.98 kJ/kg℃
Qout = 205620 kJ/hr
Total Qout = 2.2*105 kJ/hr
Formula
Qin = Qout
2.24*105 kJ/hr
31
Chapter # 05 Equipment Design
Chapter No 5
5 Equipment Design
38
Chapter#05 Equipment
Design
5.1 Reactor Design

Introduction
Chemical reactors are basically specific apparatus used for industrial transformations (chemical
reactions) and their design is one of the well-established and developed areas of Chemical
engineering.[20]
The reactor does not generally represent a large financial commitment in the chemical plant, but
it is technically the most important part. And it is the job of chemical engineer to ensure the safe
operation of reactor. The most significant factors which control the behavior of a chemical
reactor are briefly listed below[21]
a) Physico chemical data on the nature of the chemical reactions.
b) Reaction rates
c) Role of pressure and of temperature on the reaction and reacting species.
d) Diluted state of the species
5.2 Types of Reactors
The general types of chemical reactors which differ in design are enlisted below:[22]
 Fixed-Bed Reactor
 Multi-tubular Reactor
 Slurry Reactor
 Moving Bed Reactor
 Fluidized-Bed Reactor
 Thin or Shallow Bed Reactor
 Dispersion Reactor
 Film Reactor
5.3 Classification of Reactors
Classification of chemical reactors can be achieved in two different kinds. Depending upon the
nature of reactants and product.[23]
a. Homogeneous Reactors
b. Heterogeneous Reactors
c. Multiphase Flow Reactors
Depending upon the mode of operation
a. Batch Reactors
39
Design
b. Continuous Reactors (Stirred tank reactor, Tubular flow Reactor)

Homogeneous Reactors
In Homogeneous Reactors only one phase, usually a gas or a liquid, is present. If more than one
reactant is involved, provision must of course be made for mixing them together to form a
homogeneous whole. Often mixing the reactants is the way of starting off the reaction, although
some times the reactants are mixed and then brought to the required temperature.[25]
Heterogeneous Reactors
In Heterogeneous Reactors two or possibly three, phases are involved, common examples are gas
– liquid, liquid – solid, and liquid – liquid systems. In cases where one of the phases is a solid, it
is quite often present as a catalyst; gas – solid catalytic reactors particularly form an important
class of Heterogeneous catalytic Reactors. In a gas – solid catalytic reactor, the reaction takes
place on the surface of catalyst and hence heterogeneous. [26] However, bubbling a gas through a
liquid may serve just to dissolve the gas in the liquid where it then reacts homogeneously. The
reaction is then homogeneous but the reactor is heterogeneous itself. Generally, a heterogeneous
reactor exhibits a greater variety of configurations and contacting pattern than homogeneous
reactors.[27]
Batch and Continuous Reactors
Another kind of classification which cuts cross the homogeneous – heterogeneous division is the
mode of operation. Batch wise operation has carried out small scale preparative reactions in the
laboratory. There are many situations, however, especially in large scale operations, where
considerable advantage occurs by carrying out the chemical reaction continuously in the flow
reactor. In the Tubular Flow Reactors the aim is to pass the reactants along a tube so that there is
as little intermixing as possible between the reactants entering the tube and the product is leaving
at the far end.[28]
In Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor, an agitator is introduced to disperse the reactants thoroughly
into the reaction mixture as they enter the reactor. The product stream is drawn off continuously
and, in an ideal state of perfect mixing, will have the same composition as the contents of reactor
everywhere in the reactor.
Multiphase Flow Reactors
Reactions between components of a gas and a liquid are carried out in a variety of equipment,
often having confusing names. The variety stems from a number of conditions that have to be
fulfilled simultaneously: efficient contact between gas and liquid-and eventually a solid catalyst,
limitation of pressure drop, ease of removal of heat, low cost of construction and operation.
Depending on whether the main mass transfer resistance is located in the gas or in the liquid,
multiphase reactors or absorbers are operated either with a distributed gas phase and continuous
liquid phase or vice versa. Whether co- or counter current flow of gas and liquid is used depends
on the availability of driving forces for mass and heat transfer and reaction.
40
Design
5.4 Types of multiphase flow reactors

 Packed Column Reactor
 Plate Column Reactor
 Empty Column Reactors
 Stirred Vessel Reactors
5.4.1 Packed Column Reactor
Packed columns are frequently encountered in industry. Their construction is simple and they can
be easily adapted by replacing the packing. They permit rather large variations in flow rates and
the pressure drop is relatively low. The packing is often staged to avoid misdistribution of the
fluid. Sometimes staging is required to provide intermediate heat exchange, either in external heat
exchangers or by means of direct cooling by liquid injection. Packed columns for gas
purification, often called absorbers, always operate with counter current flow.[30]
5.4.2 Plate Column Reactor
Plate columns are only used in processes that do not require a solid catalyst and for which
relatively long contact times are needed. Since the liquid flow is evenly distributed over the
complete height of the column, large diameters can be used. The interfacial area per unit volume
of gas liquid mixture is larger than in packed columns, but on the other hand plate columns only
have gas-liquid mixtures on the plates themselves. Whether there is more interfacial area per unit
total volume of column in the plate column depends on the plate spacing, which is determined by
the presence or absence of down comers, foaming, entrainment, and so on. A very important
industrial example of a plate-column reactor is the so-called absorber in nitric acid production, in
which NO, dissolved in dilute acid, and is transformed into nitric acid by means of air oxygen.[31]
Empty Column Reactors
Empty columns are characterized by the absence of materials or devices for the continuous
dispersion of the phases, which does not mean that internal heat exchangers are excluded. In fact,
the insertion of heat exchangers in such reactors easily permits a continuous and efficient
temperature control.[32]
Fixed Bed Catalytic Reactors
Fixed-bed catalytic reactors have been characterized as the workhorses of me process industries.
For economical production of large amounts of product, they are usually the first choice,
particularly for gas-phase reactions. Many catalyzed gaseous reactions are amenable to long
catalyst life (1-10 years); and as the time between catalyst changes outs increases, annualized
replacement costs decline dramatically, largely due to savings in shutdown costs. It is not
surprising, therefore, that fixed-bed reactors now dominate the scene in large-scale chemical-
product manufacture.[33]
41
Design
5.5 Selection Criteria of Reactor

For finding best type of reactor we should know
 Following things;
 Conditions in the reactor i.e.; temperature and pressure, reaction time.
 Whether the reaction is exothermic or endothermic or is there any means for removal and
addition of heat.
 Whether reaction carried as batch or continuous flow process.
 Will unit operate?
5.6 Equipment Selection
As our process is continuous we only consider reactors for continuous and heterogeneous
processes as gas, liquid and solid phases are present.
Reactors are
 Fixed and Fluidized bed reactors
 Trickle bed reactors
Fluidized Bed Reactor

Use for only solid liquid contact
Table 5.14: Comparison between Fixed Bed and Slurry Reactors
Comparing Parameters Partial Fluidized Bed Fixed Bed

(Slurry)
Residence Time Distribution Good Mixing Plug Flow
Pressure Drop Low or medium High
Catalyst handling Technical difficulties None
Catalyst Consumption Possible No Loss

Maximum Volume 50 m3 300 m3
Process flexibility Batch or Continuous Continuous
Investment Costs High Low
Catalyst Highly active Supported, good thermal

stability and long working life
Operating Cost High Low
42
Design
Why we Selected Packed Column:

 They primarily used for gas, liquid phase solid catalyzed reaction.
 They have low operating cost
 Continuous operation
 High conversion /unit mass of catalyst
 Can handle Large volume
 For economical production of large amounts of product
5.7 Fixed-Bed Catalytic Reactors
Figure 5.18: Fixed-Bed Catalytic Reactor
REACTOR R-100
Operating conditions:
• Temperature= 338 oC = 611.1 K
• Pressure = 1000 PSI= 68 atm
Reaction:
43
Design
C12H8S + 2H2 C12H10 + H2S

Design Equation:
Since the rate equation of reaction is

-rA= kCA
Fao F F ( 1− X )
CA = v =C A= Ao = Ao
v Vo ( 1+ ξX )
(1− X )
C A=C Ao
(1+ ξX )
In the form of conversion the rate equation becomes
(1−X )
−rA=K C Ao
(1+ξX )
Where
−Ea
K= Ko exp [ ¿
RT
ko = 2.29 × 105 m3/m3 bulk catalyst. s at 260℃ [1]
Ea = -126 kJ/kmole [2]
R= 0.082
−126
(K) = 2.29 × 105exp [ ]
0.082∗623
= 1.877 m3/m3 catalyst
Fao
CAo=
Vo
YAo= 0.50 mol fraction of A
FAO = 1183 kgmol/hr
m
Vo =
p
Vo = 187 m3/hr
CAO= 6.32 kmol/m3
ξ =𝑌𝐴𝑜 𝜕= 0.50 (1+1-1-2) = -0.50
44
Design
(1−X )
−rA=KC Ao
(1+ξX )
1−XA
−rA= 1.877*6.32( )
1−0.5 XA
Table 5.15 :Conversion(X) vs Inverse of rate law
Conversion (X) Inverse of rate law (1/-ra)

0 79.5
0.2 90.0
0.4 106
0.6 140
0.8 243
0.99 416
450
400
350
300
250
1/-ra
200
150
100
50
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.99
Conversion X
Figure 5.19: Levenspil Plot
From graph area under the curve and by Simpson’s 1/5 rule.
45
Design
0.99
dXa
∫ −ra =153.2
0
Weight of catalyst
Weight of the catalyst = FAO × 153.2

Weight of the catalyst = 420 ton
Volume of catalyst
Bulk density of the catalyst = 8746 kg/m3 [3]
Volume of the catalyst = Weight of catalyst/Density
=43.5 m3
Number of tubes
The preferred lengths of the tubes (according to the TEMA standard) should be is 6ft, 8ft, 12ft,
16ft, 20ft and 24ft (7.32 m).
Volumne of Catalyst
Number of tube =
Volumne of tube
Length of tube = 20 ft = 6.098 m
To calculate tube diameter
Where Dt = dia of tube
Dp = dia of particle
Let inside dia of tube = 12cm = 120 mm
Volume of one tube = Vt = π /4 ´ Dt 2´ L
Dt = 0.12m
Vt = 0.068 m3
Put values in A
Nt= 96.9/0.067 = 448
Volume of Reactor
Bulk density of Catalyst
Voidage = 1- =0.54
Particle Density of Catalyst
Volume of catalyst
Volume of Reactor = Vr =
1−Voidage
Vr = 72 m3
Diameter Calculations of reactor

For High Pressure:
L
L=3D =3
D
46
Design
Vr = π /4 * D2 * L
179 = π /4 * D2 * 3D
D = 2.9 m
Length of Reactor
L = 3*D
L = 7.56 m
Volume of reactor
Residence Time =
Volumetric flow rate
179
t= 187 = 0.3 hr
= 22 min
Pressure drop
Using Eurgen equation
Фs = 0.64
∈=0.54
DP = particle diameter = 5mm = 0.05 cm[4]
ρf = feed density = 0.832 g/cm3

G =superficial mass velocity = 0.0086
g/cm2 Sec
µ = viscosity of feed = 0.051 g/cm.
gc = 980.67 cm/sec2
L = length of reactor = 7.29 m
Putting values in above eq. gives
ΔP =3125.059 gm/cm2
And 1033.074 g/cm2 = 1 atm
So
47
Design
ΔP = 1.5 atm or 22 PSI
SPECIFICATION SHEET
REACTOR R-101
Identification
Item Reactor R-100
Type Packed Bed Catalytic Reactor
Function
C12H8S + 2H2 C12H10 + H2S
Operating Pressure 68 atm

Operating Temperature 611 K
Space Time 22 min
Volume of Reactor(Vr) 72 m3
Volume of Catalyst(Vc) 43.5 m3
Weight of Catalyst 420 ton
Number of Tubes 448
Diameter of Reactor(D) 2.9 m
48
Design
Length of Reactor(L) 7.56 m

Pressure Drop(ΔP) 1.5 atm
SPECIFICATION SHEET
REACTOR R-102
Identification
Item Reactor R-102
Function
C12H8S + 2H2 C12H10 + H2S
Operating Pressure 68 atm

Operating Temperature 611 K
Space Time 22 min
Volume of Reactor(Vr) 72 m3
Volume of Catalyst(Vc) 43.5 m3
Weight of Catalyst 420 ton
Number of Tubes 448
Diameter of Reactor(D) 2.9 m
49
Design
Length of Reactor(L) 7.56 m

Pressure Drop(ΔP) 1.5 atm
5.8 GAS LIQUID SEPARATOR

A vapor–liquid separator is a device used in several industrial applications to separate a vapor–
liquid mixture.A vapor–liquid separator may also be referred to as a flash drum, breakpot, knock-
out drum or knock-out pot, compressor suction drumor compressor inlet drum. When used to
remove suspended water droplets from streams of air, it is often called a demister. For the
common variety, gravity is utilized in a vertical vessel to cause the liquid to settle to the bottom
of the vessel, where it is withdrawn. In low gravity environments such as a space station, a
common liquid separator will not function because gravity is not usable as a separation
mechanism. In this case, centrifugal force needs to be utilised in a spinning centrifugal
separator to drive liquid towards the outer edge of the chamber for removal. Gaseous components
migrate towards the center.For both varieties of separator, the gas outlet may itself be surrounded
by a spinning mesh screen or grating, so that any liquid that does approach the outlet strikes the
grating, is accelerated, and thrown away from the outlet.The vapor travels through the gas outlet
at a design velocity which minimises the entrainment of any liquid droplets in the vapor as it exits
the vessel.The feed to a vapor–liquid separator may also be a liquid that is being partially or
totally flashed into a vapor and liquid as it enters the separator.
5.8.1 Liquid Level Monitoring
The separator is only effective as long as there is an air space inside the chamber. The separator
can fail if either the mixed inlet is overwhelmed with supply material, or the liquid drain is
unable to handle the volume of liquid being collected. The separator may therefore be combined
with some other liquid level sensing mechanism such as a sight glass or float sensor. In this
50
Design
manner, both the supply and drain flow can be regulated to prevent the separator from becoming
overloaded.
5.9 Gas-Liquid Separator (S-101)
Figure 5.20: Gas Liquid Separator
Density of gaseous mixture = (1.36*0.048) + (70.8*0.96) = 67.2 kg/m3

