HEAT TRANSFER LABORATORY

Lab Record

Name:…………………………………

Roll No:……………………………….

Department of Mechanical Engineering

NIT CALICUT
 CERTIFICATE

It is certified that this is a bonafide record of the experimental work carried out by
Mr./Ms.……………………………………………………… Roll No.……………………… as part of
Heat Transfer Laboratory in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of
Technology Calicut.

Faculty-in-charge
Heat Transfer Laboratory
Semester & Year:
Place: NIT Calicut
Date:

Department Seal

Heat Transfer Lab

 Index
Si. Date Experiment Remarks Signature
No.

Heat Transfer Lab

 Table of Contents

Heat Transfer Lab

EFFECTIVENESS OF SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER .....................................................................2

CRITICAL HEAT FLUX IN POOL BOILING .......................................................................................................7

NATURAL CONVECTION FROM A CYLINDRICAL SURFACE ................................................................... 12

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF METAL ROD ................................................................................................ 17

EMISSIVITY OF A METALLIC SURFACE ........................................................................................................ 23

HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT OF FORCED CONVECTION .................................................................. 28

UNSTEADY STATE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT .................................................................................. 32

EFFECTIVENESS OF PLATE HEAT EXCHANGER ................................................................................... 33

COMBINED CONVECTION AND RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER .............................................................. 37

HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT OF FILM AND DROP WISE CONDENSATION .................................. 42

PERFORMANCE TEST ON VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM ............................... 47

STUDY OF FUEL CELLS ....................................................................................................................................... 52

STUDY OF PHASE CHANGE MATERIAL.......................................................................................................... 54

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Heat Transfer Lab
 Experiment 1
Effectiveness of Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
Introduction
Heat exchangers are devices which facilitate the heat transfer from one medium to the other by
virtue of temperature difference. These are very common devices which, we encounter in our day
to day life and have a lot to do with heat transfer. Automobile radiators, evaporators and
condensers of refrigeration and air conditioning systems, boilers and condensers of steam power
plants, coolers and heaters of gas turbine power plants, chemical industries and processing
industries are a few where heat exchangers play a vital role. Different types of heat exchangers
are available based on design, construction, compactness, transfer process, transfer mechanism,
flow arrangement and for the purpose intended. Effectiveness is the performance factor of the
heat exchanger which is the ratio of actual heat transfer to the maximum possible heat transfer
from hot medium to the cold medium in the heat exchanger.

Aim
To determine the effectiveness of a single pass Shell and Tube heat exchanger.

Experimental setup
The shell of the heat exchanger is fabricated out of a 150 mm nominal bore 750 mm long mild
steel pipe. Thirty-two copper tubes of 4.5 mm diameter 750 mm long are arranged in a triangular
pitch as shown in Fig. below. Four baffle plates are provided for better circulation of shell side
fluid (water). A 3 kW electric water heater is provided for supplying the hot water. Provisions are
made to measure the temperature at different locations. Flow of both hot and cold fluids are
varied by flow control valves.

Fig. arrangement of tubes in triangular pitch

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Experimental procedure
• Switch ON the power to the water heater.
• Open the water supply valve for both tube side and shell side and maintain a constant
flow rate of 2.5 liter/min for hot water (tube side) and 5 liter/min for cold water (shell
side).
• Observe the temperatures of inlet and outlet for both tube and shell side and when steady
state has reached record the observations. Repeat the same for different sets of flow rates.
• Ensure that water flow rate is optimum, neither too low to switch the thermostat of heater
off, nor too high with no appreciable temperature rise.
Specifications

Shell 150 mm MS pipe with a length of 750mm

Tube Copper tubes 6.35mm OD, 4.5mm ID in 35 in
number
Water Heater 1.5 kW, 2 in number
Baffle Plate MS, 4 in number
Thermometer Alcohol in glass thermometers

Working Formulae
𝑉
Volume flow rate of cold water = 𝑉𝑐̇ = 𝑡𝑐
𝑐

Mass flow rate of cold water = 𝑚̇ 𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐̇ × 𝜌𝑤

𝑉ℎ
Volume flow rate of hot water = 𝑉ℎ̇ = 𝑡ℎ

Mass flow rate of hot water = 𝑚̇ℎ = 𝑉ℎ̇ × 𝜌𝑤

Heat transferred to cold water = 𝑄𝑐̇ =𝑚̇ 𝑐 𝐶𝑝𝑤 ∆𝑇𝑐𝑤

Heat transferred from hot water = 𝑄ℎ̇ =𝑚̇ ℎ 𝐶𝑝𝑤 ∆𝑇ℎ𝑤

(𝑇ℎ𝑖 −𝑇𝑐𝑜 )−(𝑇ℎ𝑜 −𝑇𝑐𝑖 )

Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) = 𝑇 −𝑇𝑐𝑜
𝑙𝑛( ℎ𝑖 )
𝑇ℎ𝑜 −𝑇𝑐𝑖

∆T = Correction factor (F)×LMTD

Overall heat transfer coefficient:

𝑄ℎ̇
based on inner surface area = Ui =
𝐴𝑖 ×∆𝑇
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 𝑄ℎ̇
based on outer surface area = Uo =
𝐴𝑜 ×∆𝑇

actual heat transfer rate

Effectiveness ∈ =Maximum possible heat transfer rate

𝑚̇ℎ × 𝐶𝑝ℎ × (𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ𝑜 )

=
(𝑚̇𝐶𝑝 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 )

actual heat transfer rate = average of 𝑄𝑐̇ and 𝑄ℎ̇

Temperature Profile

Thi

°
Tco Tho

Tci

Observation Tabulations and Calculations

Sl No: Hot Water (Tube Side) Cold Water (Shell Side)

Inlet Outlet Flow rate Inlet Outlet Flow rate
Temp (ºC) Temp (l / s) Temp Temp (l / s)
(ºC) (ºC) (ºC)
1

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Sample Calculations

Result

Inference

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Heat Transfer Lab
 Experiment 2
Critical Heat Flux in Pool Boiling
Introduction
When heat is added to a liquid from a submerged solid surface which is at a temperature higher
than the saturation temperature of the liquid, it is usual for a part of the liquid to change phase.
This change of phase is called boiling. Boiling is of various types, the type depending upon the
temperature difference between the surface and the liquid. The different types are indicated in
the Fig. below.

Fig. Typical boiling curve for water at1atm pressure

Aim
To calculate the critical heat flux at various bulk temperatures of water.

Experimental setup
The apparatus consists of a cylindrical glass container housing the test heater and a heater coil
for the initial heating of the water. This heater coil is directly connected to the mains and the test
heater (nichrome wire) is connected to mains via a dimmer stat. An ammeter is connected in
series while a voltmeter across it to read the current and voltage.

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This experimental set up is designed to study the pool boiling phenomenon up to critical heat
8
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flux point. The pool boiling over heater wire can be visualized in the different regions up to
critical heat flux point at which the wire melts. The heat from the wire is slowly increased by
gradually increasing applied voltage across the test wire and the change over from natural
convection to nucleate boiling can be seen. The formation of bubbles and their growth in size
and number can be visualized, followed by the vigorous bubble formation and their immediate
carrying over to surface and ending thus in the breaking of the wire indicating the occurrence of
critical heat flux point. This is repeated for various temperatures of the water in the container up
to the saturation temperature.

Experimental procedure
• Take 3 to 4 litres of distilled water in the container.
• See that both the heaters are completely submerged.
• Connect the heater coil (1 kW Nichrome coil) and test heater wire across the studs and
make the necessary electrical connections.
• Switch on the heater and keep it on till you get the required bulk temperature of water in
the container say 50◦C, 60◦C, 70◦C up to the saturation temperature (100 ºC).
• Switch off the main heater and switch on the test coil heater.
• Very gradually increase the voltage across it by slowly changing the variac from one
position to the other and stop a while at each position to observe the boiling phenomenon
on wire.
• Keep increasing the voltage till wire breaks and carefully note the voltage and current at
this point.
• Repeat the experiment by altering the bulk temperature of water

Specifications
Main Heater Nichrome wire Heater 1 kW
Test Heater Nichrome wire 0.1 mm diameter
Length of 100 mm
wire
Dimmer stat 10A, 230V

Working Formulae
Heat Input Q = VI (W)
Critical heat flux q = Q/A (W/m2)

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 1
σ g(P −P ) 4
Q/A = 0.149𝜌𝑉 hfg [ LV 2L V ]
ρV

Where, Q/A = Heat flux in W/m2

hfg = Latent heat of vapourization in J/kg
σLV = Liquid vapour surface tension 0.058 N/m
ρL = Density of water kg/m3
ρV = Density of vapour kg/m3

Observations Tabulations and Calculations

Bulk Ammeter Voltmeter Critical Heat

Temperature of Reading Reading Flux
Water ◦C Amps (I) Volts (V) (W/m2)

Sample Calculations

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Result
Critical Heat Flux Experimental =
Theoretical =

Inference

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 Experiment 3
Natural Convection from a Cylindrical Surface
Introduction
Convection involves energy transfer due to random molecular motion (diffusion) as well as that
due to bulk or macroscopic motion of the fluid. Such motion, in the presence of a temperature
gradient contributes to convective heat transfer. If the fluid motion is induced by some external
means such as a fan or atmospheric wind, the process is called forced convection. In natural (or
free convection), the flow is induced by buoyancy forces which are due to density differences
caused by temperature variations in the fluid. Natural convection occurs in atmospheric air and
ocean water circulation. Fluid motion is buoyancy induced resulting from body forces acting on
density gradients, which in turn arise from mass concentration and temperature gradients in the
fluid.

