K.M.E.A Engg.

College

MEL334 THERMAL ENGINEERING LAB-II

Name of the student:
Roll No:
Date Marks
Sl
Name of the Experiment Experiment Evaluation Exp Viva
No: Total
(10) (10)
1. Thermal conductivity of
composite wall

2. Thermal conductivity of
insulating material

3. Surface Heat Transfer

Coefficient in Natural
Convection
4. Measurement of Surface
Emissivity
5. Heat Pipe Demonstration
Apparatus

9. Performance Test on
Refrigeration Unit

10.

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K.M.E.A Engg. College

WORK INSTRUCTIONS IN LAB

1. Students are directed to come to lab in proper lab uniform.

2. They should meet the concerned staff in the lab and should get their rough
records signed before doing the lab experiments
3. They can collect the slip and write the equipment needed for doing the
experiments and get it initialized by the staff in charge
4. They should check whether the instruments are working in good condition
and can do the experiment under guidance of lab staff
5. They should be very observatory while taking the reading and get the
sample calculation set from the concerned staff before starting calculations
6. On completion of observation they should switch off the machine and keep
it clean.
7. They must get the observation signed within two days from the experiment
date and should submit fair records on next lab class
8. Students must be prepared for a viva- voce conducted by the staff after lab
experiment every week

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K.M.E.A Engg. College

Experiment No. Date:

Thermal conductivity of composite wall

Aim:

To determine the thermal conductivity of composite wall.

Specification:

Diameter of the test plate, D=150 mm.

Thickness of test plate =6 mm.
T1 = Temperature of Heater plate.
T2 = Temperature of Copper plate.
T3 = Temperature of Asbestos plate.
T4 = Temperature of Mild steel plate.
T5 = Temperature of Aluminum plate.
T6 = Water inlet temperature
T7= Water outlet temperature

Apparatus required:

The apparatus consists of five test plates of aluminium, mild steel, asbestos and
copper having the same thickness. Above the top plate is the heater plate. All the plates rest on
a bottom asbestos plate where as the asbestos test plate is above the copper plate. The whole
apparatus is clamped using bolts and nuts. The heater input can be varied using dimmer stat.
Thermocouples are embedded in each section to find out the temperature. On the outside of the
wall cooling water jacket is provided which takes away the heat conducted through the plates.
The different temperatures can be selected using channel selector and are read from temperature
indicator. The power is set using heater controller and read from power indicator.

Principle:

The proportionality constant “k” in Fourier’s heat conduction equation for one
dimensional steady state heat transfer through a material is termed thermal conductivity. It can
be defined as the amount of heat/energy (expressed in kcal, Btu or J) that can be conducted in
unit time through unit area of unit thickness of material, when there is a unit temperature
difference. Thermal conductivity can be expressed in kcal m-1 °C-1, Btu ft-1 °F-1 and in the SI
system in Watt (W) m-1 °C-1. Thermal conductivity is also known as the k-value. The physical
meaning of thermal conductivity is the estimation of quantity of heat flux would pass through a
certain material depending on the temperature gradient over that material.

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K.M.E.A Engg. College

The term overall heat transfer coefficient is used in dealing with composite cases. It is
usually denoted by the symbol U.

Power Indicator

Temperature Indicator
Enclosure

Channel selector Heater Controller

Cooling water
Heater plate
Aluminium
Mild Steel
Asbestos
Copper Heater ON Mains ON
Console Heater switch

Schematic of thermal conductivity test apparatus

Precautions
1) Input should be given very slowly.
2) Do not run the equipment if the voltage is low.
3) Check all the electrical connections before running.
4) Before starting and after finishing the experiment the heater controller should be in off
position.
5) Do not attempt to alter the equipment as this may cause damage to the whole system.

Procedure:
1. Switch on the mains and the console
2. Switch on the heater

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K.M.E.A Engg. College

3. Turn on the cooling water supply to the cooling chamber

4. Wait for some time to reach steady state
5. Note down the temperature T1 to T7 using the channel selector, watt meter reading and
flow rate of the cooling water using the stop watch and measuring jar
6. Switch off the heater, console and the Mains.