Density of liquid mixture = (0.832*0.98) + (1140*0.015) + (1250*0.005) = 2122.8 kg/m3
1070.42
Volumetric flow rate of gas =
67.32
= 0.69 m3/sec
191608
Volumetric flow rate of liquid =
2122.8
= 255 m3/hr
= 4.15 m3/min
Maximum Gas Velocity
ρ l −¿ ρ 0.5
Vv= kv ( v
¿ ¿
ρv
With mist. eliminator, kv 0.35 ft/s (0.0107 m/s)
2122.8−67.2 0.5
Vv = 0.0107 ( ¿
67.2
Vv = 0.170 m/s
Area
A=Vv` / Vv
0.69
=
0.170
=4.08 m2
Diameter
51
Design
A=πD2 /4
D=
√
4A
π
=
√ 4 × 4.08
3.14
= 2.15 m (7.36ft)
Hold up volume of the liquid
= Volumetric flow rate of liquid* ts
= 4.08* 5
= 20.4 m3
Liquid Height
LL A =VL` ts
Where,
A = Area of separator
VL = Volumetric flow rate of liquid
Ts = Residence time in separator
Rearranging,
Vl ×ts
LL=
A
=20.04/4.08
=5m
Total height
L = LL +1.5(D) +0.46 m (1.5ft)
= 5 + 1.5 (2.15) +0.46 (1.5ft)
L = 8.61 m ( 28 ft)
L/D Ratio
= 28 / 7.36
=3.80
As,
L/D ˃ 3
So, we use vertical gas-liquid Separator.
52
Design
SPECIFICATION SHEET
TWO-PHASE SEPARATOR S-101
Identification
Item Vapour-Liquid Separator
Type Vertical
Function
To separate vapours and liquid
Operating Pressure 951 PSI
Operating Temperature 300 ℃
Area 4.18 m2
Diameter 2.30 m
53
Design
Length 8.91 m
L/D 3.87
Residence Time 5 min
5.10 ABSORBER
Absorption is the separation of solute gases from gaseous mixtures of non-condensable by
transfer into a liquid solvent. This recovery is achieved by contacting the gas stream with a liquid
that offers specific or selective solubility for the solute gas or gases to be recovered. It is the
second major operation of chemical engineering based on mass transfer. The operation of
absorption is applied in industry to: Purify process streams or recover valuable components of the
stream.Remove toxic or noxious components (pollutants) from effluent gas streams as a stage in
the preparation of some compound.There are further two terms that must be understood in the
case of Absorption
Solute
It is the component to be removed from an entering stream.
Following are some of the characteristics that must be kept in mind while selecting a
solvent.
 Solvent should be non-volatile
 It should be inexpensive
 Non-corrosive
 It should be stable
 Solvent should have low viscosity to provide low pressure drop  It should be
biodegradable.
54
Design
 It should be non-foaming and inflammable

 It should have high capacity for impurities like H2S, CO2 etc.
5.10.1 Types of Absorption
There are two types of Absorption
 Physical Absorption
 Chemical Absorption
5.10.2 Physical Absorption
In it mass transfer takes place purely by diffusion and is governed by the physical equilibria. For
example the absorption of hydrogen chloride in water. No significant reaction occurs between the
absorbent and the solute. The process is commonly referred to as physical absorption.
5.10.3 Chemical Absorption
In this type of absorption a chemical reaction occurs as soon as a particular component comes in
contact with the absorbing liquid. For example when aqueous sodium hydroxide (a strong base) is
used as the absorbent to dissolve an acid gas such as hydrogen chloride, absorption is
accompanied by a rapid and irreversible neutralization reaction in the liquid phase and the
process is referred to as chemical absorption or reactive absorption.
Chemical reactions can increase the rate of absorption; increase the absorption capacity of the
solvent, increase selectivity to preferentially dissolve only certain components of the gas, and
convert a hazardous chemical to a safe compound.
5.10.4 Types of Absorber
Following are some of the types
 Packed Columns
 Plate Columns
 Spray Towers
Packed Column
It consists of cylindrical column equipped with a gas inlet and distributing space at the bottom, a
liquid inlet and a distributor at the top, gas and liquid outlets at the top and bottom respectively.
Tower packing is actually supported mass of inert solid shapes. Packing support is typically a
screen corrugated to give it strength with a large open area so that flooding does not occur at
support.
Plate Column
In it, different trays are arranged in column, one above another and there are many smaller
diameter holes in plates which disperse gas and create bubbles in liquid above the plate. Liquid
flows downward and vapor rises through plates.
Spray Column
55
Design
It consists of large empty chambers through which gas circulates and into which the liquid is
introduced in the form of droplets by means of spray nozzles or other atomizing devices.
Pressure drop per theoretical stage:
Packed towers usually result in lower pressure drop per theoretical stage than trays. In plate
column there is additional friction generated as the vapor passes through the liquid on each tray.
If there are large numbers of plates in the tower, this pressure drop may be quite high and the use
of packed column could affect considerable saving.
Liquid/Vapor ratios:
Trays are designed for low liquid/vapor ratios, while packed towers are operated from low to
high liquid/vapor ratios (often in absorbers and scrubbers).
Foaming Systems:
The packing tends to be more resistant to entrainment and induce less foaming because of less
agitation of the liquid by the gas.
Corrosion:
Corrosion problems with some fluid systems are easier and less costly dealt with by corrosion
resistant packing than fabricated trays.
Liquid Holdup:
Because of the liquid on each plate there may be a large quantity of liquid in plate column,
whereas in packed tower the liquid flows as a thin film over the packing.
Cost:
The cost of packed column is less than tray column.
Capacity:
According to rule of thumb properly designed packed columns have 20-40 % more capacity.
Packing Selection
It is the most important component of the system. The packing provides sufficient area for
intimate contact between phases. The efficiency of packing with respect to both HTU and flow
capacity determines to a significant extent the overall size of the tower. The economics of the
installation are therefore tied up by the packing choice.
Tower packing are divided into
Random/Dumped Packing
It is made of cheap, inert materials such as clay, porcelain, or various plastics. Thin walled metal
rings of steel or aluminum are sometimes used. High void spaces and large passages for fluids are
achieved by making packing units irregular and hollow so that they interlock into open structures
with a porosity or void fraction of 60-90%.
Stacked Packing
It is a hand operation and rather costly. It is avoided where possible except for initial layers on
supports. Liquid distributed on a stacked packing usually flows straight down through the
packing immediately adjacent to the point of contact. There is very little horizontal liquid flow.
56
Design
Because of the above advantages of dumped packing, this installation is better for the absorption
and chosen for the design.
Selection Criteria
The principal requirements of a tower packing are:
 It must be chemically inert to the fluids in the tower.
 It must be strong without excessive weight.
 It must contain adequate passages for both streams without excessive liquid holdup or
pressure drop.
 It must provide good contact between liquid and gas.
 It must be reasonable in cost.
The packing is the heart of absorber. Its proper selection entails an understanding of packing
operational characteristics and the effects on performance of the points of significant physical
difference between various types. The types and corresponding merits and demerits are given
below.
 Rashing Rings
 Berl Saddles
 Intalox Saddles
 Pall Rings
Merits of Intalox Saddles:
 One of the most efficient packing
 Very little tendency or ability to nest and block areas of bed
 Higher flooding limits and lower pressure drop than rashing rings or berl saddles
 Lower HTU values for most common systems
Demerits of Rashing Rings:
 Earliest type but sometimes less efficient than others
 Usually has more internal liquid channeling
 Directs more liquid to the walls of the tower
 Less efficient.
Demerits of Berl Saddles:
 Packing sometimes promotes channeling
 Easier to break in bed
 More costly than rashing ring
Demerits of Pall rings:
 Considerable side thrust on column wall
 Available in metal, Plastic and ceramic
Material Selection of packing
Most commonly used materials for packing are plastic, metal and porcelain. But the most suitable
material for the acid is the ceramic.
Ceramic Packing
57
Design
 Highly stable chemically

 Acid and Alkali resistant
 Resists temperature upto 1000°C
 Most widely used packing material
 Abrasion resistant
Metal Packing
 Heavier than ceramic
 More expensive than other materials
 Metals packing should not be specified if corrosion rate is greater than 10 mils/year
Plastic Packing
 May deform by prolonged exposure
 Avoid plastic packing within 50°F of their softening point
 Parts of Absorber
Liquid Distributor
Liquid distributor plays an important part in the efficient operation of a packed tower. A good
packing from the process point of view can be reduced in effectiveness by poor liquid distribution
across the top of its upper surface. Poor distribution reduces the effective wetted packing area and
promotes liquid channelling. The final selection of the mechanism of distributing the liquid
across the packing depends upon the size of the tower, type of packing, tendency of packing to
divert liquid to tower walls, and material of construction for distribution.
Distributor job is to disperse liquid uniformly over the packing. There are different types of
distributor available in the market. Some of the examples of liquid distributors are as follows:
 Orifice type distributor
 Perforated pipe distributor
 Trough distributor
 Notched chimney distributor
 Spray nozzle
Orifice Distributor
A simple orifice type which gives very fine distribution though it must be correctly sized for a
particular duty and should not be used where there is risk of plugging. The orifice riser distributor
is designed to lay the liquid carefully onto the bed, with a minimum of contact with gas during
the process.
Perforated Pipe Distributor
The perforated ring type distributor is suitable for use with absorption columns where high gas
rates and relatively small liquid rates are encountered. This type is especially suitable where
pressure loss must be minimized. For larger size of tower, where installation through manholes is
necessary, it may be made up in flanged sections. The orifices are 4-6 mm in diameter, and can
58
Design
be subject to plugging if foreign material is present. The popes must be carefully leveled for
larger diameter columns.
Trough Distributor
Trough distributor provides good distribution under widely varying flow rates of gas and liquid.
The liquid may flow through simple V notched weirs, or it may flow through tubes that extend
from the troughs to near the upper level of the packing. Some deposition of solids can be
accommodated. Notched trough distributor which is especially suitable for the larger sizes of
tower, and because of its large free area it is suitable for high gas rates.
Spray Nozzles
Another type of distributor is the spray nozzle. It is usually not recommended for liquid
distribution for two reasons. First, except for small columns, it is difficult to obtain a uniform
spray pattern for the packing. The full cone nozzle type is usually used, with the need for a bank
of nozzles in larger columns. When there is more than one nozzle, the problem of overlap and
under lap arises. The second reason for not using spray nozzles is their tendency towards
entrainment.
Redistributors
The liquid coming down through the packing and on the wall of the tower should be
redistributed after a bed depth of approximately 3 tower diameters for rashing rings and 5-10
tower diameters for saddle packing. As a guide, rashing rings usually have a maximum of 10-15
feet of packing per section, while saddle packing can use 12-20 feet. This redistribution brings
the liquid off the wall and outer portions of the tower and directs it towards the centre area of the
tower for a new start at distribution and contact in next lower section. The height of packing
before redistribution is a function of the liquid flow pattern through the packing, and this is the
function of size and type of
packing. The height of the absorber in this case is around 43 feet. Considering the need of
redistributors after every 15 feet, 2 redistributors are required. Metal rosette redistributors provide
adequate distribution in towers.
Gas Distributor
In large diameter column, the gas cannot distribute equally without gas distributor. For the
column diameter less than 2 meters, orifice pipe gas distributor is a simple and efficient gas
distributor. For larger diameter column, the riser type gas distributor is more efficient. Trough
type gas distributor has very good operation performance such as low spatial occupying, plug
proof and low pressure drop. At present, trough-pan liquid-gas distributor is one of the internal
distributing set that is most extensively used.
Support Plates
While the primary purpose of a packing support is to retain a bed of a packing without excessive
restriction to gas and liquid flow, it also serves to distribute both streams. Unless carefully
designed, the support plate can also cause premature column flooding. Thus design of the support
plate significantly affects column pressure drop and stable operating range.
59
Design
Two basic types of support plates are

 Counter current support plate
 Gas injection support plate
The degree of open area on a support plate is the fraction of void inherent in the design of the
plate minus that portion of the open area occluded by the packing. To avoid premature flooding
the net open area of plate must be greater than that of packing itself.
Countercurrent Support Plate
With the countercurrent type of support plate the free area for gas flow can range up to 90% of
the column cross section area. However such a plate is easily occluded by the packing pieces
resting directly on it. Two types of counter current plates are 1) Welded ring support 2) Wire
mesh support.
Gas Injection Support Plate
The separate flow passage devices can be designed for free areas up to 90 percent and because of
their geometry they will have very little occlusion by the packing. Two types of gas injection
support plates are 1) Random packing gas injection support plate 2) Heavy duty random packing
gas injection support.
Random Packing Gas-Injection Support
The support is designed to retain super intalox saddles, or other larger plastic packing. Smaller
size packing requires larger packing placed on support or special design plates. The support rests
on a full vessel ledge. Ledge strength calculations must be provided by vessel supplier. Columns
with larger diameters require the use of midspan beams depending on the material of construction
of the support, design load and process operating temperature.
Heavy duty Random Packing Gas injection Support
It is designed to retain the desired packing under the specified operating conditions without
limiting the packing capacity. The height, the material thickness and slot size of the support will
vary depending on the packing size, bed weight and process conditions.
It provides all necessary hydraulic capabilities and much greater bed load capacities. The height
will vary with shorter supports for small columns and taller supports on larger columns. Small
diameter supports can be bolted together outside the column or supplied as one piece for insertion
through a column body flange. For larger diameter columns, supports rests on a full column
ledge. Ledge strength calculations must be provided by vessel supplier.
5.10.5 Design of Absorber (T-201)
60
Design
Figure 5.21 : Absorber
Selection of Packing’s type

1.5-inch ceramic intalox-saddles
Why we use Ceramic intalox-saddles packing ?
Ceramic saddles are the frequently applied and standard ceramic random tower packing.
Ceramic ring’s ( ceramic saddle ) made from chemical porcelain, and it's fired at a very high
temperature. So ceramic saddles have a high chemical resistance to acid, and its structure is
conducive to the liquid gas distribution.[41]
Calulation of diameter of column
Flow rate of entering gases = G = 1022.4 Kg/h
Flow rate of entering solvent=L= 1278 Kg/h
Temperature of entering gas= Tg = 110 oC = 383 K
Temperature of entering solvent = TL = 25 oC = 298 K
Pressure of entering gases = P = 60 atm
Average molecular weight of entering gases = 34 mol/g
Density of gas mixture = ρg = PM /RTg
= (60*34) /(0.08205×383)
= 64.95 Kg/m3
Density of liquid solvent at 25oC = ρL = 1040 Kg/m3
Viscosity of liquid solvent at 25 oC = µL = 0.89 cp
Viscosity of gaseous mixture at 110 oC = µg = 0.021151 cp
61
Design
= 0.31
For pressure drop 42 mm of H2O /m of packing (Appendix-A Figure 1)
K4 = 0.8
Packing factor for 1.5-inch ceramic intalox - saddles = Fp = 170 m-1
V*w =
V*w = 0.46 Kg/m2-sec
0.284
Column of Area required = = 0.61 m2
0.46
Diameter of column = D =
Diameter = D = 0.83 m
Onda’s Method
Calculation of height of transfer units
Equation for calculation of effective interfacial area is given as.
aw   
0.75
 Lw 
0.1
 Lw 2 a 
0.05
 Lw 2 
0.2

 1  exp  1.45 c     2    
 g   a
a 
 l   a L   L   L L  

Where
aw = effective interfacial area of packing per unit volume m2/m3
Lw = liquid mass velocity kg/m2s
a = actual area of packing per unit volume = 92 m2/m3
σc = critical surface tension for particular packing material = 0.06 N/m [18]
σL = liquid surface tension = 0.07 N/m
Lw = 0.581 kg/m2s
µL=0.051 g/cm. Sec
ρL = 1040 Kg /m3
aw = 86.53 m2/m3
Calculation of liquid film mass transfer coefficient
1 2 1

  3  L 3   
ad 
2
0.4
K L  L   0.0051 w   L 
KL = liquid film coefficient
L g  m/s  a w  L    L DL 
p
dp = packing size = 38 mm
DL = diffusivity of liquid = 1.46 x 10-7 m2/s
Then, by substituting the values,
KL = 1.05 x 10-3 m/s
62
Design
Calculation of gas film mass transfer coefficient