Aim
To determine the natural convective heat transfer coefficient on a cylindrical surface at different
orientations.

Experimental setup
The experimental set up consists of a hollow brass cylinder (45mm OD, 20mm ID and 205mm
long) with a resistive heater inside the cylinder to provide a uniform heat flux along its length. A
chamber encloses the cylinder which is open at top and bottom ends for enabling natural
convection. The cylinder can be positioned at different orientations with respect to the vertical
axis. The temperature of the cylinder surface at five different points is indicated by a digital
temperature indicator. Current flow and voltage across the heater is measured by Ammeter and
Voltmeter and a dimmer stat controls heat input to the heater.

Experimental procedure
• Switch ON the mains of the electrical supply.
• Set the cylinder in vertical position.
• Set the dimmer to say 50 volts and start heating the cylinder.
• Wait till steady state has reached and note down the temperatures measured at the salient
points
• Repeat the procedure for different orientations.

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 *

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Working Formulae:

Vertical Position (θ=00)

Experimental:
𝑄
Average heat transfer coefficient havg=
𝐴𝑠 (𝑇𝑠 −𝑇∞ )
Where, Q = V×I, input power in W
As = Surface area m2
Ts = Average surface temperature ◦C
T∞ = Ambient temperature ◦C

Theoretical:
(Ts+T∞)
Film temperature Tf =
2
1
Volumetric coefficient of expansion 𝛽 =
273+𝑇𝑓
𝑔𝛽∆𝑇𝐿3
Grashof number GrL =
ν2
0.67(𝐺𝑟𝐿 Pr )0.25
̅̅̅̅̅𝐿 = 0.68 +
Average Nusselt number 𝑁𝑢 0.444
0.492 0.5625
[1+( ) ]
𝑃𝑟

̅̅̅̅̅L =0.59(GrL Pr )0.25 for 104 < GrL Pr <109

Average Nusselt number Nu
̅̅̅̅̅̅
NuL ×𝑘
Average heat transfer coefficient havg =
𝐿
Where, g= acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
As = Surface area, m2
Ts = Surface temperature, ◦C
T∞ = Ambient temperature, ◦C
ν= kinematic viscosity, m2/s
k = thermal conductivity, W/mK
Pr = Prandtl number
Fluid properties are to be evaluated at the film temperature

Inclined Position (θ=450)

Experimental:
𝑄
Average heat transfer coefficient havg=
𝐴𝑠 (𝑇𝑠 −𝑇∞ )

Theoretical:

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Heat Transfer Lab
 𝑔𝛽∆𝑇𝐿3 cos 45
Grashof number GrL =
𝜈2
1.75 )
Nusselt number NuL = [0.60 − 0.488(sin45)1.03 ](GrL Pr )(0.25+0.083((sin45)
3
For GrL Pr < 2×108, Average Nusselt number ̅̅̅̅̅
NuL = 𝑁𝑢𝐿
4
̅̅̅̅̅̅
NuL ×𝑘
Average heat transfer coefficient havg=
𝐿

Horizontal position (θ=900)

Experimental:
𝑄
Average heat transfer coefficient havg= 𝐴
𝑠 (𝑇𝑠 −𝑇∞ )

Theoretical:
𝑔𝛽∆𝑇𝐷 3
Grashof number GrL = 𝜈2
0.167 2
(𝐺𝑟𝐷 Pr )
Average Nusselt number ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = {0.6 + 0.387 [ 0.296 ] }
0.559 0.5625
[1+( ) ]
𝑃𝑟

̅̅̅̅̅̅
NuL ×𝑘
Average heat transfer coefficient havg = 𝐿

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Heat Transfer Lab
Observation Tabulations and Calculations

Volts Amps Temperatures

Inclination V I
from
Ambient
vertical T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
T6
0◦

45◦

90◦

Sample Calculations

Result

Inference

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Heat Transfer Lab
 Experiment 4
Thermal Conductivity of Metal Rod

Introduction
Conduction heat transfer is the energy transfer from high energetic particles of a medium to
adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interaction between them. Interaction between the
particles depends on the nature of the medium through conduction heat transfer takes place. If
the material medium is solid, heat conduction occurs by two ways i.e by the transport of free
electrons and lattice vibrations. Thermal conductivity is the property of a material and it is the
measure of ability of the material to conduct heat transfer through it by virtue of temperature
difference. In metals free electron contribution is more and hence metals possess higher thermal
conductivity. Metals like copper and silver are examples of good thermal conductors.

Aim
To determine the thermal conductivity of a metal rod by measuring the temperatures at different
sections of the rod.