Temperature Measurements
Heater
Sl. outlet Time
Heater Copper Asbestos MS Al Inlet Input
No water
plate plate plate plate plate water
.
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 P t
o o o o o o o
C C C C C C C W mins
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Calculations
Consider a composite slab made up of four materials.
Let,
𝒌𝟏 = Thermal conductivity of Copper
𝒌𝟐 = Thermal conductivity of Asbestos
𝒌𝟑 = Thermal conductivity of Mild steel
𝒌𝟒 = Thermal conductivity of Aluminum
L1= thickness of copper plate
L2= thickness of asbestos plate
L3= thickness of mild steel plate
L4= thickness of aluminium plate

∆𝑻 = Temperature drop in particular material

A = Area of heat flow in m2

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K.M.E.A Engg. College

Heat conducted through composite wall is given by

Q = m𝑪𝒑 (T7 - T6)
𝑪𝒑 = 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐟𝐢𝐜 𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 = 𝟒𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝐉/𝐤𝐠𝐊
Mass flow rate, m = kg/sec (same as lps)

Q =m𝑪𝒑 (T7 - T6) =

The one dimensional heat transfer heat conduction equation is given by

q/A = -k x dT/dx

q = 𝒒𝐂𝐨𝐩𝐩𝐞𝐫 = 𝒒𝐀𝐬𝐛𝐞𝐬𝐭𝐨𝐬 = 𝒒𝐌𝐢𝐥𝐝 𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐞𝐥 = 𝒒𝐀𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐮𝐦

𝒌𝟏 𝑨∆𝑻 𝒌𝟐 𝑨∆𝑻 𝒌𝟑 𝑨∆𝑻 𝒌𝟒 𝑨∆𝑻

q= 𝑳𝟏
= 𝑳𝟐
= 𝑳𝟑
= 𝑳𝟒

𝑄𝐿1
𝒌𝟏 = =
𝐴 (𝑇1 −𝑇2 )

𝑄𝐿2
𝒌𝟐 = =
𝐴 (𝑇2 − 𝑇3 )

𝑄𝐿3
𝒌𝟑 = =
𝐴 (𝑇3 −𝑇4 )

𝑄𝐿4
𝒌𝟒 = =
𝐴 (𝑇4 −𝑇5 )

𝑸𝑳𝟎
The experimental overall thermal conductivity 𝑼𝒆𝒙𝒑 =
𝑨(𝑻𝟐 −𝑻𝟓 )

𝝅𝒅𝟐 𝝅×𝟎.𝟏𝟓𝟐
Area of the disk = = = 0.017 m2
𝟒 𝟒

𝑼𝒆𝒙𝒑 =

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K.M.E.A Engg. College

𝑳𝟎
Theoretical overall thermal conductivity 𝑼𝒕𝒉𝒆 = 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑳 𝑳
( ⁄𝒌 )+( ⁄𝒌 )+( 𝟑⁄𝒌 )+( 𝟒⁄𝒌 )
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒

𝑳𝟎 = 𝑳𝟏 +𝑳𝟐 +𝑳𝟑 + 𝑳𝟒 =

𝑼𝒕𝒉𝒆 =

Results
The theoretical and experimental value of the overall thermal conductivity of the
composite wall was found
𝑼𝒕𝒉𝒆 =

𝑼𝒆𝒙𝒑 =

Inference

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K.M.E.A Engg. College

Experiment No. Date:

Thermal conductivity of insulating material

Aim:

To determine the thermal conductivity of insulating powder using sphere method.