1
0.7
K G RTg  V   g  3
 K5  w    ad p  2
aD g  a    D 
Where  g  g g
KG = Gas film coefficient, kmol/m2s.bar
VW = Gas mass velocity = 0.46 Kg/m2-sec
K5= 5.23 (For packing size above 15mm)
Dg = Diffusivity of gas = 2.11 x 10-4 m2/s
Then, by substituting the values,
KG = 2.6 x 10-4 kmol/m2s.bar
Now,
G
H  m
G K a P
G w
Where,
HG = Gas-film transfer unit height
Gm = 0.00119 Kmol/m2.s
Then,
0.00119
HG =
2.6∗10−4∗86.53∗1
HG = 0.93 m
Calculation of liquid transfer unit height
L
And , H  m
L K a C
L w unit
HL= Liquid-film transfer t height
Lm= 0.0095 Kmol/m .s 2
Ct = Concentration of solvent = 1014/61 = 16.62 Kmol/m3

0.0095
HL =
1.05∗10−3∗86.53∗16.62
HL = 0.03 m
Calculation of height of transfer units
mGm
H oG  H G   HL
Lm
Height of transfer units = HOG = 0.93 + (0.70 × 0.03)
HOG = 1.04 m
Equation for equilibrium curve
Let
Y1= Mole fraction of acetone in entering gas stream = 0.84
Y2 = Mole fraction of acetone in leaving gas stream = 0.022
Y1/Y2 = 30.5
63
Design
As
Gm (y1 – y2) = Lm(x1 – x2)
y1 – y2 = (Lm/Gm)( x1 – x2)
The above equation is in the form y = mX + 0
From figure 11.40, we can find out the NOG using Y1/Y2 & mGm/Lm. Where ‘m’ is slope of
equilibrium line.
Colburn has suggested that the economic range for mGm/Lm lies from 0.7 to 0.8.
Gm/Lm = 0.0019 / 0.00950 = 0.2
mGm/Lm = 0.75 ( From Appendix A – Figure 2 )
Area under the curve= NOG = 8
Calculation of height of tower
Total height of packing = Z = NOG × HOG
Z = 8 × 1.04 = 8.32 m
Allowances for liquid distribution = 1m
Allowances for liquid Re-distribution =1m
Total height of tower = 8.32 + 1 + 1
Zt = 10.32 m
Total height of tower = 10.32 m
= 0.31
From figure 11.44 of Coulson Vol 6.
At flooding, K4 = 4.3
Packing factor for 1.5-inch ceramic intalox - saddles = Fp = 170 m-1
G=
G = 3.86 Kg/sec
Calculations of Operating Velocity:
Operating velocity is 70% of flooding velocity
Operating Velocity = 0.70 × 3.86 = 2.70 kg/sec
Percentage Flooding
K4 at pressure drop of 42 mm H2O/m of packing = 1.5
K4 at flooding = 4.3
% flooding = 59 % (From Appendix A – Figure 3)

Calculation of wetting rate
Wetting rate = Liquid volumetric flow rate per unit cross-sectional area
Specific area of packing per unit volume
64
Design
Liquid volumetric flow rate/Unit cross-sectional area = 0.00035/7

= 0.00005 m3/m2-s
Specific area of packing = 194 m2/m3
Wetting rate = 5.43×10-6 m3s-1/m2
Calculation of pressure drop at flooding
Pressure drop at flooding is given by relation.
ΔPflooding = 0.115Fp 0.7
Where,
ΔPflooding= pressure drop at flooding
Fp =packing factor for 1.5-inch ceramic intalox saddles = 52 ft-1
ΔPflooding = 0.115(52)0.7
= 1.83 in.H2O/ft of packing
ΔPflooding = 1.49 kPa/m of packing
Calculation of total pressure drop:
From figure 22.6, MCcab & Smith (5th Ed.) [19]
Gx y
= 0.05
Gy  x   y 
and,
G2 ×Fp×µL0.1 / ρg (ρL - ρg)gc = 0.047
So from graph,
ΔP = 0.35 in.H2O/ft of packing
ΔP =1.15 in. H2O/m of packing
ΔP = 29.16 mm H2O/m of packing (Recommended pressure drop for absorber is
15 to 50 mmH2O/m of packing, topic 11.14.4, Coulson & Richardson)
Total pressure drop = 29.16 x 8.32 = 242.62 mmH2O/m of packing
Total pressure drop = 60.37 kPa/m of packing.
SPECIFICATION SHEET
ABSORBER COLUMN T-201
Item Packed Absorption Column
No. Required 1
65
Design
Column type Packed

Item code T-201
Function
Removal of H2S with help of MDEA solvent
Design Data
Inside diameter 0.83 m
Area of Column 0.54 m2
Design Temperature 373 K
Design Pressure 54 atm
Type of Packing Ceramic-Intalox Saddles
Number of transfer units 8
Height of transfer units 0.93 m
Height of Column 10.32 m
Size of Packing 38 mm
Packing arrangement Dumped
Pressure drop 60 kPa/m of packing
Type of gas distributor Through type gas distributor
Type of Packing support Gas injection support

Type of liquid distributor Through type liquid distributor
5.11 FURNACE
Introduction
• Furnace is thermal equipment which preheats the reactor feed to carry out the reaction.
• It generates the control heat.
• Fuel or electrical power is the source of production of heat in the furnace.
66
Design
• Oil or gas fuels are used exclusively in these furnaces.

• The thermal efficiency of the furnace is expected (75 to 80)%.
• We are going to use Lobo Evans Method for furnace calculations.[42]
Table 5.16: Assumption of Furnace Design
Design Steps
1. Assumed average heat flux.
2. Tube surface temperature.
3. Heat balance
4. Calculation of L.H.V of fuel.
5. Number and size of tubes.
6. Equivalent cold plane area.
7. Refractory surfaces.
8. Mean Beam Length.
9. Gas emissivity.
10. Check Assumptions.
Furnace Design Calculations
67
Design
Figure 5.22: Fire Heater Furnace
Assumed average heat flux

Q
= 15000Btu/1b.ft2
ɑAcp
If Overall exchange factor is assumed 0.6.(Usually in between 0.55 to 0.65)
⅀Q 2× 15000
Then =
ɑAcp F 0.6
⅀Q
= 50000 Btu/1b.ft2
ɑAcp F
Where,
Acp = equivalent cold plane surface (ft2)
α = effectiveness factor
∑Q = heat transferred (Btu/hr)
• Tube Surface Temperature depends upon the desired temperature of the fluid lets Ts is
1050 oF
• Temperature of Gases Leaving the Radiant Section is(TG=1950 oF) from figure 19.14.
Q  Tg  4  T  4 
= 0.173    
s
  + 7  (Tg  Ts )
αAcpf  100   100  
(From Appendix A – Figure 4)
Heat Balance
Q = QF + Q A + Q W  QG
The heat balance is as follow
Where,
Q = total radiant section duty (Btu/hr).
Qa = sensible heat of entering air (Btu/hr).
Qf = heat liberated by fuel (Btu/hr).
Qw = heat loss through furnace wall (Btu/hr).
Qg = heat leaving the furnace radiant section by flue gases.
68
Design
Heat balance
Total required Heat Duty (Q)
Q = 5.7*107 kJ/hr
Heat liberated by Fuel (QF)

Assumption is that efficiency of furnace is 75% than,
7
5.7∗10
Qf =
.75
Qf = 7.02×1007Btu/hr.
Heat Loss through Wall (QW)
From literature it is 2% of fuel heat so,
Qw = 0.02×Qf
Qw = 0.02×7.02×1007Btu/hr.
Qw = 1.42×1006Btu/hr.
Heat Balance
Q = QF + QA + Q W  QG
• The heat balance is as follow
Where,
Q = total radiant section duty (Btu/hr).
Qa = sensible heat of entering air (Btu/hr).
Qf = heat liberated by fuel (Btu/hr).
Qw = heat loss through furnace wall (Btu/hr).
Qg = heat leaving the furnace radiant section by flue gases.
L.H.V of Fuel
L.H.V of C12H10 = 39682 Btu/hr
Fuel Quantity
Amount of fuel consumed = QF / L.H.V
7.02E+07
Amount of fuel consumed =
39682
Amount of fuel consumed = 1474 lb/hr
Mass balance
Total Air require = 26532 lb/hr
If 25% excess air is supplied = 33165 lb/hr
Heat with air (QA):
Assumed, air entering at 77°F than ∆H = 128 Btu/lb
QA = air required (25% excess) × ΔH
QA = 30885.35×128 Btu/hr
69
Design
QA = 3.97×1006Btu/hr.
N2 leaving = 0.79 × air supplied = 24399.37 lb/hr
O2 consumed = 0.23 × air required = 5168.74 lb/hr
O2 entering furnace = 0.23× air supplied = 6485.92 lb/hr
O2 leaving in flue gases = 1317.19 lb/hr
The heat (QG)in exit flue gases

QG = 1.31×1007Btu/hr.
Overall Energy Balance
Q = 7.02×1007+3.97×1006+1.42×1006+1.31×1007
Q = 6.31×1007 Btu/hr
Number and Sizes of Tubes
Fix tube length = 30 ft
Fix outer diameter of tubes = 4.5 in
Surface area per tube = πDL
= 3.14×(4.5/12)×30
= 35.34 ft2
Q
Number of tubes (NT) =
15000× A
6.31E+07
NT =
15000× 35.34
NT = 119.03
Arrangement of Tubes
Width wise tube are 49 and in height wise are 40 and mid wall tubes are 31.
So lengths are;
Height of furnace = 33 ft
Center to center distance = 7 in
Width of furnace = 43 ft
Mid wall height = 23.5 ft
Equivalent Cold Plane Surface (Acp)
Acp = NT× C-C distance × length of tube
Acp = 119.03×(7/12)×30
Acp = 2083.1ft 2
Effectiveness factor(α)
Ratio = C-C distance / O. D
= (7/12)/(4.5/12)
= 1.56
From figure we get (α = 0.965),
where α is the effectiveness factor.
Now,
70
Design
αAcp = 0.965×2083.1
αAcp = 2010.18 ft2 (From Appendix A – Figure 5)
Refractory Surface
End Walls = 2 × width of furnace× height of furnace
End Walls = 2 × 28.96 × 22.56
End Walls = 1305.54 ft2
Side Walls = furnace height × tube length
Side Walls = 22.54 × 30
Side Walls = 676.25 ft2
Bridge wall = Side wall height × tube length
Bridge wall = 17.88 × 30
Bridge wall = 536.25 ft
Floor and Arch = 2 × 28.96×30(2*width of furnace× tube length)
Floor and Arch = 1737.50 ft2
Where,
AT = 4255.54 ft2(sum of above all areas)

Refractory Surface
AR = AT - ɑAcp
AR = 4255.54 – 2010.18
AR = 2245.36 ft2
Mean beam length (L)
The dimensions of the furnaces are 1:2:1, so mean bean length will be
͏ V = tube length×area
2
L = × √ 30 ×22.54 ×28.96
3
L = 18 ft
Gas Emissivity (€G)
Total pressure = 1atm
Assumed that humidity of air at 77°F is 50%
P (CO2 + H2O) =Mole fraction of (CO2 +H2O) in gases (From Appendix A – Figure 6)
Composition of Flue Gas
Percentage correction factor at 0.42 is 7.25% from figure 19.12.
% correction at = 0.10/0.24 = 0.46
% correction is 7.25% (estimated¿
P (CO2 + H2O) = 0.24 atm
PL (CO2) = 2.34 atm ft
PL (H2O) = 3.21 atm ft
PL (CO2 + H2O = 5.55 atm ft
From figure 19.12, 19.13 we get.
qco2 = Ts = 900
qco2 = TG =2500
71
Design
qco2 = Ts = 2600
qco2 = TG = 5800
Gas Emissivity (€G)
( 5800+ 2500 )−(900+2600) 100−7.25

€G = [ ]×
15000−5000 100
€G = 0.45
Overall Exchange Factor (ƒ) from figure 5
AR 2245.36
At €G = 0.45 and = 1.40 =
A cp 2083.1
ℱ = 0.62 (From Appendix A – Figure 7)
Check Assumptions
Calculating the value of ∑Q/Acpα using the above calculated value of ℱ
ℱ = 0.62
Q= 6.31×1007 Btu/hr.
αAcp = 2010.8 ft2
Q 6.31E+07
=
ɑAcp 2010.8
= 50631.85 Btu / hr ft2
Assumed value is 50000 Btu/hr ft2. So that, the error is 1.26% which is acceptable.
50361.85−50000
Error = 100×
50000
Error = 1.26%

72
Design
SPECIFICATION SHEET
Fire Heater Furnace F-101

Identification
Item F-101
Type Rectangular Furnace
Function
To heat the Reformer feed
Number of Tubes 120
Height of Furnace 6.7 m
Width of Furnace 8.5 m
Length of Furnace 10 ft
OD of Tube 0.106 m
C-C Distance 0.177 m
Refractory Surface 208.6 m2
Cold Plane Surface 193.5 m2
73
Design
5.12 Distillation Column

Purpose of Unit
 Separating the Diesel from C12H10.
 The boiling point range of the products of which it is composed, varying from 200 to
360°C.
Significance of Unit in Over-all Process
 Fractionation is more effective at low pressure than at high pressure because of larger
differences in the vapor pressures of the components at a low pressure
 Atmospheric distillation above 250℃ is not economical because of steam-cost. So by
creating vacuum we are saving energy.[43]
Choice between packed and plate column
Vapor liquid mass transfer operation may be carried either in plate column or packed column.
 Factors that depend on the system i.e. scale, foaming, fouling factors, corrosive
systems, heat evolution, pressure drop, liquid holdup.
 Factors that depend on the fluid flow moment.
 Factors that depends upon the physical characteristics of the column and its internals
i.e. maintenance, weight, side stream, size and cost.
The relative merits of plate over packed column are as follows:
 Plate column are designed to handle wide range of liquid flow rates without flooding.
 If a system contains solid contents, it will be handled in plate column, because solid
will accumulate in the voids, coating the packing materials and making it ineffective.
 Dispersion difficulties are handled in plate column when flow rate of liquid are low as
compared to gases.[44]
 For large column heights, weight of the packed column is more than plate column.
 If periodic cleaning is required, man holes will be provided for cleaning. In packed
columns packing must be removed before cleaning.
74
Design
 For non-foaming systems the plate column is preferred.