Experimental setup
The experimental set up consists of a copper rod, one end of which is heated by an electric
heater, while the opposite end is cooled by water. The middle portion of the rod, which is the test
section is covered by a shell containing insulation. Along the test section eight thermocouples are
placed at equally spaced locations and two thermocouples at different locations on the shell. Two
more thermocouples are placed at the inlet and outlet of the cooling water section to measure its
temperature. A dimmer stat is provided to control the input to the heater.

Experimental procedure
• Switch ON the mains of the electrical supply to the apparatus.
• Adjust the dimmer stat of the heater control to about 80 to 100 volts. This will cause the
heating the test rod.
• Open the cooling water valve and adjust the flow rate to around 300 cm3/minute (0.5
litre/minute).
• The test rod temperature gradually increases. Keep observing the temperatures at
different sections by toggling the channel at the temperature indicator at regular intervals
of 15 min.
• When steady state conditions has reached (no further change in temperature), record the
temperatures at all channels.
• Plot the graph for temperature vs length of the rod and determine the slope at sections
AA, BB and CC.

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 18
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 19
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Specifications

Test Metal Copper rod, 25mm diameter

Insulating material Gypsum powder
Thermal conductivity of 0.35 W/m°C
Insulating material
Outer diameter of shell 210mm
Thermocouple Chromel Alumel (K type) 12 nos.
Heater Nichrome Band type
Spacing between thermocouples 30mm

Working Formulae:

Thermal conductivity at section CC (𝑘𝐶𝐶 )

Heat flows through the rod from the heater end to the cooling water end. When steady state is
reached, heat passing through the section CC is the heat carried away by the cooling water.

𝑄̇𝐶𝐶 = 𝑚̇𝑤 𝑐𝑃 𝛥𝑇

where, 𝑚̇𝑤 = mass flow rate of water in kg/s

𝑐𝑃 = Specific heat of water = 4180 J/kgK
𝛥T = difference in temperature of the cooling water K

According to the Fourier Law of Heat Conduction the rate of heat transfer is proportional to the
temperature gradient present in a solid.
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
𝑄̇ = −𝑘 𝐴 → 𝑄̇𝐶𝐶 = −𝑘𝐶𝐶 𝐴𝐶𝐶 ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐶𝐶
2
Where, 𝐴𝐶𝐶 is the cross sectional area of the test rod in 𝑚
𝑑𝑇
(𝑑𝑥 ) is temperature gradient at section CC of the rod which is obtained from graph
𝐶𝐶

Thermal conductivity at section BB (𝑘𝐵𝐵 )

Heat flow through section BB
𝑄̇𝐵𝐵 = 𝑄̇𝐶𝐶 + Radial heat loss between section CC and BB

Radial heat loss between section CC and BB is given by the relation

2𝜋𝑘𝐿(𝑇6 − 𝑇10 )
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑟
𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑟0 )
𝑖

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Heat Transfer Lab
 Where, k is the thermal conductivity of the insulating material
L is the length between sections CC and BB of the test rod
𝑟0 and 𝑟𝑖 are the outer and inner radii of the insulating shell

𝑑𝑇
𝑄̇𝐵𝐵 = −𝑘𝐵𝐵 𝐴𝐵𝐵 ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝐵𝐵
𝑑𝑇
where, (𝑑𝑥 ) is obtained from graph
𝐵𝐵
Thermal conductivity at section AA (𝑘𝐴𝐴 )
Heat flow through section AA
𝑄̇𝐴𝐴 = 𝑄̇𝐵𝐵 + Radial heat loss between section BB and AA

2𝜋𝑘𝐿(𝑇3 −𝑇9 )
Radial heat loss between section BB and AA = 𝑟
𝑙𝑛 ( 0 )
𝑟𝑖

𝑑𝑇
𝑄̇𝐴𝐴 = −𝑘𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴𝐴 ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝐴

Model graph

Observations Tabulations and Calculations

Sl.No. Test Rod Temperature °C Shell Temp Water Water

°C Temp °C flow
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12
lit/sec
1

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Sample Calculation

Results
Thermal conductivity of the test copper rod at three different sections has been determined by
applying the Fourier law of heat conduction.

1. Thermal conductivity at section CC =

2. Thermal conductivity at section BB =
3. Thermal conductivity at section AA =

Inference

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 Experiment 5
Emissivity of a Metallic Surface

Introduction
All objects at temperatures above absolute zero emit thermal radiation. However, for any
particular wavelength and temperature the amount of thermal radiation emitted depends on the
emissivity of the object’s surface. Emissivity is defined as the ratio of the energy radiated from a
material’s surface to that radiated from a blackbody (a perfect emitter) at the same temperature
and wavelength and under the same viewing conditions. The emissivity of a surface depends not
only on the material but also on the nature of the surface. A clean and polished metal surface will
have a low emissivity, whereas a roughened and oxidized metal surface will have a high
emissivity. Emissivity is a dimensionless number varies between 0 (for a perfect reflector) and 1
(for a perfect emitter).