Specification:

Diameter of inner sphere = 150mm

Diameter of outer sphere = 200 mm
Powder used = Chalk
Oil Grade = SAE 40 W 20
T1, T2, T3=Outer shell bottom surface temperatures
T4, T5, T6 = Outer shell upper surface temperatures
T7 = Oil temperature
DPDT main switch rating 10A
Dimmer stat voltage range 0-230 Volts
Apparatus required:

The insulating material whose conductivity is to be calculated is packed between two

spherical shells. A heating coil is provided in the inner shell. The power is supplied from outside
for heating purpose. The outer diameter of inner sphere is 150 mm where as that of outer sphere
is 200mm. Chromium-Aluminium thermocouples are provided along the radius of shell. One
thermocouple is fixed on the outer-surface of inner sphere and six thermocouples are fixed on
the inner surface of outer shell. The surface temperatures of outer shell are calculated by finding
the average of temperature values from outer six thermocouples. There is calibrated multichannel
digital temperature indicator shows temperature values measured from Cr/Al thermocouples.
The inner shell contains oil of grade SAE 40 W 20.Chalk powder is the insulating material used
for testing. The schematic of apparatus is given below.

Principle:

The proportionality constant “k” in Fourier’s heat conduction equation for one
dimensional steady state heat transfer through a material is termed thermal conductivity.
Different insulating materials and other types of material have specific thermal conductivity
values that can be used to measure their insulating effectiveness. It can be defined as the amount
of heat/energy (expressed in kcal, Btu or J) that can be conducted in unit time through unit area

13
of unit thickness of material, when there is a unit temperature difference. Thermal conductivity
can be expressed in kcal m-1 °C-1, Btu ft-1 °F-1 and in the SI system in Watt (W) m-1 °C-1.

Temp. indicator Power indicator T7 T2

Inner sphere Oil
Outer sphere T1 T4
Channel selector Heater controller
T4 T6
Thermostat Heater switch
Insulating powder T5
Console Mains Red Indicator (chalk)

Schematic of thermal conductivity test apparatus

Consider a hollow sphere having inner radius r1 and outer radius r2. The inner and
outer surface temperature of the sphere is maintained at t1 and t2 (t1>t2) respectively.

Spherical System

Now for a thin cylinder of thickness dr, and temperature difference across it is dt, from
Fourier’s law we can write,

14
To calculate the total rate of heat transfer across the cylinder, we have to integrate the above
equation.

Therefore, the thermal resistance will be,

where “k” is the thermal conductivity of the material is a measure of its ability to conduct heat.
The SI unit of k is Wm-1K-1.
Insulation:
Covering the surface with another surface with another material of low thermal conductivity
in order to prevent excess heat transfer to the surrounding is termed as Insulation. In order to
insulate material, it is poor conductor of heat and hence to cover the surface of heat. It is used
where excess heat transfer is prevented. Electrical conductors are almost always good
conductor of heat viz. Copper, Aluminium and Silver. & electrical conductors are good heat
insulators. Commonly known heat insulators are Glass, Wood, Window glass, Saw dust,
Chalk, Loosely packed or boards of sheet of asbestos.
Precautions
1) Input should be given very slowly.
2) Do not run the equipment if the voltage is low.
3) Check all the electrical connections before running.

15
 4) Before starting and after finishing the experiment the heater controller should be in off
position.
5) Do not attempt to alter the equipment as this may cause damage to the whole system.

Procedure:
1. Keep the dimmer stat knob at zero position and switch ON the equipment.
2. Rotate the dimmer stat knob slowly so that voltage is applied across the heater .Allow
the temperature to rise.
3. Wait until steady state is reached.
4. Note down all the temperatures
5. Note heat input to heater in terms of volts and current.
6. Vary the volt and repeat the experiment for different heat inputs.
Observations
Top surface temperature Oil Heater
Bottom surface temperature
of outer shell Temp. Input
Sl. of outer shell Time
Power
No.
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 Q t