 Design information for plate column are more readily available and more reliable than
that for packed column.
 Inter stage cooling can be provide to remove heat of reaction or solution in plate
column.
 When temperature change is involved, packing may be damaged.
For this particular process, “Gasoline, Water, Diesel, Lube, Heavy Residue”, I have selected plate
column because:
 Diameter is > 0.67m
 Av.Temperature is high (149o C).
 Height of the Column is very large as it comprises 54 stages.
 System comprises of heavy residue up to 5%
Choice of plate types
There are three main tray types, the bubble cap, sieve tray, valve trays. I have selected sieve tray
because:[45]
 They are lighter in weight and less expensive. It is easier and cheaper to install.
 Pressure drop is low as compared to bubble cap trays.
 They can easily handle wide variation in flow rates.
 Maintenance cost is reduced due to the ease of cleaning.
Material Balance
75
Design
Figure 5.23 :Distillation Column
Table 5.17: Material Balance
Component Feed Bottom Top

(Kg/hr) (Kg/hr) (Kg/hr)
Diesel 186922.83 186918 4.574
C12H10 4631.23 63.09 4568.13
C12H8S 55.38 54.26 1.119
TOTAL 191609 187035.35 4573.82
Selection of Key On the basis of Relative Volatility

Diesel = Heavy –Key (Recovery at bottom = 95%)
C12H10 = Lighter Key (Recovery at top =98.5%)
C12H8S = Heavier than lighter key and ligher heavy Key
Nature of Feed
Feed is entering in column as a saturated liquid at T=2200C & P=65 PSI
76
Design
Component Xd
Xf KK
i i Α Α Ki/Xd
Ki*Xf
Diesel .975 0.001 129.15
0.712891 1 1.275 0.1304
0.6942
C12H10 .024 0.9987 0.6165
1.102532 0.1150.18415226 0.6158
0.265
C12H8S 0.000244
0.0002 1081.95
244.28 24.12868347
51.629 0.264
0.050
∑Ki/Xd 1.01
∑Ki*Xf=1.009
By Bubble point ; it is verified that feed is at saturated liquid
Estimation of Top Temperature.
By Dew point calculation, ∑Ki/Xd=∑Xd;
Hence by dew point calculation;
T=150℃
P=60 PSI
Estimation Of Bottom Temperature

By Bubble-point Calculation ∑Ki.Xb=∑Xb ;T=275℃ & P=60psi
Comp Xb Ki Α Ki*xb
Diesel 0.999 0.7989 1.58 0.7981
C12H10 0.000711 213.06 0.97 0.1520
C12H8S 0.00029 178.190012 54.74 0.0517
∑Ki*Xb=1.001
Minimum Reflux Ratio

Rmin ; By using underwood method:
Using underwood equation
∝ A xfA αB xfB
− =1−q
∝ A−θ α B−θ
As feed is at its bubble point so q = 1

By iteration on Micro-soft Excel ; Value of  = 2.04
Using equation of Minimum reflux ratio
77
Design
∝ A xDA αB xDB
− =Rm+1
∝ A−θ α B−θ
1.27× 0.99 0.184 ×0.001

+ =R min+1
1.27−2.04 0.184−2.04
R min +1 =7.76
R min =6.76
For optimum Reflux Ratio; Using Rule Of Thumb:
R= (1.2-1.35) Rm
R=1.35 Rmin
R= 9.13
Calculating Minimum No. Of Stages, Using Fenske’s equation
Nmin + 1 = ln[(xLK/xHK)D/(xLK /xHK)B]
ln (αLK/HK) average
= ln[(0.99/0.001)/(0.0071/0.99)]
ln(1.8)
=16
Theoretical No of Plates
Gilliland related the number of equilibrium stages and the minimum reflux ratio and the no. of
equilibrium stages with a plot that was transformed by Eduljee into the relation;[45]
[ ( ) ]
0.566
N −N min R−Rmin
=0.75 1−
N +1 R +1
N – 16 = 0.75 1- 9.13-6.76 0.566
N+1 9.13+1
We get the theoretical No. of stages;

N=27
Feed Plate
The Kirk bride method is used to determine the ratio of trays above and below the feed point.
ND/NB = 0.63; ND+NB = 54; NB+0.63NB =4

NB = 21
78
Design
ND = 20; So feed is entering at plate 21 from top.

Column Efficiency
Average temperature of column = (150+275)/2=212.5
Feed viscosity at average column temperature = ave = 0.58 cp
Relative Volatility of Light key (αave). = 0.557
Putting values in following relation
Eo =51- 32.50[Log (0.557*0.58)] = 66.9%

No. of actual trays = 27/.66 = 41
Determination of the Column Diameter
Because liquid and vapour flow rates are greater at bottom so based upon bottom flow rates.
Top section
Ln=R × D
Ln=9.13×4573.85
kg
Ln=41759.25
hr
V n=L n+ D
V n=41759.25+ 4573.85
kg
V n=46334
hr
Bottom section
Lm=Ln + qF
Lm =41759.25 +1(191609)
kg
Lm =206368.25
hr
V m =Lm-w
V m= 206368.25-197035.6
kg
V m=19332.9
hr
Vapour load at bottom
Vm
QV =
ρV ×3600 = (19332.9)/(.1453*3600) = 7.7 m3/s
Liquid load at bottom
Lm
Q L=
ρL ×3600 = (206368.25)/(850*3600) = 2.30  10-3 m3/s
Tray Dynamics
 Flow Parameter
79
Design
( )( ) (
0 .5
Lm ρ v
)( )
0.5
F LV = 206368 .25 14.53
V m ρL
= 19332. 9 850 =0.21
FLV = Liquid Vapour Factor
 Capacity Parameter
Assumed tray spacing = 24 inches = 0.61m (From Appendix A – Figure 8)
K = 0.07 m/Sec
Net vapor velocity at flooding;
Vnf = 4.53 m/s

Actual Vapor Velocity
VN = 0.80 Vnf = 3.60 m/s
Net-Area =An= Volumetric flow rate of vapor
Actual vapor velocity
= 7.70/3.60 = 2.13m2
Assume that downcomer occupies 15% of Cross-sectional Area; then
Cross-Sectional Area=AC = 2.13/0.85=2.50m2
π
Diameter of Column = Ac = 4 D2
D= √
4 × Ac
π =1.80m
 Flooding Check
QV
Vn = A n = 7.7/2.13 = 3.61 m/s
Vnf = 4.53m/s
F = (3.61/4.53)*100 = 79.8 ~ 80%
 Cross section Area
Net area = An =2.13 m2

Tower Cross-sectional Area=Ac= An /.15 = 2.50 m2
80
Design
Active area = Aa = Ac - 2Ad = 1.75 m2

Down comer area = Ad = 0.15 Ac = .375 m2
Hole area = Ah = 0.1 Aa = 0.175 m2
Take weir height; hw=25mm
Hole diameter; dh=5mm
Plate thickness= xw=5mm
Weir Length (LW)
Ad/Ac = 0.15 (From Appendix A – Figure 9)
Lw/Dc =0.82
Lw =1.48m
Estimation of Weep point
K2 = Constant depending upon the depth of the clear liquid

Weir Crest
2/3
How = 0.4 ( GPM /inchweirlenth )
Lm (GPM) =35.68=6893.3Kg/hr=1.91Kg/hr
How = 6.8 mm & At 70% turn-down ratio
How = 5.2mm = 0.70 ¿ 1.91 = 1.34 kg/sec
Now Hw + How = 25+6.8 = 31.80 mm (From Appendix A – Figure 10)
K2 = 29.2
Uh(min)= 2.84 m/sec

Max. Volumetric flow rate = 7.7 m3/sec
Min. Vapour Rate = 0.7 ¿ 7.7 = 5.39 m3/sec
Actual Min. Vapour Velocity = (5.39) / .175
= 30.8 m/sec
Actual Min. Vapour Velocity is grater then Uh(min)
So no Weeping
Total Pressure Drop
81
Design
Ht =Hd + ( Hw + How ) + Hr
Hw = 25 mm
How= 6.8mm
Dry Tray Drop
Hd = 51 (Uh/Co)2 (V /L)
Hd = Dry tray drop.
Uh = Hole velocity = Qv/Ah
QV
7.70
A
Uh = h = 0.175 = 38.50 m/sec
Tray thickness = 5mm [For Carbon steel tray]
Hole dia = 5 mm
Ah
Aa = 0.1 (From Appendix A – Figure 10)
Co = Orifice Coefficient = 0.84
( )( )
2
Uh ρV
CO ρL
Hd = 51
( )( )
2
2.84 14 .53
= 51 0.84 850
= 9.96 mm liquid
Residual Head ( Hr)
Hr =
( 12.5 × 10e3
ρL
=
) (12.5
850
× 10e3
) = 14.7 mm liquid
Total pressure drop
Ht =Hd + ( Hw + How ) + Hr
= 9.96 + 25 + 6.8 + 14.7
= 56.46 mm
Pressure Drop of plate
Δ Pt = (9.81 ¿ 10e-3) Ht ¿ ρ L
= 9.81 ¿ 10-3 ¿ 95.8 ¿ 850
= 470 Pa=0.07Psi /per tray
Allowable drop is 0.1 Psi per tray Total no. of holes =

(ahAh )
Ah = Area available for holes = 0.175m2
82
Design
π
ah =Area of one hole = 4 D2 = (3.14 ¿ .0052)/ 4 = 0.00002 m2
( 0.175
)
Total no. of holes = 2.0 ×10e-5 = 8750
Back up in down comer (Hbc)
Hbc = Hw + How + Ht + Hdc
( )
2/3
Lwd
ρL ×Am
Hdc = 166
Am = either Ad or Aap ( The clearance area under the down comer .) which one is smaller.
Aap = Hap ¿ lw
Hap = hw - 5 = 25 – 5 = 20 mm
Aap = (20/ 1000) 1.48
=0.03 m2
i.e less than Ad so it is used In finding Hd
( )
2
1. 91
Hdc = 166 850×0 .02
= 2.0 mm
Hbc = Hw + How + Ht + Hdc
= 25 + 6.2 +56.46 + 2
= 89.66 mm = 0.08966 m
Check-Residence Time
Sufficient residence time should be allowed in the downcomer for the entrained vapors to
disengage from liquid stream to prevent aerated liquid being carried under the downcomer.[46]
tr =Ad hbc ρL/L(max)
= (0.375*0.08966*850)/1.91
= 15sec.
It should be greater than > 3sec. So result is satisfactory.
Height of Distillation Column
Height of column Hc= (Nact-1) Hs+ ∆H+ plates thickness
No. of plates = 41
Tray spacing = 0.61 m
Distance between 41 plates =0.6153 = 25.33 m
Top clearance = 1.20 m
Bottom clearance =1.80 m
83
Design
Tray thickness = 5 mm/plate

Total thickness of trays = 0.005 27 = 0.27 m
Total height of column = 25.33 + 1.20 + 1.80 + 0.27
= 29.5 m
Length/Diameter = 35.6/1.80 = 15.83
SPECIFICATION SHEET
DISTILLATION COLUMN D-101
Item Diesel Distillation Column
No. required 1
Tray type Sieve tray
Function
Stability of Diesel
Operation Continuous Tray thickness 5mm
Operating pressure 60 psi Hole diameter 5mm
Number of trays 41 Weir height 15mm
Reflux ratio 6.67 Weir length 1.48 m
Tray spacing 0.61m Active area 1.75 m2
Height of column 29.5 m % flooding 80
84
Design
Diameter of column 1.80 m Entrainment 1400 kg/kg of vapour

Pressure drop per tray 51.93mm liq Active holes/plate 8715
Residence time 15s Feed plate location 21th from bottom
5.10-Heat Exchanger Design

There are three main types of heat exchanger:
 Shell-and-tube heat exchangers
 Compact-type heat exchangers
 Air-cooled heat exchangers
Selection of Heat Exchanger it’s important to understand the advantages and disadvantages of
each type of heat exchanger.
As you compare heat exchangers, it can be helpful to keep these criteria in mind:
 Operation Cost
 Installation Cost
 Purchasing Cost
 Maintenance Cost
 Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers due to the flexibility they allow a wide range of
pressures and temperatures.
 Shell & tube heat exchangers also provide relatively large ratios of heat transfer area to
volume.
 They can be easily cleaned.
5.13 Heat Exchanger Design E-101
85
Design
mproduct diesel = 411682 lb/hr

T1= 584 °F
m=424685 lb/hr 14
t1 = 86°F
1 2
t2= 383 °F
15
T2 = 266 °F
Figure 5.24 : Heat Exchanger
Design Calculations
Process conditions required
Hot fluid: T1, T2, W, c, s, µ, k, Rd
Cold fluid: t1, t2, w, c, s, µ, k, Rd
For the exchanger the following data must be known
Shell side (Cold Fluid) Tube side (Hot Fluid)
ID = Number and Length
Baffle Spacing (B) OD, BWG, Pitch
Passes
No.Baffles
Inlet temperature of Hot fluid= T1 = 584 ℉
Outlet temperature of Hot fluid = T2 = 266℉
Inlet temperature of Water = t1 = 86℉
Outlet temperature of Water = t2 = 383℉
Mass flow rate of Product diesel = 411682 lb/hr
Mass flow rate of Impure diesel = 424685 lb/hr
Specific heat capacity of water = Cp = 0.583 Btu/lbm ℉
Specific heat of vapor(mixture) =Cp = 0.583 Btu/lbm ℉
Step-1
Heat Balance:
Q=WC (T 1−T 2) Q=wc(t 2−t 1)
Btu Btu
Q = 76323372 Q = 76323372
h hr
Step-2
True LMTD:
(T 2−t 1)−(T 1−t 2)
LMTD = (T 2−t 1) = 439oF
ln
(T 1−t 2)
86
Design
t 2−t 1 T 1−T 2
S= = 0.5 R= = 1.0
T 1−t 1 t 2−t 1
FT =0.8
∆ t=LMTD × F T =351 0F (From Appendix A – Figure 11)
Step-3
Caloric Temperature Tc & tc:
Only for mixture find the caloric temperature difference is more than 100oF.
Kc=0.56
Fc=0.47
Tc= 415oF
tc= 2250F
Trail:
Assume
Btu
UD = 40 2
(h)( f t )(F )
Q
A= = 5436 ft2
UD ∆ T
Tube specification:
At ¾ in OD and 16 BWG
Surface per lin ft = at = 0.1963 ft2
A
Number of tubes = N = = 1730
L∗at
Select number of tubes, shell ID and passes at ¾ in. OD tubes on 1 in. square pitch.
Corrected number of tubes = N = 1330
Number of passes = n = 02
Shell ID = 39 in.
Corrected area and overall heat transfer coefficient, UD:
Area = A = N × L × at = 5433 ft2
Q Btu
UD = =40 (From Appendix A – Figure 12)
A ∆T (h)( f t 2 )(F )
 Step-4: (From Appendix A – Figure 13)
Shell side: Tube side
Ds = 39 in Nt = 1330
at‘ = 0.302 in
B = 7.8 in n=2
C = 0.25
87
Design
No.Baffles =24.6
Flow area: Flow area:

as = Ds×C×B/144×PT at = (Nt×at')/144 × n
as = 0.528 ft2 at= 1.394 ft2
(From Appendix A – Figure 13)
 Step-5
Mass velocity: Mass velocity:
Gs = W/as Gt = w/at
Gs=804327 lb/h.ft2 Gt= 295324 lb/h.ft2
Tc= 415 0F tc=225 0F
µ=¿ 0.605 lb/h.ft µ = 0.92 lb/h.ft
De=0.079 ft
D = 0.0517 ft
 Step-6
Reynolds number: Reynolds number:
Res= (De × Gs)/u , Ret= (D×Gs) /u
Res= 27817 Ret= 25236
Step-7 (From Appendix A – Figure 14)
jH factor jH factor
jH = 100 jH = 90
 Step-8
Prandtle number: Prandtle Number:
K(C× u/K)(1/3) = 0.28 K(C× u/K)(1/3)= 0.8
 Step-9
Heat transfer coefficient: Heat transfer coefficient:
ho= (jH ) (K(C × u/K) )/De × (θs)
(1/3)
hi= (jH ) (K(C × u/K)(1/3) )/De × (θs)
ho = 289 (Btu)/(h.ft2.oF) hi =344 (Btu)/(h.ft2.oF)
θt & θs = Viscosity correction factor for the trail = 1
 Step-10
Correct hi:
ID
hio = hi×
OD
88
Design
Btu
hio = 284
h . ft 2. F
 Step- 11
Overall clean coefficient:
hio ho (Btu)
Uc= = 143
hio +ho (h)(. ft 2)(. F )
 Step- 12
Dirt factor:
2
Uc−Ud (h)( f t )(F )
Rd= = 0.0180
Uc Ud Btu
 Step- 13
Shell side: Tube side:
f = 0.002 f = 0.002
s = 0.77 s = 0.85
Pressure drop: Pressure drop:
2
fG s Ds ( N +1) (f )(G t 2)( L)(n)
∆ Ps= ∆ Pt = 20
5.22 ×1 010 De Sθs 5.22 ×10 ( D)(S)(Qt )
∆ Ps=8.3 psi ∆ Pt = 5.8 psi
SPECIFICATION SHEET
HEAT EXCHANGER E-101
Item Heat Exchanger H-101