Aim
To determine the emissivity of a metallic surface.

Experimental setup
The experimental set up consists of two aluminum discs of equal dimension 160mm diameter
and 9mm thickness. One disc is blackened as reference (black body) with emissivity ε =1 while
the other disc is kept at its natural finish. Both the discs are heated with a mica heater
sandwiched to the disc and fitted with thermocouples for temperature measurements. The whole
set up is enclosed with vents at the bottom for natural air circulation. Heat input to the discs can
be varied by the voltage flowing through the heater and is measured by voltmeter and ammeter
provided. The enclosure temperature is measured by a thermometer.

Experimental procedure
• Switch ON the mains of the electrical supply to the apparatus.
• Select switch for black disc heating and vary the voltage to around 110 volts.
• Select switch for metal disc heating and vary the voltage to around 110 volts.
• Adjust the power input to the heater so as to attain equal temperatures for both the discs.
• When steady state has reached record the temperatures of both the discs and the enclosure
temperature.
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 24
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Working Formulae

Disc surface temperature = Ts

Heat input to black body = Qb = VI W
Heat input to test surface = Qs = VI W

By energy balance,
Qb = Qb conv + Qb cond + Qb rad

Where, Qb conv Qb cond Qb rad are convective, conductive and radiative losses from the black
body.

QS = QS conv + QS cond + QS rad

Where, Qs conv Qs cond Qs rad are convective, conductive and radiative losses from the test
surface.

As both the discs are of equal dimension, equal temperature and same material, conductive and
convective losses are same.
Qb − QS = Qb rad − QS rad

Qb rad = σAεb (TS4 − TE4 ) and QS rad = σAεS (TS4 − TE4 )

Qb − QS = σA(TS4 − TE4 )(εb − εS )

⇒ σA(TS4 − TE4 )(1 − εS ) ∵ εb = 1

Q −Q
εS = 1 − σA(Tb 4 −TS4 )
S E

Where, A is the surface area of the test disc and ‘σ’ is Stefan Boltzmann constant which is equals
to 5.67 x 10−8 W/m2 K 4 .

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Observations Tabulations and Calculations

SET-1

Disc Power input Surface Enclosure ε

Voltage (V) Current (A) Temperature °C Temperature °C
Test

Black

SET-2
Disc Power input Surface Enclosure ε
Voltage (V) Current (A) Temperature °C Temperature °C
Test

Black

SET-3
Disc Power input Surface Enclosure ε
Voltage (V) Current (A) Temperature °C Temperature °C
Test

Black

Sample Calculation

26
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Results
The emissivity of the test surface was determined to be

Inference

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Heat Transfer Lab
 Experiment 6
Heat Transfer coefficient of Forced Convection

Introduction
Convection heat transfer is the energy transfer which takes place between a solid surface and a
fluid with macroscopic or bulk motion by virtue of temperature difference between them.
Depending on the source that initiates and maintains the bulk motion of the fluid, convection
heat transfer is classified into forced convection and natural (or free) convection. Source of bulk
motion in forced convection is by some external means, such as a fan, pump, blower or wind
where as in free convection it is by buoyant force which arises from density difference caused by
temperature variation in the fluid. Many engineering applications widely depend on convective
heat transfer for their intended purpose. Cooling towers, refrigeration and air conditioning
condensers, automobile radiators are a few which depend on convective heat transfer.

Aim
To determine the heat transfer coefficient in a forced convection heat transfer system.

Experimental set up
The experimental set up consists of a circular MS pipe of 33mm internal diameter and 500mm in
length. An industrial blower forces atmospheric air to flow through the pipe, which has a heater
placed downstream. Temperatures of the heated air at different locations are measured by
thermocouples and the discharge of air is measured by a orifice of diameter 22mm connected to a
U tube manometer. According to Newton’s law of cooling, convection heat transfer,

𝑄 = ℎ𝐴𝑠 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
Where, h = heat transfer coefficient in W/m2K
As = surface area m2
Ts = surface temperature °C
𝑇∞ = bulk mean temperature °C

Experimental procedure
• Switch ON the mains of the electrical supply.
• Switch ON the heater and adjust the dimmerstat to around 110 volts.
• Switch ON the blower motor and adjust the flow control valve for a particular discharge.
• Observe the temperature readings till steady state has reached and record the values.
• Repeat the procedure for different discharges of air.