°C °C °C °C °C °C °C Watts Hr:Min

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

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Calculations:
Q x (Ri−Ro) 𝑄
Thermal Conductivity of the Oil, K = =
4xπxRixRo(Ti−To) 𝑅 .∆𝑇

where Q =Heat Input to the system =

Ri = Radius of inner sphere = 75 mm= 0.075 m
Ro= Radius of outer sphere = 100 mm=0.1m
Ti= Oil Temperature = T7=
T1 +T2+T3+T4+T5+T5+T6
To= Temperature of outer sphere = =
6
∆𝑇 = Ti - To =

4xπxRixRo
R= Conduction shape factor = =
(Ro−Ri)

K=

Results
Thermal conductivity of given specimen insulating powder (chalk) =

Inference

17
Experiment No. Date:

Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient in Natural Convection

Aim:
To determine the surface heat transfer co-efficient in natural convection.
Specification:
Diameter of copper tube = 32 mm
Length of copper tube = 450mm
T1=First point temperature on copper tube surface.
T2 = Second point temperature on copper tube surface.
T3=Third point temperature on copper tube surface.
T4 = Fourth point temperature on copper tube surface
T5= Ambient Temperature
Apparatus Required:
The arrangement of the experimental set up is as shown in figure. The important components of
the set up are as follows. A chromium plated copper tube of outer diameter (d) = 32mm and
length (L) = 450 mm is heated with an electric heater coil along the axis of the tube. There are
o .
four thermocouples fixed on the outer surface of the tube at a phase angle of 90 There is an
arrangement to change the position of the tube to vertical and horizontal position. The control
panel instrumentation consists of multi-channel digital display where a temperature indicator
measure surface temperatures T1,T2,T3,T4 of the tube and ambient temperature T5.A digital
wattmeter measure power input to the heater and is heater power is controlled using a heater.

Temp. Indicator Power indicator T1

Copper tube
Clamp T2
Channel selector Heater controller
T3
Heater on indicator Heater switch T5
T4
Console Outer shield
Mains Red Indicator Air opening
Natural convection apparatus

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Principle:
The convection mode of heat transfer actually consists of two mechanisms operating
simultaneously .At first energy transfer is due to the molecular motion that is the conductive
mode. Superimposed upon this mode is energy transfer by the macroscopic motion of fluid
parcels. The fluid motion is a result of parcels of fluid, each consisting of a large number of
molecules moving by virtue of an external force. The extraneous force may be due to a density
gradient in the case of natural convection.

In natural convection, the velocity first increases with increasing distance from heat transfer
surface area and then decreases as shown in fig. The reason for this behaviour is that the action
of viscosity diminishes rather rapidly with distance from the surface, while the density
difference decreases more slowly. Eventually however the buoyant force also decreases as the
fluid velocity approaches the value of unheated surroundings fluid. This interaction of forces will
cause the velocity to reach a maximum and then approach zero far from heated surface
.Convection heat transfer depends on the density ,velocity , viscosity of the fluid as well as on
its thermal properties(thermal conductivity) and specific heat. In natural convection velocity
depends on the temperature difference between the surface and fluid, the coefficient of thermal
expansion of fluid (which determines the density change per unit temperature difference) , and
the body force field which is simply the gravitational force.
Irrespective of the details of the mechanism the rate of heat transfer by convection between a
surface and a fluid can be calculated from the relation
qc = hc . A . ∆𝑻
Where qc = Rate of heat transfer by convection (Watts)
A = Heat transfer area ( m2 )
∆𝑇 = Difference between the surface temperature Ts and ( oK)
Temperature of fluid Tf at some specified location.
(usually far away from the surface)
hc = Average heat transfer coefficient over the area A (W/m2 oK)
(often called Surface Heat Transfer coefficient or convection
heat transfer coefficient. )

While conducting experiment, the theoretical value of the surface heat transfer coefficient by
natural convection is found out using relations given below.