Type Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger
Function
To Pre-haet diesel
Tube Side Shell Side

Fluid: Hot Fluid: Cold
Flow rate:411682 lb/hr (186735 kg/hr) Flowrate:424685 lb/hr (192633 kg/hr)
89
Design
Temperature: 584 F to 266 F (306℃ to 130 Temperature: 383 F to 86 F (30 ℃ to 195

℃) ℃)
Pressure Drop: 5.8 psi Pressure Drop: 8.3 psi
Tubes: ¾ in OD 16 BWG Shell:39 in dia (0.99 m )
1330 number of tubes each 16 ft long (4.8 No.of Baffles : 24.6

m)
Passes: 02 Passes: 1
Pitch: 1 in square Baffles spacing:7.8
Btu Btu
UD assumed: 40 UD calculated: 40
hr . f t 2 . f hr . f t 2 . f
Btu Rd (dirt factor) calculated: 0.0180
Uc calculated: 40 2 2
hr . f t . f (h)(f t )(F )
Btu
SPECIFICATION SHEET
HEAT EXCHANGER H-102
Item Heat Exchanger H-102

Type Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger
Function
To Pre-heat diesel
Tube Side Shell Side

Fluid: Hot: Fluid: Cold
90
Design
Flow rate: 411719 lb/hr ( 186752 kg/hr) Flow rate: 424685 lb/hr ( 192633 kg/hr)
Temperature: 689 to 482 ℉ (365℃ to 250 ℃ ) Temperature: 572 to 383 ℉ ( 300℃ to 195℃ )
Pressure Drop: 5.8 psi Pressure Drop: 8.3 psi

Tubes: ¾ in OD 16 BWG Shell:39 in dia (0.99 m)
1330 number of tubes each 16 ft long (4.8 m ) No.of Baffles : 24.6
Passes: 02 Passes: 1
Pitch: 1 in square Baffles spacing:7.8

Btu Btu
UD assumed:40 2 UD calculated: 40 2
(h)( f t )(F ) (h)(f t )(F )
Btu (h)( f t 2 )(F )
Uc calculated:40 2 Rd (dirt factor) calculated:0.0180
(h)(f t )(F ) Btu
91
Chapter # 06 Mechanical Design
Chapter No 6
6 Mechanical Design
95
Chapter#06 Mechanical
Design
6.1 FIXED BED CATALYTIC REACTOR
Figure.6.25: Fixed Bed Reactor
Operating pressure = 69 bar

Design pressure = 5-10 % of operating pressure
Design pressure= 69+0.10*0.69 = 75 bar
Design pressure= 75 bar
Design Temperature
Operating temperature = 350oC
Design temperature = 5-10 % of operating temperature
Design temperature = 385℃
Minimum practical wall thickness
A less wall thickness needed to assure that any of the vessel is enough rigid to stand at its
own weight and any accidental loads. From general guidelines, the wall thickness of a
vessel must not be lesser than the values given below and these values are with a corrosion
allowance of 2 mm[38]. (From Appendix A – Figure 13)
Since the diameter of the vessel is 2.9 m, so from the above table the thickness of shell is 12 mm.
Thickness of the reactor shell [48] =
Pi= 75 bar or 7.5 N/mm2

J =1 (for no joints in the head)
f= stress factor =75 N/mm2
Stainless Steel Stress factor =105 N/mm2
Di = 2900 mm
96
Design
10.5∗2900
e=
2∗1∗75−7.5
e=152.6 mm
6.2 Heads and closures

The ends of a cylindrical vessel are closed by heads of various shapes. The principal types used
are:
1. Flat plates and formed flat heads;
2. Hemispherical heads
3. Ellipsoidal heads
4. Torispherical heads
6.3 Comparisons of Heads

Table 6.18 : Comparison of Heads
Flat Head Torispherical heads Ellipsoidal heads Hemispherical

heads
Applicable to low Used up to operating Above 15 bar Used for very high
pressure pressure of 15 bar ellipsoidal head is pressures
used
Cheapest from all Above 10 bar their Economical with in Capital cost is high
types cost should be pressure limits
compared with that of
an equivalent
ellipsoidal head
Thickness of Head
Hemispherical heads
It can be seen by examination of equations 13.7 and 13.9, that for equal stress in the
cylindrical section and hemispherical head of a vessel the thickness of the head need only be
half that of the cylinder. However, as the dilation of the two parts would then be different,
discontinuity stresses would be set up at the head and cylinder junction. For no difference in
dilation between the two parts (equal diametrical strain) it can be shown that for steels
(Poisson’s ratio D 0.3) the ratio of the hemispherical head thickness to cylinder thickness
should be 7/17. However, the stress in the head would then be greater than that in the
cylindrical section; and the optimum thickness ratio is normally taken as 0.6; see Brownell
and Young (1959)[49] .
97
Design
Hemispherical head thickness / cylinder thickness = 0.60

Hemispherical head thickness = 0.60 * cylinder thickness
= 0.60 * 152.6
= 91 mm
6.4 Types of supports
• Saddle supports ( for horizontal vessels)
• Brackets supports ( for vertical vessels )
• Skirt support (for vertical vessels, particularly where the length is high and effect of wind
is prominent).
For the desired reactor, I used “Bracket Supports”
Figure 6.26: Brackets supports
Weight of shell
Wv = 240 * Cv *Dm*(Hv+0.8*Dm)*t [38].
W= Total weight of shell
Cv = A factor to account for the weight of nozzles, manways, internal supports, etc.; which
can be taken as = 1.08 for vessels with only a few internal fittings,
Dm = Mean diameter = (Di+t) = 2.9+0.152 = 3.052
m Hv = height of vessel = 7.56 m
t = thickness of shell = 0.152 m
Wv = 240*1.08*3.052*(7.56+0.8*3.052)*0.151
Wv = 1202.6 N
Stress Calculations
Longitudinal stress:
98
Design
7.5∗2900
ϭh =
2∗152.6
= 71.2 N/mm2
Circumferential Stress:
ϬL = (7.5* 2900)/ 4*152.6

ϬL = 35.6 N/mm2
Dead weight stress:
Ϭw = 1202.6/ 3.14*(2900+152.2)* 152.2

Ϭw = 8.24*10-4 N/mm2
Principle Stress
For Longitudinal Stress:
σz = Total longitudinal stress = σL + σw

t= Torsional shear stress is very small and is usually
neglected σz = 35.6 N/mm² σ1 = 71.2 N/mm²
For Circumferential (hoop) Stress
σ2 =
½ [σh + σz - √(σh − σz)² + 4t²
Total Longitudinal Stress
σz = σL + σw
t= Torsional shear stress is very small and is usually

neglected
99
Design
σ2 = 35.5 N/mm²
For Radial Stress
It can be taken as equal to one half the pressure loading
σ3 = 0.5 P
σ3 = 0.5 (7500000)
σ3 = 3750000 = 3.75 N/mm2
Allowable Stress Intensity
The maximum stress intensity taken at any point for the design purpose is the numerical
greater value of the following:
σ1 – σ2
σ1- σ2 = [71.2 – 35.5 ]
σ1- σ2 = 35.7 N/mm²
σ1- σ3
σ1- σ3 = [71.2 – 3.75 ]
σ1- σ3 = 67.5 N/mm²
σ2- σ3
σ2- σ3 = [35.5-37.5]
σ2- σ3 = 31.75 N/mm²
The maximum stress intensity is σ1- σ3 = 67.5 N/mm2
The maximum stress is less than design stress which is 75 N.mm² .So Carbon steel is best
choice.
σ1- σ3 < f
67.5 N/mm² < 75 N/mm²
Wind Loading
Fw = Pw * Deff [38].
Take dynamics wind pressure as 1280 N/m2]
Deff = Effective column diameter: the outside diameter plus an allowance for the
thermal insulation and attachments, such as pipes and ladders. An allowance of 0.4
m should be added for a caged ladder
Deff = 2.99*0.154+0.4
Deff = 3.45
100
Design
Fw = 1280*3.45
Fw= 4416 N/m
SPECIFICATION SHEET
REACTOR R-101
Identification
Item Reactor R-100
Function
To react the starting materials to create the products
Design Pressure 69 bar
Design Temperature 350 oC
Thickness of the reactor shell 152.6mm

Weight of shell 1202.6 N
Diameter of shell 2.9 m
Length of shell 7.46 m
Types of supports Brackets supports
Heads and closures Hemispherical heads
Thickness of Head 91 mm
101
Design
6.5 MULTI-STAGE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

T2 = 25 ℃
Flow rate = 192622 kg/hr
P2 = 1017 psi
T1 = 25℃
Flow rate = 192622 kg/hr
P1 = 14.7 psi P-101
Figure 6.27 : Multi-Stage Centrifugal Pump
Pump Sizing Calculation Steps

• Estimate z1 and z2.
• Estimate Frictional pressure losses ED and ES
• Calculate Pump Work.
• Calculate Pump shaft horsepower & estimate its Efficiency.
• Calculate electric-motor horsepower & estimate its Efficiency.
• Select a standard electric-motor horsepower.
Estimation of z1 & z2:
So,
z1 = 0 ft (Appendix-A Figure 15)
z2 = 84 ft
Estimation Frictional pressure losses ED and ES
Approximate Frictional Pressure Drop Across process Equipment (Appendix-A Figure 17)
So, ES & ED is equal to 0.35.
Calculate Pump Work:
g p 1− p 2
W= ( z 1−z 2 )+ −(Es+ Ed )
gc p
102
Design
( 1.013−74 )∗105 (0.35+ 0.35)

W= 32.4 (0-84) + −
823 823
N .m
W= -9628.4
kg
Pump Power:
Efficiency of Pump is selected from the figure below: (Appendix-A Figure 18)
mW
Pp =
η
192634∗96284
Pp =
0.72
Pp = 958 hp
Calculate electric-motor horsepower & estimate its Efficiency
Pp
PE =
η
958
PE =
0.94
PE = 1014 hp (Appendix-A Figure 19)
103
Design
SPECIFICTION SHEET
MULTI-STAGE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP (P-101)

Total Mass flow rate 192622 kg/hr
z2 24.4 ft
Work -9628.4 N-m/kg
Pump Power 958 hp
Electric-motor Power 1014 hp
NPSH 9.1 meter
104
Design
6.6 MULTI-STAGE CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
m=168 kg/hr
P2 = 69 bar
m=168 kg/hr
P1 = 7.5 bar
Calculations
Gases Flow rate = 168 kg/hr
ρGases = 0.089 kg/m3
Gases Flow rate (Q) = 168/0.089 = 1887 m3/hr
Gases Flow rate (Q) = 1110 ft3/min
T1 = 298 K
P1 = 7.5 bar
Critical Properties at inlet
Gases Flow rate = 168 kg/hr
ρGases = 0.089 kg/m3
Gases Flow rate (Q) = 168/0.089 = 1887 m3/hr
Gases Flow rate (Q) = 1110 ft3/min
T1 = 298 K
P1 = 7.5 bar
105
Design
Critical Properties at inlet

k=Cp/cv = 1.41
k = (1.00)(1.41) = 1.41
Tc = 1(330) = 330
Pc = 1.00(13.00) = 13
TRI = 298/330 = 0.90
PC = 7.5/13 = 0.57
Z= 0.75
R= 8.314 kJ/kmol.hr
Polytrophic efficiency = 0.68
PDISCHARE = 69 bar
n−1 k −1
=
n ηp k
n−1
=0.427
n
k−1
=0.29
k
Assume number of Stage = N=1
WPN =
ZRT
( )
[
(n−1)/n p 1
p2
−1]
WP1 = 6778.06 kJ/kmol

R
(TD−T 1)
WCN = −1K
K
T2 = 537.51 K
So Temperature of gases rise is not within range for max exit temperature o i.e. 505 K due to
which increase no of stages for given compressor.
Now
Assume number of stages = N = 6
Stage 1
P1 = 7.5 bar
Pn+1
=¿
Pn
P2
=¿
P1
P2 =¿
P2 = 10.8 bar
T2
=¿
T1
T 2=326 K
106
Design
Stage 2
P3 = p2 – 0.1 p 20.7
P3 = 10.08 – 0.1 ( 10.08 ¿ ¿0.7
P3 = 9.7 bar
P2 P4
=
P 1 P 2−0.1 P 20.7
P 4= ( 10.08
7.5 )∗10.08−0.1∗¿
P4 = 16.95 bar
T2
=¿
T1
T 2=326 K
Stage 3
P5 = P4-0.1 P 4 0.7
P5 = 16.05 bar
P4 P6
=
P 3 P 4−0.1 P 40.7
P6 = 23.5 bar
T2
=¿
T1
T 3=326 K
Stage 4
P7 = P6-0.1 P 60.7
P7 = 16 bar
P6 P8
=
P5 P 6−0.1 P 6 0.7
P8 = 32.5 bar
T2
=¿
T1
T 4=326 K
Stage 5
P9 = P8-0.1 P 80.7
P9 = 32 bar
P8 P 10
=
P 7 P 8−0.1 P 80.7
P10 = 44 bar
T2
=¿
T1
107
Design
T 5=326 K
Stage 6
P11 = P10-0.1 P 100.7
P11 = 43.5 bar
P12 = 69 bar
WPN = 789.67 kJ/kmol

R
(TD−T 1)
WCN = −1K
K
TD = 326 K
Critical Properties at outlet
P = 69 bar
k=Cp/cv = 1.45
Z = 0.79
Zavg=0.7
= 0.96
= 0.97
= 0.98
WCN = 11060 kJ/kmol
Gases flow rate = 84 kmol/hr
WCN = 11060*84
WCN = 929040 kJ/hr
PCP = WCN/3600
PCP = 258 kW
PCP = 193 hp
= 0.95
PE = 203 hp
108
Design
Cooling Requirement
Q= mCp ΔT
Cpavg = 16.2 kj/kmol.K
Q= 168*(16.2.15)*(326-298)
Q= 76204 kj/hr
QT = 76204 * 6
QT = 457228.6 kJ/kmol.k
Mass Flow-rate of Water
Q
m=
CP∆ t
m= 2780.44 kg/hr
SPECIFICATION SHEET
MULTI-STAGE CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR (E-101)
Inlet pressure 7.5 bar
Outlet pressure 69 bar
Pressure developed 61.5 bar
Fluid handle Hydrogen gas
Fluid density 0.083 kg/m3

Power required 203 hp
109
Chapter # 07 Cost Estimation
Chapter # 07
7 Cost Estimation
110
Chapter#07 Cost Estimation
7.1 Cost Estimation