28
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 29
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Working Formulae
𝑃
Density of air 𝜌𝑎 = 𝑅𝑇𝑎
𝑎
𝜌𝑤
Equivalent air column height ℎ𝑎 = 𝑥 ℎ𝑤
𝜌𝑎

Discharge of air 𝑄𝑎 = 𝑐𝑑 𝐴𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 √2𝑔ℎ𝑎

Diameter of orifice = 22 mm
Mass flow rate of air 𝑚̇ = 𝑉𝑎̇ 𝑥 𝜌𝑎

̇
𝑉𝑎
Velocity of air Va = A
pipe

Heat gained by air 𝑄̇ = 𝑚̇𝑐𝑝,𝑎 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )

Heat lost due to radiation 𝑄̇𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ε σ 𝐴𝑆 (𝑇𝑆4 − 𝑇𝑚4 )

Where, ε = emissivity of pipe = 0.4

σ = Stefan Boltzmann constant = 5.67 x 10−8
𝐴𝑠 = Surface area m2
𝑇𝑠 = Surface Mean temperature °C
𝑇𝑚 = Bulk Mean Temperature °C

𝑄̇ −𝑄̇𝑟𝑎𝑑
Convection heat Transfer coefficient ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣,𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑡 = A W/m2 K
s (Ts −Tm )
Diameter of pipe = 33 mm
Length of pipe = 500 mm

Heat Transfer coefficient through empirical relations

𝑉𝐷
Reynolds number 𝑅𝑒𝐷 = ⇒ if > 2300 turbulent flow
𝜈
ℎ𝐷
From Dittus-Boelter equation, 𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 0.023 𝑥 𝑅𝑒 0.8 𝑃𝑟 0.4 = 𝑘
𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝐿
When 0.6< 𝑃𝑟 < 60, Re > 10000, > 60
𝐷

30
Heat Transfer Lab
Observations Tabulations and Calculations

SET-1: Discharge : fully opened condition

Sl Volt Amps Temperature Readings Manometer Mean Temp

No V I Head cm °C
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 Ts Tm
1

SET 2: Discharge: partially opened condition

Sl Volt Amps Temperature Readings Manometer Mean Temp

No V I Head cm °C
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇3 𝑇4 𝑇5 𝑇6 𝑇7 𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑚
1

Sample Calculations

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Heat Transfer Lab
Result
The heat transfer coefficient of air at forced convective conditions were determined as follows.

1. At full discharge heat transfer coefficient

hexpt =
hempirical =

2. At partial discharge heat transfer coefficient

hexpt =
hempirical =

Inference

32
Heat Transfer Lab
 Experiment 8
Effectiveness of Plate Heat Exchanger
Introduction
Plate heat exchanger are those that uses metal plates to transfer heat between two fluids. This has
a major advantage over a conventional shell and tube heat exchanger. In a plate heat exchanger,
the fluids are exposed to a much larger surface area because the fluids spread out over the plates.
This facilitates the transfer of heat, and greatly increases the speed of the temperature change.
Plate heat exchanger is well suited to transferring heat between medium and low pressure fluids.
The plates produce an extremely large surface area, which allows for the fastest possible heat
transfer. The troughs in the plate create turbulent flow in the liquid to maximize heat transfer in
the exchanger. A high degree of turbulence can be obtained at low flow rates, and high heat
transfer coefficient can be achieved in a plate heat exchanger.

Aim
To determine the effectiveness of a Plate Heat Exchanger.

Construction
Plate heat exchanger consists a series of rectangular corrugated plates which are clamped
together to form narrow parallel plate channel. Grooves provided along the periphery of the plate
direct the fluid appropriately. Each plate has flow ports in the corners, which are lined up with
the inlet and outlet nozzles located in the end covers. Each fluid enters at a corner of one end
through the inlet nozzle and passes through alternate channels. The plates are stamped out from
stainless steel 316 L grade and has a total surface area of 0.578 m2.

Experimental procedure
• Switch ON the power to the water heater.
• Open the water supply valve for both hot side and cold side and maintain a constant flow.
• Observe the temperatures of inlet and outlet for both hot and cold side and when steady
state has reached record the observations.
• Repeat for varying flow rates.

33
Heat Transfer Lab
 34
Heat Transfer Lab
\Working Formulae
Heat collected by cold water Qc = mc Cpw Tcw
Heat lost by hot water Qh = mh Cpw ∆Thw

Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)

(𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜) − (𝑇ℎ𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖)

LMTD = 𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜
𝑙𝑛( )
𝑇ℎ𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖

∆T = Correction factor (F) × LMTD

𝑄ℎ
Overall heat transfer coefficient U =
𝐴×∆𝑇

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑚ℎ ×𝐶𝑝×(𝑇ℎ𝑖−𝑇ℎ𝑜)

Effectiveness = =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑚×𝐶𝑝×(𝑇ℎ𝑖−𝑇𝑐𝑖)

Where, m x Cp = smallest of mh and mc

Observation Tabulations and Calculations

SI Cold Water Side Hot Water Side

No
Tci◦C Tco◦C ṁckg/s Thi◦C Tho◦C ṁhkg/s

35
Heat Transfer Lab
Sample Calculations

Result
The effectiveness of the Plate Heat Exchanger was found to be

Inference

36
Heat Transfer Lab
 Experiment 9
Combined Convection and Radiation Heat Transfer
Introduction
The combined convection and radiation system has been designed to demonstrate heat transfer
from a solid surface to its surroundings. A hot surface loses heat to its surroundings by the
combined heat transfer modes of convection and radiation. In practice, these modes are difficult
to isolate and, therefore, the analysis of the combined effects provides a meaningful result. The
heated surface studied here is a horizontal cylinder, which can be operated in free convection or
forced convection at variable air velocities. Measurements of the surface temperature and the
electrical power supplied to it allow the combined effects of radiation and convection to be
compared with theoretical values.