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hc x Lc
= 0.59 x (Gr x Pr)0.25 for 104 < Gr x Pr < 109 (for vertical position of copper tube )
𝑘
µ x Cp
where Pr = Prandtl Number = where µ = Absolute viscosity m2/s
𝑘
Cp= Specific heat capacity (J/kg oK)
k= Thermal conductivity (W/moC)
hc = Surface heat transfer coefficient
Gr = Grashof Number = β g (Tm – Ta)Lc 3 / γ2
Where β = 1/Tf (oK-1 ) =
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
Tm = Mean Surface Temperature (oK) = (T1 +T2 +T3+T4)/4 =
Ta = Ambient Temperature (oK) =
γ = Kinematic Viscosity (m2/s) =
Lc = Characteristic length (m) =
All the properties of air should be taken from property table at temperature Tf = (Tm + Ta ) /2
The order of magnitude of mean surface heat transfer coefficient hc of air in free convection is
6-30 W/m2oK.

Precautions
1) The experiment should be carried out in the absence of wind flow through the window
and while operating fans for better results.
2) The experiment should be conducted after the tube is cooled down to room temperature.
3) For comparison of results in horizontal and vertical position temperatures should be
considered at equal intervals of time.
4) Do not run the equipment if voltage is low.
5) Check all the electrical connections before running.
6) Do not attempt to alter the equipment as this may damage the whole system.
Procedure
1) Keep the copper tube in vertical position.
2) Switch on the mains.
3) Heat input can be adjusted by using the regulator.
4) Wait for sufficient time to allow the temperature to reach steady value.
5) With the help of channel selector obtain the temperature values T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5
from digital temperature indicator.

20
 6) Note down the Wattmeter readings.
7) Tabulate the values of heat input and measured temperatures.
8) Calculate the surface heat transfer coefficient –both experimental and theoretical for
different heat inputs.
9) Repeat the experiment by changing the tube to horizontal position for different heat
inputs.
Observations and Calculations

Input Surface temperature of copper tube Ambient Time

Heat (in vertical position) temperature
Deg. C
Q T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 t
o o o o o
Watts C C C C C hrs:mins
80
80
80
80
80
80

80
80
80
80
80

21
Calculations
(Copper tube in vertical position)
Theoretical:
Tf = (Tm+Ta )/2
Tm = (T1 + T2 + T3 +T4)/4 =

Ta =
Tf =
From data book, properties of air at 100oC
Pr= Cp = k= γ=
hc x Lc
= 0.59 x (Gr x Pr)0.25 for 104 < Gr x Pr < 109 (for vertical position of copper tube)
𝑘
Gr = Grashof Number = β g (Tm – Ta)Lc 3 / γ2 =
Pr=
Lc =
Gr x Pr =
104 < Gr x Pr < 109
hc =

Theoretical heat transfer rate by convection

Q = hc A (Tm – Ta) =

Experimental value of heat transfer coefficient:

For steady state condition,
Power input to heater =Heat lost from the tube surface by convection
i.e., W= hc As (Tm - Ta)
where,
W = Wattmeter reading (Watts) =
As = Surface area of copper tube = π d l (m2) =
hc = Surface heat transfer co efficient by experimentation. (W/m2 oK) =
Tm = Mean surface temperature = (T1+T2+T3+T4 )/4 (oC) =
Ta = Ambient temperature ( oC) =
𝑊
Therefore, Surface heat transfer coefficient, h = (W/m2 oK)
𝐴𝑠(𝑇𝑚−𝑇𝑎)

22
hc =
From data book, properties of air at 100oC
Pr = Cp = k= γ=
h x Lc
= 0.59 x (Gr x Pr)0.25 for 104 < Gr x Pr < 109 (for vertical position of copper tube)
𝑘
Gr = Grashof Number = β g (Tm – Ta)Lc 3 / γ2
= (373)-1 x 9.81 x (155.12 - 39.2) x (0.032)3 x (23.13 x10-6)-2
= 1.87 x 10 5
Pr=
Lc =
Gr x Pr =
104 < Gr x Pr < 109
hc =
=

Results

1) Theoretical surface heat transfer coefficient in natural convection at vertical position

of copper tube =
2) Experimental value of surface heat transfer coefficient in natural convection at vertical
position of copper tube =
3) Theoretical heat transfer rate by natural convection at vertical position of copper tube
a) At W input power to heater =

Inferences

23
Experiment No: Date:
Measurement of Surface Emissivity
Aim:
Experiment aims to determine the emissivity of the radiating surface.