Cost estimation is a specific subject and a business itself. A design engineer required to capable
to evaluate a time efficient and rough cost details to take a decision between the alternative
designs and for project assessment. Chemical plants are generally construct to generate a great
profit and an estimation of investment needed and cost of producing the product required before
the profitability of project can be evaluated.
7.1.1 Capital Investment
Before an industrial plant can be put into action, a large sum of money must be supplied to
purchase and install the necessary machinery and equipment. Land and service facilities must be
obtained, and the plant must be erected complete with all piping, controls, and services. In
addition, it is necessary to have money available for the payment of expenses involved in the
plant operation.
The capital needed to supply the necessary manufacturing and plant facilities is called the fixed-
capital investment, while that necessary for the operation of the plant is termed the working
capital. The sum of the fixed-capital investment and the working capital is known as the total
capital investment. The fixed-capital portion may be further subdivided into manufacturing
fixed-capital investment and non-manufacturing fixed-capital investment.
7.1.2 Methods for Estimating Capital Investment
Various methods can be employed for estimating capital investment. The choice of any one
method depends upon the amount of detailed information available and the accuracy desired.
1. Detailed-Item Estimate
2. Unit-Cost Estimate
3. Percentage of Purchased-Equipment Cost (Factorial Method)
Factorial method is selected for calculation of cost estimation
7.2 Cost of Preheater (P-101)
Type: Shell and tube
For Carbon steel
Pressure factor =1.5
Type Factor = 0.85 for U-tube
Area = 504 m2
Bare cost = $ 90000
Purchase cost in 2004 = Bare cost × Type × Pressure factor
Purchase cost = 90000 * 0.85 * 1.5
Purchase cost in 2004 = $ 114750
Cost in 2017 = Cost in 2004 × Cost index in 2017/Cost index in 2004
Cost in 2017 = $ 114750 × 587/444.7
Cost in 2017 = $ 151468
For Carbon steel
111

Area = 504 m2
Bare cost = $ 90000
Purchase cost = 90000 * 0.85 * 1.5
Cost in 2017 = $ 114750 × 587/444.2
Cost in 2017 = $ 151468.9
For Carbon steel
Area = 50 m2
Bare cost = $ 50000
Purchase cost = 90000 * 0.85 * 1.3
Cost in 2017 = $ 55250× 587/444.2
Cost in 2017 = $ 73011.59
7.5 Cost of Separator
Diameter = 2.30 m
Pressure = 65 Bar
Length of Separator = 8.91 m
Bare Cost = 30 * 1000 = $30000
Purchase cost in 2004 =$30000 * 2 *2.4
Purchase cost in 2004 = $144000
Purchase cost in 2017 =$144000 * Cost index in 2017/Cost index in 2004
7.6 Cost of Reactor (R-101)
Height of reactor = 7.56 m
Capacity = 2782 m3
Material = Stainless Steel
Bare Cost = 45*$1000 = $ 45000
Purchase Cost = Bare Cost * Material Factor * Pressure Factor
Purchase Cost = 45000 * 2.0 * 2.4
Cost in 2004 = $ 216000
112
Cost in 2017 = $ 216000 × 676.6 /444.2

Cost in 2017 = $ 329156
7.7 Cost of Reactor (R-102)
Height of reactor = 7.56 m
Capacity = 2782 m3
Material = Stainless Steel
Bare Cost = 45*$1000 = $ 45000
Purchase Cost = Bare Cost * Material Factor * Pressure Factor
Purchase Cost = 45000 * 2.0 * 2.4
Cost in 2004 = $ 216000
Cost in 2017 = $ 216000 × 676.6 /444.2
Cost in 2017 = $ 329156
7.8 Cost of Compressor (CS-101)
Type: Multi-stage Centrifugal Compressor
Cost = Ce = CSn
Capacity (S) = 151.3 kW
From Table
Constant (C) = $ 1920
Exponent (n) = 0.8
Cost in 2004 = 1920×151.3.8
Cost in 2004 = $ 106456.5
Cost in 2017 = $ 106456.5×(979/444.2)
Cost in 2017 = $ 234626
7.9 Cost of Furnace (F-101)
Q = 15833.3 KW
C$ = 560
C = 0.77
Ce = 560 * 15833.30.77
Ce = $ 959087
Cost in 2004 = $ 959087
Cost in 2017 = $ 959087 * Cost index in 2017 / Cost index in 2004
Cost = $ 1459574
7.10 Cost of Absorber

Column height = 10.32 m
Diameter = 0.83 m
Design Pressure = 54 atm
Packing = 38 mm Intalox Saddles (Ceramic)
Material of column = Stainless Steel
Packing height = 8.32 m
113
Bare cost = $ 20000

Purchased cost = $ 20000 × 2 × 2.2
Purchased cost of Column in 2004 = $ 88000
Cost of packing = Volume × Unit cost of Packing
Volume =
π∗0.832∗8.32
Volume = V =
4
Volume = 4.49 m 3
Unit Cost of Packing = $1020 from Table

Cost of packing = 4.49 × $1020
Cost of packing = $ 92589.3
Cost in 2017 = $ 92589.3 × (676.4/444.2)
Cost in 2017 = $ 140989.1
7.11 Cost of Distillation Column (DC-101)

Height of column = 29.5 m
Diameter = 1.80 m
Material of Column = Carbon steel
Material of plate = Carbon steel
Number of plates = 41
Plate = Sieve
Plate diameter = 0.78 m
Bare cost = 60*1000 = $ 60000
Purchased cost = $ 60000 * 1.0 * 1.0
Purchased cost in 2004 = $ 60000
Cost of plates = $ 270 × 41 = $ 11070
Cost of column including plate = $60000 + $11070
Cost of column including plate = $ 71070
Cost in 2017 = $71070 × (676.6/444.2)
Cost in 2017 = $ 108252
7.12 Cost of Pump (P-101)

Type: Multi-stage centrifugal pump
C = a+bSn
S = 64.4 L/s
a = 6900
b = 206
n = 0.9
Cost in 2004 = 6900+ (206 × 64.4.9) × (444.2/509.7) = $14523
Cost in 2016 = $ 14523× (982/444.2)
114
Cost in 2016 = $ 32120.6

7.13 Total Cost of Purchased Equipment’s
PCE = $ 3.3 Million
Total Physical Plant Cost
Equipment Erection (f1) = 0.4 × PCE = $ 1.32 Million
Piping (f2) = 0.7 × PCE = $ 2.31 Million
Instrumentation (f3) = 0.2 × PCE = $ 0.66 Million
Electrical (f4) = 0.1 × PCE = $ 0.33Million
Buildings (f5) = 0.15 × PCE = $ 0.49 Million
Utilities (f6) = 0.5 × PCE = $ 1.65 Million
Storages (f7) = 0.15 × PCE = $ 0.45 Million
Site development (f8) = 0.05 × PCE = $ 0.165 Million
Ancillary buildings (f9) = 0.15 × PCE = $ 0.49 Million
Land (f10) = 0.06 × PCE = $ 0.198 Million
PPC = PCE×(1 + f1 + f2+ f3+ f4+ f5+ f6+ f7+ f8+ f9+ f10) = $ 29.9 Million
Fixed Capital Cost
Design & Engineering (f11) = 0.3 × PCE = $ 0.99 Million
Contractor’s fee (f12) = 0.05 × PCE = $ 0.165 Million
Contingency (f13) = 0.1 × PCE = $ 0.33 Million
Fixed capital cost = PPC×(1 + f11 + f12+ f13) = $ 74 Million
Working capital cost
Working capital cost = 15% of fixed capital cost
Working capital cost = $ 11.1 Million
Total investment cost
Total investment cost = Working capital cost + Fixed capital cost
Total investment cost = $ 11.1 Million + $ 74 Million
Total investment cost = $ 85.1 Million
7.14 Annual operating cost
Annual operating cost = Fixed operating cost + Variable operating cost
Operating Days = 342.00 days/yr
7.15 Variable Cost
Raw materials
Impure Diesel
Impure Diesel = 60.27 Rs/Liter
5565000 * 60.27 = 335402550 Rs/day
Cost of Impure Diesel = $ 1147 million / yr
Hydrogen
120 kg/hr *24 kg/day = 2880 kg/day
2880 kg/day * 220 Rs/day = 633600 Rs/day
115
Cost of H2 = $ 2.1 Million /yr

Cooling Water
Rate = 10169.82 tons/day
Price = 0.01 $/ton
Cost = 10169.82 tons/day × 0.01 $/ton × 342 days
Cost = 34780.7 $/yr
Steam
Rate = 631 tons/day
Price = 12.00 $/ton
Cost = 631 tons/day × 12 $/ton × 342 days
Cost = $ 2589624 $/yr
Cost of Catalyst
Cost of Cobalt Molydeum =$ 21 Million
Total Variable Cost =$ 1151.7 Million /year
Fixed cost
Total Fixed Operating Cost : Fixed Capital investment
74 Million $/yr
Table 7.19: Fixed Capital Cost
Maintenance 7% 5.18 Million $/yr

Operating Cost of Labor 10% 7.4 Million $/yr
Laboratory Cost 10% 7.4 Million $/yr
Supervision Cost 15% 11.1 Million $/yr
Plant Overheads 50% 37 Million $/yr
Capital Charges 10% 7.4 Million $/yr
Insurance 1% 0.74 Million $/yr
Local Taxes 2% 1.48 Million $/yr
Royalties 1% 0.74 Million $/yr
Total Fixed Operating Cost 78.44 Million
$/yr
Local Taxes = 2% of Fixed Capital = $1.48 Million

Total Fixed Operating Cost = $ 79.92 Million
Total Production Cost = Fixed Operating Cost + Variable Operating Cost = $ 1231.62 Million
Sales Expense + General Overheads + Research & Development = 30% of Total Production Cost
116
Total = $ 369 Million

7.16 Profitability Analysis
Depreciation
Assuming that Fixed Capital Investment relatively depreciate by a clear straight line method for
the period of twenty years. Assume 5 % as a Salvage value at the end of period of a plant life.
Depreciation = D = (V-VS)/N
V = F.C.I = $74 Million
Vs = 0.05*74 = 3.4
74−3.4
D=
20
D = $ 3.53 Million
Gross Earning / Income
Total capacity = 2213058140 kg/hr
1231620000
Total Product Cost / Total Capacity =
2213058140
Production Cost = 0.556 $/kg
Whole Sale Price = 0.581 $/kg
Total income from product = Selling price of product * Quantity of product manufactured in
plant
Total income from product = $1285.7 / kg
Total Income from Product = 1285.7 – 1231 – 3.53

Gross Product Cost = $ 51.17 Million /yr
7.17 Rate of Return
Net profit
Rate of Return = ∗100
Total Investement
51170000
=
85100000
*100
= 60 %
1
Payback Period = ( )*100
ROR
= 1.67 years
117
Chapter # 08 Control Process and instrumentation
Chapter No 8
8 Process Control and Instrumentation
118
Chapter#08 Process Control and
Instrumentation
8.1 Introduction
Chemical plants are physically large and complex. Process control is essential to control the
dynamic state of process. Terminologically, control is to measure, decide and adjust the variable
of a process to meet the requirements and certain objectives. The control system and Piping &
Instrumentation Diagram are both important because of the arrangement of the processing units
are integrated with each other in systematic and rational manner. During in plant operation, these
must satisfy several requirements imposed by the designer, process requirements, economical
and socially condition for any changes occurred that might deviate it from the set point or
become unsteady. [51]
Typically, there were seven major control objectives listed according to Marlin (2000). They are:
i. Safety
 To ensure the process variables are operated under safety limits
 To obtain required temperature and pressure for specified equipment such a reactor and
flash column
 To detect any possible risk during operation and to provide automatic shutdown system or
interlock.[52]
ii. Environmental Protection
 Process control is required to satisfy the various federal and state laws that specify
the temperatures, concentrations and flow rates of the effluent from a plant are
within certain limits.
iii. Equipment Protection
 To maintain the operating condition without introducing large fluctuation this will spoil
some of the expensive equipment.
iv. Smooth Operation and Production Rate
 Naturally, the key variables in streams leaving the process should be maintained close to
their desired values to prevent disturbances to downstream units.
v. Product Quality
 To achieve specified composition specification and purity for outlet stream in reactors,
distillation column and so on
vi. Profit
 The profit margin can be broaden by minimizing the cost of operation cost and increased
the production rate
 To minimize the usage of heating and cooling utilities and then cut down the utility cost
vii. Monitoring and Diagnosis [46]
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Instrumentation
 It can also serves as measure to monitor and diagnose for prevention or earlier emergency
action
 All these seven categories of control objectives must be achieved simultaneously; failure
to do so unprofitable or, worse, dangerous plant operation. However for this polyethylene
plant, there are a few objectives highlighted, they are:
 To have safer operation plants and to avoid explosion
 To maintain the operational condition of equipment
 To minimize the utilities cost
8.2 Procedures for Control System Design

The typical process control concept is to satisfy the functional goals. This practiced via a realistic
adjustments of equipment (various controllers, measuring devices, valves and computers) and
human interventions, which together constitute the control system and procedures. The three
general classes of needs that a control system is called on to satisfy: [54]
 Reducing the effect of external disturbances
 Assuring the constancy of a chemical process
 Optimizing the accomplishment of a chemical process
In developing a particular control scheme, control objectives are first defined. Then, critical
controlled variables are identified, whereby measured variables, manipulated variables must be
decided to conceptualize the control strategies. The following procedure is used to identify and
locate the control instruments in the process:
 Determine and draw the relevant control loops such as temperature control, pressure
control, composition control and flow control to confirm the steady state plant operation.
 Set the key process variables that are to be controlled to approach the required product
quality, along with the controls loops using any direct evaluation of controlled variable, where it
possible.
 Evaluate and consider the additional control loops needed for the safe working, not
covered in steps 1 and 2.
 Set and present those auxiliary instruments required for inspection of plant work by the
operators and also for trouble-shooting.
 Decide also on the alarms needed. There are two types of the control system namely
feedback control and feed forward control.
 In feedback control system, that applied where there is a measuring device detecting the
output of the process and then a controlling device will compare the measured reading and the
120
Instrumentation
process set point, sending signal to the final control element that will manipulate the controlled
variables.
 Unlike the feedback control system, forward control configurations measures the
disturbance (load) directly and take control action to eliminate its impact on the process output.
Therefore, feed forward controllers have the theoretical potential for perfect control.
8.3 Typical Control Measurement