Aim
To determine the combined convective and radiative heat transfer from a cylindrical surface at
varying air flow velocities.

Experimental set up
The experimental set up consists of a cylindrical duct mounted on the discharge of a base
mounted centrifugal blower. In the middle of the duct is a hot wire anemometer that allows the
air velocity within the duct to be measured. At the top of the duct is mounted an electrically
heated cylinder. The mounting arrangement of the cylinder ensures that the heat loss by
conduction to the wall of the duct is minimized. A thermocouple attached close to the surface of
the cylinder provides temperature measurement. The surface of the cylinder is coated with a matt
black finish which gives an emissivity close to 1.0. The heater in the cylinder is rated at
approximately 100 Watts at 240 volts AC. The air velocity is controlled by the use of an intake
butterfly valve. The free stream air temperature is measured by a duct mounted thermocouple.
The cylinder diameter is 10 mm and is 70 mm long.

Experimental procedure
• Switch ON the mains of the electrical supply.
• Rotate the voltage control clockwise to increase the voltage.
• Turn ON the main switch and the fan switch for forced convection mode.
• Adjust the butterfly valve (throttle valve) to achieve different air flow velocity.
• Allow the system to reach stability and record the readings.
• Repeat experiment for different heater input.
• Once the experimental procedure is complete, turn OFF the power and leave the fan
running for a short duration till the heated cylinder is cooled.

37
Heat Transfer Lab
 38
Heat Transfer Lab
Working Formulae
Heat Input 𝑄𝐼 = 𝑉𝐼 Watts

Heat lost by radiation 𝑄𝑅 = ℎ𝑅 𝐴𝑠 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

Where, AS = πDL
𝑇 4 2 −𝑇 4 1
ℎ𝑅 = ∈ 𝜎
𝑇2 −𝑇1

Heat lost by convection 𝑄𝐹 = ℎ𝐹 𝐴𝑠 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

𝑘
ℎ𝐹 = 𝑁𝑢
𝑟

0.62𝑅𝑒 0.5 𝑃𝑟 0.33 𝑅𝑒 0.5

𝑁𝑢 = 0.3 + × (1 + ( ) )
0.4 .660.25 28200
(1 + ( 𝑃𝑟 ) )

𝑈𝑒𝐷
where, Re = 𝑣

𝑄𝑇 = 𝑄𝑅 + 𝑄𝐹

Where, hR = Radiative heat transfer coeffieient W/m2 K

AS = Surface area of the heating cylinder m2
D = Diameter of cylinder = 10 mm
L = Length of cylinder = 70 mm
s = emissivity of cylinder surface = 0.95
σ = Stefan Boltzmann constant = 5.67 × 10−8W/m2 K4
hF = Convective heat transfer coeffieient W/m2 K
k = Thermal conductivity of air at T1 W/m K
Nu = Nusselt number
Pr = Prandtl number at T1
Re = Reynold number
ν = Kinematic viscosity of air at T1 m2/s
Ue = Effective velocity of air = Ua × 1.22 m/s

39
Heat Transfer Lab
Observations Tabulations and Calculations

Sl Volts Amps T1◦C T2◦C

No V I

40
Heat Transfer Lab
Sample Calculations

Result
The combined convective and radiative heat transfer of air at forced convective conditions were
determined as follows.

Inference

41
Heat Transfer Lab
 Experiment 10
Heat Transfer coefficient of Film and Drop wise condensation
Introduction
The use of steam both for power production and to convey heat has a long history and its use in
these fields is likely to continue into the foreseeable future. In all applications, the steam must be
condensed as it transfers heat to a cooling medium which could be the cold water in the
condensers of a generating station. During condensation very high heat fluxes are possible and
provided the heat can be quickly transferred from the condensing surface into the cooling
medium. Vapour may condense onto a cooled surface in two distinct modes known as film wise
and drop wise. For the same temperature difference between the vapour and the surface, drop
wise condensation is several more times effective than film wise. However it involves special
surface finishes or treatment in order to maintain drop wise condensation and for this reason,
though desirable, it seldom occurs in real plant operation.