Specifications:
Diameter of plates =150mm.
Thickness of plates =3mm.
T1 =Temperature of the grey body (test plate).
T2 =Temperature of the black body.
T3 =Ambient temperature.

Apparatus required:
a) Black body: Black body made of circular aluminium plate with the surface black
anodized, mounted on asbestos cement sheet.
b) Grey Body or Test Plate: Grey body is made of circular aluminium plate made of same
size as that of black body with polished surface, mounted on asbestos cement sheet.
c) Enclosure: The enclosure is made up of transparent sheets for better visibility and with
the lid on the top surface for exhausting the hot air after experiment. The bottom is fixed
on asbestos sheet to prevent the heat loss.
d) Heaters: To heat the black body and the grey body to identical temperatures.
e) Watt meter: To measure the input power to the heaters.
f) Thermocouples: To measure the surface temperatures of Test Plate(T1), black body(T2)
and the enclosure surface(T3).
g) Heat control or regulator to heaters.
h) Control Panel: To switch on/off the mains and the heater.

24
1) Grey body
2) Black body
3) Power indicator(Grey body)
4) Power indicator(Black body)
5) Temperature indicator
6) Channel selector
7) Dimmer stat(Grey body)
8) Dimmer stat(Black body)
9) Indicator for heater(Grey body)
10) Indicator for console.
11) Indicator for heater(Black body)
12) Switch for heater(Grey body)
13) Switch for console
14) Switch for heater (Black body)
15) Enclosure for Discs.

25
Principle:
In contrast to the mechanisms of conduction and convection, where energy transfer
through a material medium is involved, heat may also be transferred through regions where a
perfect vacuum exists. The mechanism in this case is known as electromagnetic radiation. An
ideal thermal radiator or blackbody, will emit energy at a rate proportional to the fourth power
of the absolute temperature of the body and directly proportional to its surface area.

qemitted = σA T 4 ..................... (1)

The concept of blackbody is an idealization; ie., a perfect blackbody does not exists. All surfaces
reflect radiation to some extent, however slight. [1].
When two bodies exchange heat by radiation, the net heat exchange is given by,

q= σ A (Th4-Tc4)................ (2)
Where,
q = heat transfer rate in Watts.
σ = Stefan Boltzmann’s constant (5.6693 x 10-8 W/m2K4)
A =Surface area in m2.
Th=Temperature of the hot body in oK .
Tc=Temperature of the cold body in oK.

This equation is known as Stefan Boltzmann’s law of thermal radiation and it applies
only to black bodies; a piece of metal covered with carbon black approximates this behaviour.
Other types of surfaces such as glossy painted surface or a polished metal plate do not radiate as
much energy as the black body. To take account of the grey nature of the surface, the factor
called emissivity 𝜀 is used to relate the radiation of the grey surface to that of an ideal black
surface.
The emissivity of the surface is the ratio of the emissive power of the surface to the
emissive power of the black surface at the same temperature. Emissivity is the property of the
surface and depends upon the nature of the surface and temperature. The net heat exchange
between two bodies is given by,
q= σA1F 𝜀 1(Th4-Tc4)...........(3)
This equation assumes that all the radiation emitted is received by the receiver.

26
 𝜀1 = emissivity of the emitter.
A1 = area of the emitter.
F = radiation shape factor.