Level Control
Level control is important in equipment’s with interface existence. It is to maintain the interface
level so that the system may not overflow or dry out during the process. Typically level control
is incorporated in the design with the flow out from equipment
Pressure Control
Pressure is crucial for system consist of gas or vapour. It must be maintain at the specific value
especially in reactor and distillation so that the equipment can function and reaction can happen.
Besides the pressure also cannot be too high as it might cause failure to the equipment or worse
cause explosion. This control method depends to the nature of process, for instance, pressure is
control via manipulating the flow from or to equipment.
Temperature Control
Temperature control is important to ensure the product achieves the desired composition or
specification. In this case, this refers to Ethylene Glycol with MW of 100 000. In addition,
temperature control can also minimize the energy required by heater as well as consumed by
cooler through controlling the flow of steam and coolant. The life span of the equipment can be
preserved as long as the temperature deviation is small [57]
Flow Control
Flow control is obvious that it involved directly or indirectly the control of other parameters,
such as the temperature control in heat exchanger and pressure control in the reactor. To provide
constant flow rate to the equipment or to the following processing unit, usually control valve is
installed to meet this purpose.
Composition Control
Composition control is important to ensure the purity of the product. This control is implemented
in distillation columns. The composition control in this plant used the model predictive control
method to readjust the manipulated value to the set point.
Process Control System Hardware
According to Stephanopoulos (1984), the hardware elements that can be established in control
configuration include:
i. Chemical Process:
121
Instrumentation
It indicates the material equipment together with the physical or chemical operations that occur
there.
ii. Sensor:
These type of measuring instruments are usually used for the measurement of the disturbances,
the controlled output variables, or secondary output variables. It represents the behavior of the
process. For instance, thermocouple, venture meter and gas chromatographs. iii. Transducer:
It used to convert measurement to physical quantities (such as electrical voltage or pneumatic
signal) which can be transmitted easily
iv. Transmission line:
The line is used to carry the measurement signal from the measuring device to the controller.
Sometimes it is equipped with amplifier due to weak signal coming from a far measuring device.
v. Controller:
It is usually a hardware element of an instrument which has “intelligence” features. It accepts the
facts and decides what action should be taken.
vi. Final Control Element:
It implements in real life the decision taken by the controller. For example control valve.
vii. Recording Elements:
They are used to provide a visual demonstration of how a chemical process behaves.
Valve Selection
Valves used in chemical plants can be divided into two categories depending on their function:
 Shut off valves – The main purpose of shut off valves is to close off the flow.
 Control valves – They can be either automatic or manual and their objective is used to
regulate the flow.
Control Valves
Selection of control valves is an important factor. It is important that good flow control is
achieved whilst the pressure drop is kept low as possible. Control valves may fail open this is the
position the valves take when power supply failure occurs. Diaphragm valves are commonly
used and this is the type used in this case. This type of valve can be seen from figure 51 below.
Figure 8.28:Diaphragm valve
Flanged Valves
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Instrumentation
Flanged valves can be used for drainage. An example of the type of flanged valve used in this
case is shown in figure 54 below. These are generally closed and are in operation usually during
site or unit maintenance.
Figure 8.29: Flanged valve
Non- Return Valves

This type of valve is used to prevent the back-flow of the fluid in the process lie. It is important
that non-return valves have been correctly installed to ensure they are working adequately, i.e.
they should be fitted in the correct orientation. In this case non-return valves have also been
utilized an example of this type of valve is shown in figure 52 below.[58]
Figure 8.30:Non-return valve
Gated Valves
Gated valves are frequently used for shut –off purposes. It is important that a valve selected for
this purpose gives a positive seal in the closed position and minimum resistance to the flow when
the valves are open. Gate valves exist in a wide range of sizes and it is possible to operate them
manually or atomically by the use of a motor. When gate valves are fully open they have a low
pressure drop. When operating gate valves attention must be paid to ensure they are not operated
partially open. This is because the valve seal can become deformed, so as a result the valve will
not seal properly. Below figure 53 shows a diagram of a gate valve which has been frequently
used in the piping and instrumentation diagram. [57]
Figure 8.31: Gate type valve
Instruments and Controllers

There are various locations of instruments in a chemical plant, for example local, mounted on a
central control panel. Within the P&ID there are many different shapes on instruments which are
used. A circle symbol represents a device which is field mounted. A circle which has a line
through the middle indicates a device which can be easily accessible by the operators.[55]
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Instrumentation
Figure 8.32: Diagram to show Instrument type and location
Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID)

The process flow sheet exhibits the sequence of major equipment’s and their attachments. All in
all, that is a characterization of process’s action. On the other hand, the Piping and
Instrumentation Diagram represents the engineering analysis of the equipment, instrument,
piping, valves and fittings as well as their arrangements. Sometimes it is referred as Engineering
Flow Sheet or some Line Diagrams. [61]
8.4 Control system for Distillation column

Distillation Column D-102
We will describe generally about the control objective of the distillation column. Control
objectives of our distillation column are as below:
 Maintain a constant feed flow rate to the column.
 Control the temperature of the column to maintain it at desirable level.
 Control the pressure of the column at desirable level.
 Control the liquid level in distillation column from flooding or from being too low.
 Control the composition of the distillate stream at desired level.
124
Instrumentation
Table 8.20: Distillation Column Control
Control Measured Disturbances Manipulated Set Point

Variables Variables Variables
Composition of Composition of -------- Reflux Ratio 99.8 %
Diesel Distillate
Level of liquid in Level of liquid in Feed Composition Flowrate of Avoid flooding in
column column bottom stream the Reboiler and
condenser
Temperature of Temperature of Feed temperature Flowrate from 115 ºC (top)
column each tray depressurizing 227 ºC (bottom)
valve [others tray
temperature
between this
range]
125
Instrumentation
Figure 8.33:Temperture Control Loop
126
Chapter # 09 Hazop study
Chapter No 9
9 Hazard and Operability Study
127
9.1 Introduction
The elementary concept of HAZOP is to have a broad valuation of the plant layout and P&
ID. HAZOP study highlights the concealed operability difficulties and identifies hazards,
which are probable to outcome from the expected intention of seemingly safe components or
approaches of operation.
This effort exploits imaginings of team fellows to visualize means in which a station can
fail or mal-operated. Each portion of the plant is open to a number of questions expressed
around a number of guide words which are resulting from mode of study practice. In result,
the guide words are used to promise that the questions which are impersonated to test
integrity of each part of the design to determine every possible way in which that design
could deviate from the design intention. This typically produces a number of hypothetical
deviations and each deviation is then considered how it could be produced and what would
be consequences.
HAZOP is a thinking method, which boosts creativeness and process for producing ideas.
Possible outcomes of this study are:
a) Identify and investigative many types of risks.
b) Identifying non-ideal system reliability.
c) Suggestive qualitative recommendations regarding control, strategy, material
properties, material releases alternative design option, operation and maintenance.
The important terms pertaining to HAZOP study are:
• Intention: The intention defines how the part is expected to operate. This can take a
number of forms and can be either descriptive or diagrammatic. In many cases, it will
be a flow sheet (P & ID)
• Deviation: These are departures from the intention which are discovered by
systematically applying the guide words.
• Causes: These are reasons why deviation might occur. Once a deviation has been
shown to have a conceivable or realistic cause, it can be treated as meaningful.
• Hazards: These are the results of the deviations.
• Consequences: These are the consequences, which can cause damage, injury or loss.
128
Table 9.21: A list of guide words
Guide Words Meanings Comments

None Complete negation of the No part of the intention is
intention achieved e.g. no flow or
reverse flow.
More of Quantitative increase More of any relevant
physical properties than
there should be e.g. higher
flow (rate or total quantity)
higher temperature, higher
pressure higher viscosity,
more heat, more reaction
etc.
Less of Quantitative decrease Less of any relevant
physical property than there
should be, e.g. Lower flow
(rate or total quantity),
lower temperature, lower
pressure, less heat, less
reaction etc.
Part of Quantitative decrease Composition of system
different from what it should
be e.g. Change in ration of
components, component
missing etc.
More than Qualitative increase More components present in
the system that there should
be e.g. extra phase present
(Vapor, solid), impurities
(air, water, acids, corrosion
products etc.)
Other than Substitution What else can happen apart
from normal operation e.g.
Start up, shutdown,
high/low rate running,
alternative operation mode,
failure of plant services,
maintenance, catalyst
change etc.
129
Guidewords are applied to the design intention. The design intention informs us what the
equipment is expected to do.
9.2 Distillation Column

Diagram of D-101 whose HAZOP study is given below:
Figure 9.34:Distillation Column
The studies on distillation column propose the following objectives:
130
1. Product quality control to maintain either the overhead or bottom composition at a

specified value.
2. Constraints. The column should not flood. Pressure should be high enough to maintain
effective column operation.
Table 9.2 Hazop Studies on Distillation Column
Study node Process Deviation Possible Possible Action

Parameter (guide causes Consequence Required
word)
Distillation Flow More of High incoming Deviation from Install Level
column (D-101) flow of feed 99% purity of sensors
product measurement
Pressure More of High Pressure Vent will act as Pressure

of incoming relief valve. indicator on
feed (D-101)
Composition Part of Higher Increase a reflux Install a

flowrate feed ratio composition
Composition analyser
Change
Composition More than Impurities in Deviation from Load on
incoming feed 99% purity of reboiler
product
Condenser Flow Part of Condenser -Reflux drum -Level

(C-101) line heavy low level transmitter
leakage with low
level
alarm to be
provided
Flow More of low Load on Level
performance condenser indicator on
reflux drum
Temperature More of Cooling Level low of Install
medium fail reflux drum temperature
indicator at
outlet
Reboiler (R- Temperature More of Impurities in High steam Install

101) incoming flow rate is Composition
feed used analyser
131
Temperature Less of Steam line Deviation from Install

heavy 99% purity of temperature
leakage product indicator
132
Chapter#10 Environmental Impact Assessment
Chapter 10
10 Environmental Impact Assessment
133
10.1 Safety and Assessment

Initially, diesel feedstock and hydrogen are fed into a fired heater leading to the reactor. The
diesel feedstock is in the liquid phase until it reaches the fired heater. For this system, the
hazards presented by the diesel feed will be from the liquid and vapor phase. Diesel feedstock
is fed in at a very large quantity of 35,000 barrels per day. This includes the mixture of
various hydrocarbons, sulfur and other impurities. At the end of the process, 99% of the diesel
feed is purified and recovered in a liquid stream exiting the distillation column. Liquid diesel
presents various safety hazards to this process especially in the large quantities being treated.
Diesel is flammable, toxic, corrosive and is a possible carcinogen under certain exposure
levels (Diesel, 2016). Liquid and vaporized diesel is flammable and toxic if inhaled. In order
to prevent exposure to these hazards, ignition sources must be emitted from the facilities in
close proximity. Well ventilated work spaces are a must if the unit is covered or indoors.
Respiratory protection must be worn if exposed to vaporized diesel. [62]
One of the most vital species utilized in the hydrodesulfurization unit is hydrogen gas.
Hydrogen gas is used in very large quantities and could possibly present the most hazardous
situations of any of the reactants or products involved in the hydrodesulfurization process.
10.2 Properties of Hydrogen
Hydrogen is a colourless, odourless gas that is very flammable. Not only is the gas
flammable, it burns colourless making it hard to detect in an emergency situation. Hydrogen
in large quantities can cause suffocation if inhaled. Well monitored and ventilated systems
are a must. Exposure to hydrogen gas can cause dizziness, drowsiness, nausea, loss of mental
and physical abilities and even death (Hydrogen, 1994). Hydrogen sulfide is another very
potentially dangerous gas and should be monitored and detected at all times to avoid
occupational injuries, hazards and even death. Hydrogen sulfide is harmful on many different
levels depending on the concentration during exposure. It is highly flammable and can be
explosive under certain conditions. At very low concentrations, hydrogen sulfide smells
similar to “rotten eggs” and can lead to headaches, nausea, loss of sleep and respiratory
problems (USDL, 2005). Exposure to high concentrations of H2S gas will lead to
unconsciousness, loss of sight, difficulty breathing, loss of smell and eventually death
(USDL, 2005). It is important that the facilities are equipped with monitoring units to detect
leaks and individuals wear detection monitoring devices on their person. Employees must be
trained to recognize potential hazards and act accordingly.
The equipment in this process present a wide range of mechanical and structural
hazards that need to be addressed. For the purpose of this report, HAZOP analysis was
conducted on four major pieces of equipment to demonstrate the design criteria and
knowledge the team possesses for the implementation of safety procedures and safeguards.
One of the most important and potentially dangerous unit ops for this system is the catalytic
fixed bed reactor. The reactor is very large and operates at dangerously high pressures and
temperatures to achieve the desired conversion needed for the process. The reactor feed
enters the system at 633˚F and 1000 psia. The reactor itself contains two beds. There is a
quench stream entering the reactor at 500˚F and 1057 psia. The exit stream for the reactor, on
average, remains near 687˚F and 931 psia. The reactor is constructed to withstand the design
pressures and temperatures. The system is well insulated to maintain heat transfer to the
134
surroundings and protect the operators and equipment. Pressure relief valves are
implemented on the reactor to release the buildup of pressure in the system when a
malfunction occurs. The contents of this reactor, following the reaction, are very corrosive.
The materials of construction have been determined to withstand the harsh environment.
Overall, the reactor system is designed to withstand the corrosive nature of the species
involved, the high pressures involved and the high operating temperature. [63]
The hot high pressure separator in the hydrodesulfurization unit also operates at very
extreme conditions. The feed stream enters the system at 552˚F and 888 psia. The unit
separates the unreacted vapor and the treated liquid stream coming from the reactor system.
The unit is designed and constructed to withstand the corrosive environment as well as the
high temperature and pressure. Pressure relief valves are implemented to safeguard against
pressure buildup in the system. Since liquid is exiting the unit in large quantities, containment
walls are constructed around the units to prevent catastrophic spills from exiting the
immediate area. The cold high pressure separator was also analyzed to determine any hazards
involved with the unit. The feed entering the CHPS comes in at a temperature of 110˚F and a
pressure of 887 psia. At high pressures, the vessel is also constructed to withstand the harsh
conditions. Like the HHPS, the vessel requires pressure relief valves to ensure safety of those
monitoring the plant, corrosive resistant materials and containment measures to safeguard
against catastrophic spills. The distillation column is designed to be the final means of
separation for the hydrodesulphurization unit in this facility. The column is operated at
temperatures ranging from 350-600˚F and a top of column pressure of 60 Pisa. The final
product exits the bottom of the column at 586˚F. The pressures and temperatures of the
column are a concern. Pressure relief valves will be implemented and the temperature
monitored. The tower contains 30 trays spaced 2 feet apart. The height of the tower needs to
be taken into consideration when performing risk assessment. Fall protection and guard rails
must be present on the column to protect operators or maintenance technicians. Along the
lines of maintenance, the tower is designed to withstand operational vibrations. The design of
this column will implement safeguards to reduce vibration in the column to prevent waring of
equipment, leaks and malfunction.
Overall, measures have been taken to reduce human health and safety hazards
regarding the hydrodesulphurization unit. The main concerns involved with this system are
the high temperatures and pressures this system operates at and the corrosive nature of the
species involved. The raw materials and products circulating throughout the unit are very
flammable. Ignition sources of any kind must be avoided at all costs. The equipment must be
monitored for leaks and spills. Leak indicators and monitoring devices must be implemented
into the system and integrated within the operators and maintenance technicians training.
Safety personnel should initiate an evacuation plan in case of a catastrophic event. Fall
protection must be utilized on any height at which an operator or maintenance technician
works on that is above 4-8 feet off of the floor level depending on the specific operation being
performed (USDL, 2016). Miscellaneous equipment such as pumps, compressors, mixers,
plumbing, valves and monitoring equipment must also be checked for safety hazards, leaks
and potential risks to the system before startup is initiated. As for the desired product, the
sulfur content is reduced below the standards set by the EPA reducing the emissions from
135
burning diesel fuel. Less pollution and emissions reduce the risk of heart and lung disease
contributing to a clean, more stable environment. The HAZOP Analysis for the reactor,
HHPS, CHPS and the distillation tower can be view in the following section.
10.3 Environmental Impact Statement
Over the last several decades, pollution from burning fuels for transportation has been
an important environmental and human health issue. The EPA has set limitations to regulate
how much pollution is emitted from these sources. One of which is the sole reason for
reducing the sulfur content in diesel fuel as discussed in the design of the
hydrodesulfurization unit. When diesel fuel is burned, a large variety of air pollutants and
toxins are emitted into the atmosphere. Some of these pollutants include hydrocarbons,
carbon monoxide, soot or particulate matter and various oxides (EPA, 2016). High
concentrations of sulfur contribute to higher quantities of these toxins being released into the
atmosphere. This is why the EPA has deemed the reduction of the sulfur content in diesel fuel
to be most vital. Not only do these particles pollute the air, they also contribute to a variety
of health conditions such as heart and lung disease. The pollutants are also harmful to plants,
animals and sources of clean water (EPA, 2016). To achieve the low sulfur diesel, a
hydrodesulfurization unit must be designed and set into operation. This unit, as discussed,
will contain various unit operations and the transportation of various hazardous chemicals. It
is important to address the hazards involved in each of these units, the conditions at which
these units are run and also discuss how to handle, store and manage the potentially
dangerous chemicals involved in these systems. These analysis are based on the refinery
production of 35,000 barrels/day, which is equivalent to 12.775 million barrels/ year of
treated diesel. The process requires a substantial amount of energy and with the ongoing
reactions in the process produces chemicals that can impact the environment negatively. For
this process, it is important to save energy and decrease environmental impact with the use of
better technology whilst meeting more stringent fuel product specifications and being as
efficient as possible.
In order to fully understand the impact of the hydrodesulfurization of diesel process
on the environment, the discharges and by products from the refinery have to be examined
and analyzed for its potential effects. Below is a list of all the gaseous and liquid discharges
from the HDS process. There were no solid discharges and chemicals present during the
treatment of diesel process.
 Gaseous discharges - Purged hydrogen gas, refinery fuel gas and hydrogen sulfide
(H2S).
 Liquid discharges - Rich Amine solution, sour water.Ammonium and Ammonium
hydrosulfide) Naphtha and Diesel.
If any of the refinery fuel gas were purged to the atmosphere, methane gas would be a major
environmental concern since it is about 35%. Environmental Protection Agency states that
methane is a major non-CO2 greenhouse gas to cause global warming.
There are other miscellaneous hydrocarbons and components such as nitrogen, ethane,
propane, pentane, hexane and methane present during the process. They are in such small
quantities that they will not be considered harmful to the environment.
136
According to a source, all of these discharges will not be emitted directly to the
atmosphere and would be taken care of by the refinery .This would be done either by
transporting these discharges to a different plant for treatment or transported to tankage for
further processing. For instance, the refinery fuel gas can be used to produce fuel for heaters
and boiler and hydrogen sulfide contained in the sour water & rich amine solution will be
further used to produce elemental sulfur and sulfuric acid in a Claus process unit and wet
sulfuric acid process, respectively. Any other discharges from the refinery will come from
fugitive emissions which are inevitable release of gases during operation from valves, pipes
fittings and equipment linings. The emissions are so minimal that they would have little or no
effect on the environment during the run time of the plant. However, hydrogen gas is a
colorless, odorless and highly flammable gas that in case of a pipe leak could cause harm to
operators at the plant. High concentrations of hydrogen gas can cause an oxygen-deficient
environment. Inhalation could lead to nausea and vomiting.In addition, hydrogen forms
0.15% of the earth’s crust and it occurs naturally in the atmosphere. Therefore hydrogen gas
has not adverse effect on the environment.
The overall study is to be broken down into different sections in order to analyse the
environmental impact caused by varying factors such as: environmental regulations, impact
from process, impact from utilities and process improvements to reduce environmental
impacts.[65]
10.4 Impact Categories
For this part of the analysis, the factors seen below were used to analyse and estimate the
impact of raw materials, cooling water, steam, electricity, and refinery fuel gas.
 Human toxicity
 Eco toxicity
 Depletion of non-renewable resources
 Ozone layer depletion
 Global warming potential
For the human toxicity aspect from the utilities used for this process, material safety
data sheets were utilized (sciencelab.com). According to Epa.gov dioxins are a number cause
of Eco toxicity, the raw materials used do not fall in the category of harmful
chemicals/substances that can cause harm to terrestrial and aquatic life. According to EPA
inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: Pose high direct and indirect global
warming potentials. With this, the chemicals used for this process were determined to have
low global warming potential. However, the refinery fuel gas has about 35% methane
(Emerson, 2016), this will not be an issue to environment because none of it will be purged to
the atmosphere rather it will be further refined to produce other fuel and useful hydrocarbons.
The ozone layer depletion is caused by !"!and non-greenhouse gas emissions. All of the non-
GHG stated in the EPA Global Anthropogenic non-!"!Greenhouse Emissions:
1990-2030 records (EPA, 2006) did not align with any of the gases present in the HDS
process with the exception of the present in the fuel gas which is not purged to atmosphere by
the refinery. Analyzing all of these impact categories, global warming and ozone depletion
theoretically would have the largest impact on environment. According to the EPA, carbon
dioxide is the most significant cause of global warming and the bulk of emission comes from
137
the burning of fossil fuels. In 2013, the total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions were 6,673.0
million metric tons, Eq. (EPA, 2016). Ozone depleting substances such as HFC emissions and
PFC emissions resulted from aluminum production and semiconductor manufacturing (EPA,
2016). With the growing rate of production by these industries the effects on the environment
will continually be a major issue.
In terms of non-renewability, diesel is produced from crude oil, which is a
nonrenewable resource. With the growing demand for oil, there’s a continuous increase in oil
depletion. According the scientist, the growth in demand for crude oil will outstrip supply in
2025, and by 2070 there will be a complete scarcity of crude oil (Zelene, 2015).
Table 10.22:Summary of environmental burdens by different impact categories
Quantity used Depletion Ozone Global