The experimental setup is designed in such ways that under steady state conditions, the
heat dissipation by conduction and convection, although small, are same for both plates. The
difference in power input to the heaters of the black surface and test plate which are at the same
temperature is due to the difference in radiation characteristics because of different emissivity.
The difference in power inputs to the heaters are related to emissivity by the relationship:
W1-W2 = [(𝜀 b – 𝜀) σA(T14-T34)]/ (0.86) ........(4)
Where,
W1 = Heat input to the black surface, W.
W2 = Heat input to the test plate, W
A = Area of the black body and test plate [2x(πd2/4)], m2.
d = Diameter of the test plate and black body, m
T1 = Temperature of the grey plate, oK.
T3 = Inside temperature of the enclosure, oK
𝜀b = Emissivity of the black plate, (assumed equal to 1).
𝜀 = Emissivity of the test plate.
σ = Stefan Boltzmann’s constant. = 5.669 x 10-8 W/m2K4.

The constant in the denominator (0.86) takes into account various factors such as radiation shape
factor, effect of conduction and free convection losses and other factors( such as non-uniformities
in enclosure temperature) which cause deviations from the typical radiation heat transfer
experiment. The temperatures of black surface and test surface are to be maintained same for the
above analysis.

Precautions:
1) Use stabilized A.C. single phase supply.
2) Heater inputs should be increased only gradually.
3) Always keep the dimmer stats at zero position before start.
4) See that the black plate is having a layer of lamp black uniformly.
5) The lid on the top of the enclosure should be closed before starting the experiment.

27
 6) After completing the experiment, the lid should be opened to exhaust the hot air.
Procedure
1) Switch on the mains.
2) Switch on the heater to the black body and adjust the power input to the heater to a
suitable value using regulator.
3) Switch on the heater to the test plate (Grey body) and keep the power input to a value
less than the input to the black body.
4) Observe temperatures of the black body and the test surface in close time intervals and
adjust power input to the test plate heater such that both black body and test surface
temperatures are same. This procedure requires trial and error method and one has to wait
sufficiently long (about one hour or more) to reach steady state.
5) After attaining steady state, record input powers to heaters (W1 and W2) and temperatures
T1,T2 and T3 of grey body, blackbody and the enclosure. Check the temperatures of the
two plates at small time intervals and adjust the power input of the test plate only by
means of the dimmer stat such that the two plates are maintained at the same temperature.
6) Using above measurements, calculate the emissivity of the test surface.

Observations and Calculations:

HEAT INPUT TEMPERATURE

SL Black Grey Grey Black Ambient TIME
No: body(W1) body(W2) body(T1) body(T2) (T3)
o o o
W W C C C Hr:Min
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

28
Calculation:

Heat input to black body W1 =

Heat input to grey body W2 =
Temperature of grey body T1 =
Temperature of enclosure T3 =
Area of the plates A = 2x(πd2/4) = 0.0353m2
Stefan Boltzmann’s constant σ = 5.669 x 10-8 W/m2K4
Emissivity of black body = 1
We have,
W1-W2 = [(𝜀 b – 𝜀) σA(T14-T34)]/ (0.86)
Substituting,
𝜀=

Note:
For the temperatures of black body and grey body to be same for calculations, more power is
given to black body in order to attain the same. Practically there will be small difference in
temperatures of blackbody and grey body of the order of 5-6 degrees. So the temperature of grey
body for the calculations of the emissivity.

Result:
Emissivity of the radiating surface of grey body =

Inference :

29
Experiment No: Date:
Heat Pipe Demonstration Apparatus
Aim:
To determine the axial heat flux in a heat pipe using water as the working fluid with that in a
solid copper rod with different temperatures.
Specifications:
Diameter of the specimen: 40mm
Length of the specimen: 500mm
Band heater (3 nos.): 150 watts
Electrical supply: 1∅, 230 V, 16A with ground.
Temperature points:
T1, T2: Temperature on the water heat pipe without wick at a distance of 150mm and
350mm from the bottom.
T3, T4: Temperature on the water heat pipe with wick at a distance of 150mm and 350mm
from bottom.
T5, T6: Temperature on the solid copper rod at a distance of 150mm and 350 mm from
the bottom.
Apparatus required:
1) Solid copper rod of length 500mm with evaporator at one end and condenser at the other
end.
2) Wickless water heat pipe made of copper tube of length 500mm with evaporator at one
end and condenser at the other end.
3) Water heat pipe with wick (stainless steel mesh 180 micron layers) made of copper tube
of length 500mm with evaporator at one end and condenser at the other end.
4) Digital temperature indicator with 8-Channel Selector switch for measuring temperatures
on the surface of the Heat pipe.
5) Thermocouples are fixed on the tube surface with a phase angle of 90° on each pipe.
6) Digital ammeter and voltmeter to measure power input to the heater.
7) Dimmer stat to control the power input to the heater.
Principle:

The main objective of energy conversion system is to transfer energy from a receiver to some
other location where it can be used to heat a working fluid. The heat pipe is novel device that

30
can transfer large quantities of heat through small surface areas with small temperature
differences. Schematic diagram of a heat pipe and the associated flow mechanisms is shown

The device consists of a circular pipe with an annular layer of wicking material covering
the inside. The core of the system is hollow in the centre to permit the working fluid to pass
freely from the heat addition end on the left to the heat rejection end on the right. The heat
addition end is equivalent to an evaporator, and the heat rejection end corresponds to a condenser.
The liquid permeates the wicking material by capillary action and when heat is added to the
evaporator end of the heat pipe, liquid is vaporised in the wick and moves through the central
core to the condenser end, where heat is removed. Then the vapour condenses back into the wick
and the cycle repeats.
In order for the heat pipe to operate, the maximum capillary pumping head, (∆pc)max, must be
able to overcome the total pressure drop in the heat pipe. This pressure drop consists of three
parts:
1) The pressure drop required to return the liquid from the condenser to the evaporator ∆pe.
2) The pressure drop required to move the vapour from evaporator to the condenser ∆pv.
3) The potential head due to the difference in the elevation between the evaporator and the
condenser ∆ pg.
The condition for the pressure equilibrium can thus be expressed in the form:
(∆pc )max ≥ ∆pe + ∆pv + ∆pg
If this condition is not met, the wick will dry out in the evaporator region and the heat pipe will
cease to operate.
Heat flux ‘q’ can be calculated as following:
𝑄 ∆𝑇
q=𝐴=K ∆𝑋

Where,
31
k = Thermal conductivity of copper = 374 W/moK
dt = Temperature difference.
dx = Length between thermocouples.
Precautions:
1) Do not start the equipment without proper electrical supply.
2) Handle the switches gently.
3) Before starting ensure that the water level is maintained.
4) After experiment is over, switch off all the indicators and the heaters.
Procedure:
1) Provide the necessary electrical connection and then switch on the console.
2) Switch on the heater and set the voltage (say 40V) using heater regulator and the
digital voltmeter.
3) Wait for sufficient time to allow temperature to reach steady values.
4) Note down the Temperatures 1 to 6 using the channel selector and digital temperature
indicator.
5) Note down the watt meter reading.
6) Calculate the axial heat flux for all the pipes.
7) Repeat the experiment for different heat inputs and compare the results.
Schematic diagram:

5
4

1 2 3
6 7

9 10

32
 1) Copper pipe
2) Copper pipe with wick
3) Copper rod
4) Temperature indicator
5) Power indicator
6) Channel selector
7) Dimmer stat
8) Heater indicators
9) Console on
10) Heater switches

Observations:
TEMPERATURE
SL HEATER I/P TIME
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
No
O O O O O O
C C C C C C W Hr:Min
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Calculations:
Heat input Q = 80 W
Heat flux ‘q’ can be calculated as following:
∆𝑇
q=K ∆𝑋

Axial heat flux of copper rod =

33
Axial heat flux of copper pipe without wick =

Axial heat flux of copper pipe with wick =

Result:
1) Axial heat flux of copper rod=
2) Axial heat flux of copper pipe without wick=
3) Axial heat flux of copper pipe with wick=

Inference

34