Human Eco
per year of non- layer warming
Toxicity toxicity
(lb.) renewables depletion potential
Process Fluids &
Materials
Untreated
Diesel 47,037,258 Low Low Yes No No
Cobalt
Molybdenum 176,910 Low No No No No
catalyst
Wash water 3,720,000,000 No No No No No
Amine solution
2,684,444,184 High No No No No
(DGA)
Hydrogen
4,083,386 High No No No No
Sulfide (lbmol)
Hydrogen Gas
17,969,340 Low No No No No
(lbmol)
Cooling Fluids
Cooling water 33,300,000,000 No No No No No
Steam 802,000,000 No No No No No
Spills
Spills could be a major problem at the refinery if it were to occur. A key component in
the refinery is diesel, if a spill were to occur a major concern would be the nearby ecological
habitats such as animals as well as water bodies and shorelines. Based on the Environmental
Sensitivity Index (ESI) maps, the Delaware area environment and wildlife is not at a major
risk if a diesel spill were to occur (Office, 2016). Another major concern would be a
hydrogen leak; there would not be any adverse effect on the environment since hydrogen
naturally occurs in the atmosphere as stated above. However, it could be a hazard to humans
if inhaled in large amounts. The MSDS for the refinery will have to be consulted in case an
incident like this were to occur. Any other spills that could occur at the refinery would be
contained with the right safety procedure and should not have any major impact on the
138
environment. In addition, sour water is one of the major liquid discharges from the refinery, it
contains hydrogen sulfide and some ammonia. In case, of a sour water spill a major concern
would be a human toxicity, because hydrogen sulfide is toxic and has a distinct ‘rotten-egg”
smell and inhalation of high concentrations can result to unconsciousness or death (MSDS,
2016). It is also very flammable so it poses as a major fire hazard if a spill should occur.
Adequate emergency response actions should be taken in case of a sour water spill. In terms
of ecological and environmental toxicity and impacts, hydrogen sulfide is fairly safe in the
environment and has been deemed a non-ozone depleting chemical according to section 40 of
the Code of federal regulations (CFR).
10.5 Environmental Regulations
The EPA and the clean Air council (CAC) issued new rules in late 2015 for oil
refineries that are applicable to refineries the Delaware Valley area. According to the EPA,
hazardous emissions from refineries are known to cause respiratory illness, and a bulk of the
emissions occur during shut-downs and start-ups or during unplanned emergencies. The rules
are set to eliminate flares and alleviate emission events (Philips, 2015). Refineries in the
Philadelphia area operate in densely populated areas, which poses a cause to the health and
well-being of people that live nearby these refineries. These rules are to be implemented by
2018 and are to cut emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOC) by 50,000 per year. The
EPA predicts to help reduce refinery associated cancer incidents by 20% (Final, 2016). The
rules are based on the risk and technology review of The National Emission Standards For
Hazardous Air pollutants from Petroleum Refineries (Refinery MACT 1) and the National
Emission standards for Hazardous Air pollutants for petroleum Refineries (Refinery MACT
2)
Table 10.23: Summary of pollutant standards to be followed by refineries
Averaging
Pollutant Primary/Secondary Level Form
Time
8 hours 9ppm Not to be exceeded
Carbon Monoxide (CO) Primary more once a year
8 hours 35ppm
Rolling-3
Lead (Pb) Primary & Secondary month 0.15µg/m3 Not to be exceeded
average
98th percentile of
1-hour daily
maximum
Primary 1 hour 100 ppb
concentrations
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
averaged over 3
years.
Primary & Secondary 1 year 53 ppb Annual Mean
Annual
Ozone Primary & Secondary 8 hours 0.070 ppm fourthhighest daily
maximum 8-hour
139
concentration,
averaged over 3
years
Particle Pollution (PM)
98th percentile,
PM 2.5 Primary & Secondary 24 hours 35 µg/m 3
averaged over 3
years
Not to be exceeded
more
PM10 Primary & Secondary 24 hours 150 µg/m3
once a year on
average of 3 years
99th Percentile of
1-hour daily
maximum
Primary 1 hour 75 ppb
concentrations,
Sulfur Dioxide averaged over 3
years
Not to be exceeded
Secondary 3 hours 0.5 ppm more once a year
10.6 Process Improvements to reduce environmental burdens

Due to the amount of energy being utilized by the refinery and in consideration of the
environment, several optimizations were made to make the overall process more energy
efficient.
These modifications can be seen below:
 Used feed liquid to heat product, which saved on steam.
 Used fuel gas from refinery instead to using natural gas.
 Used large feed pumps with higher efficiency that utilizes less electricity.
 Modification of heat exchanger, swapped one of the heat exchanger refrigerating feed
before the HHPS which saved on electricity usage.
 Used heat exchanger network saved fuel gas at fired heater to reduce emissions
 Eliminated one compressor to help with process efficiency.
140
References
11 References
141
References
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Web. 17 Apr.2016
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a. Avogadro.chem. Web. 17 Apr. 2016.
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Hydrodesulfurization
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Documents/GC_AN_42-PGC-AN-REFINING-H2S-TCD.pdf
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35. https://www.epa.gov/criteria-air-pollutants/naaqs-table
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145
Appendix
Appendix A
Absorber
1)
Figure 11.35 : Curve of find pressure drop
2)
Figure 11.36 : Graph between NOG vs Y1/Y2
146
Appendix
3)
Figure 11.37 :Parameter of curve from pressure drop
Fired Heater Furnace

4)
Figure 11.38: Flue gas temperature over wall
147
Appendix
5)
Figure 11.39: Factor of comparison with two parallel planes
6)
Figure 11.40 : Mean Length of Radiant Beam
148
Appendix
Distillation Column
7)
Figure 11.41 : Overall factor vs Ar/Acp
8)
Figure 11.42 : Kr vs FLv
149
Appendix
9)
Figure 11.43 : K2 vs meter
10)
Figure 11.44 : (Ad/Ac)*100 vs tw/Dc
150
Appendix
10)
Figure 11.45: Orifice Coefficient vs area
Heat Exchanger
11)
Figure 11.46 : LMTD correction factor for 1-2 exchanger
151
Appendix
12)
Figure 11.47 : The caloric Temperature factor Fc
13)
14
Figure 11.48 : Tube-Sheet Layout
152
Appendix
15)
Figure 11.49 : Shell-side -transfer curve
Centrifugal Pump
16)
Figure 11.50: Centrifugal Pump
153
Appendix
Reactor Wall Thickness

17)
Figure 11.51: Minimum Wall
18)
Figure 11.52 : Pressure drop in equipment
19)
Figure 11.53 : Pump Charactertics
154
Appendix
20)
Figure 11.54: Charactertics of Compressor and Pump Drivers
155
Appendix
Appendix B
1)
Figure 11.55: Tax Collection
2)
Figure 11.56 : Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (2017)
156
Appendix
3)
Figure 11.57 : Shell and Tube heat exchanger
4)
Figure 11.58 : Vessel height
157
Appendix
5)
Figure 11.59 : Cost Index of Equipment
158

Hydrodesulphurzation of Diesel

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Hydrodesulphurzation of Diesel

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Design of 35,000 BPSD Hydrodesulphurization of Diesel

This report is submitted to Department of Chemical Engineering, Wah,Engineering

Internal Examiner: Name:

External Examiner: Name:

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

WAH ENGINEERING COLLEGE,

UNIVERSITY OF WAH, WAH CANTT.

A: heat transfer area (ft2)

Table 1.1: Properties of Hydrocarbon [1]

S.No Hydrocarbon General Characteristics

1.2 Thermodynamic Data and Physical Properties

Table 1.2: Thermodynamic data of Diesel [1]

Flash Point 52-96℃

Table 1.3: Physical Properties of Diesel [2]

1.3 Industrial Application

1.4 Handling, Storage and safety & Shipping of Product

1.5 Shipping of Product

1.6 Feasibility and current status in world

Figure 1.1 :Production of Diesel [6]

Production of diesel in World

Figure 1.2: Production of Diesel [7]

1.7 Consumption of Diesel

Figure 1.3: Production of Diesel [8]

Figure 1.4: Future trend of Diesel [8]

2.3 Oxidation-Extraction Method of Desulphurization

Analysis of Sulphur content in Diesel

Hydrodesulphurization of Diesel Oxidation Extraction Method

Due to high temperature in Reactor, it cause It is batch process

2.7 Capacity Selection

Plant Facility Capacity (BPSD)

Byco Oil Pakistan Limited

Figure 2.5 : Production of Diesel [5]

Figure 2.6 : Capacity Selection [8]

Plant Facility Capacity (BSPD )

Figure 2.7: Process Flow Diagram for Hydrodesulphurization of Diesel

3.1 Material balance on Reactor

Balance around Reactor

Figure 3.8: Balance around Reactor

C12H8S + 2H2 C12H10 + H2S

Table 3.5:Balance around Reactor

Component Input Output

3.2 Balance on Separator S-101

Figure 3.9: Balance on Separator

Gas Flow Rate

Table 3.6: Balance around Separator

Component Input Output

3.3 Balance on Distillation D-101

Figure 3.10:Balance on distillation

Table 3.7: Balance around Distillation

Components Inlet Output

3.4 Balance on Absorption Column T-201

Figure 3.11 : Balance around Absorber

Table 3.8: Balance around Absorber

Components Input Output

4.1 Energy Balance on Heat Exchanger E-101

Figure 4.12: Heat Exchanger E-101

Table 4.9:Heat Exchanger E-101

4.2 Energy Balance on Heat Exchanger E-102

Table 4.10: Heat Exchanger E-102

Figure 4.14 : Furnace F-101

4.4 Energy balance on Reactor R-101

Figure 4.15 : Reactor R-101

Table 4.11: Energy Balance on Reactor

Density of gaseous mixture = (1.360.048) + (70.80.96) = 67.2 kg/m3