Drop wise condensation

The process of drop wise condensation is enhanced by the special water cooled condenser
surface finish that prevents wetting of the surface. Condensation then occurs in droplets which
grow and fall under gravity. These falling droplets wipe the surface clean ready for more droplets
to form. This continuous cleaning puts the water cooled surface in direct contact with the vapour.

Film wise condensation

The film wise condenser is not specially treated and allows condensation to form as a film. This
effectively grows and runs down the condenser, gaining thickness as it falls. The film effectively
acts as a resistance to heat transfer, as heat must be conducted through this film to the internal
cooling water.

Aim
To determine the heat transfer coefficients of film and drop wise condensation.

Experimental set up
The lower cover houses an electric heating element (heat input-0.4 kW to 3kW regulated by a
manual triac control), a thermocouple to measure the saturation temperature of the water and a
combined filling and draining valve. The upper cover housed two water cooled copper
condensers, one of which is gold plated to promote drop wise condensation, and the other is in its
natural state to give film wise condensation. The cover is fitted with a pressure relief valve, a
pressure switch and to an air extraction system. The mean metal temperature is obtained without
the use of external thermocouples. The water flow rate through the condenser is measured by
flow meters which are fitted with control valves.
A water jet vacuum pump is used intermittently to draw air (plus a certain amount of steam)

42
Heat Transfer Lab
from the chamber. Before entering the pump, the mixture is allowed to cool slightly so that some
of the steam condenses. The condensate is removed by a separator and turned to the chamber,
while the saturated air passes to the vacuum pump. A multi-point electronic thermometer
indicates all important temperatures and the rate of heat transfer is calculated from the water
flow rate and its temperature rise.

43
Heat Transfer Lab
Specifications
Steam Chamber Thick walled glass cylinder with flared ends and P.T.F.E.
seals to nickel plated brass cylinder covers.
Two water cooled mounted in upper cylinder cover.
Dimensions:12.7 mm external dia. x 120mm length.
Fabricated from copper and brass.
Drop wise condenser gold plated, Film wise condenser
Condensers natural finish.
Each condenser shell is fitted with three thermocouples
connected to measure the mean metal temperature and two
thermocouples to measure the inlet and outlet water
temperatures, respectively.
Heating Coiled 3 kW electric heating element.
Element Triac control to vary heat input from 0.4 to 3.0 kW.
Air Extraction Air cooler, separator and water jet vacuum pump with the
System necessary valves.
Temperature sensors at all salient points. Pressure sensor to
Instrumentation measure chamber pressure.
Flowmeter to measure water flow rate.

Experimental procedure
• Ensure that the main switch is in the OFF position.
• Turn the power regulator knobs fully counter clockwise to set power to minimum.
• Ensure valves V1 to V6 are closed.
• Fill the chamber with distilled water until the water level stays between the heaters and
baffle plates.
• Adjust the water flow rate to the condenser by controlling the valves.
• Turn the main and heater switch ON. Set the heater power by varying the variac.
• Heat up the water to boiling point until pressure reaches 1.02 to 1.10 bar. Open valve V1,
followed by V5 for 1 minute to vacuum out the air inside the chamber.
• After removal of air close the valves. Let the system stabilize and then record the
temperatures at the salient points.

44
Heat Transfer Lab
Working Formulae
Heat removed from condenser 𝑄 = 𝑚̇𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇
Mass flow rate of cold water, 𝑚̇ = 𝜌 𝑣̇
(note: here 𝜌 is calculated for cold water outlet)
𝑄
Heat Transfer coefficient ℎ =
𝐴𝑠(𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 −𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 )

Heat Transfer coefficient empirical

Where, 𝑚̇= mass flow rate of water in kg/s

Cp = specific heat of water at constant pressure 4.180 kJ/kgK
As = surface area of condenser in m2
D = diameter of condenser = 12.7 mm
L = length of condenser = 98 mm
k = thermal conductivity of water W/mK
ρ = density of water kg/m3
hfg = latent heat of vapourisation of water J/kg
µ = dynamic viscosity of water Ns/m2

Observations Tabulations and Calculations

Water Flow Condenser Inlet Condenser Outlet Saturation Surface
Rate lpm Temperature Temperature Temperature Temperature
Tin ◦C ◦
Tout C Tsat ◦C Tsurf ◦C

Sample Calculations
45
Heat Transfer Lab
Result
The heat transfer coefficient of film and drop wise condensation was found to be

Inference

46
Heat Transfer Lab
 Experiment 11
Performance Test on Vapour Compression Refrigeration System
Introduction
Vapour compression refrigeration systems are the most commonly used among all refrigeration
systems. As the name implies, these systems belong to the general class of vapour cycles,
wherein the working fluid (refrigerant) undergoes phase change at least during one process. In a
vapour compression refrigeration system, refrigeration is obtained as the refrigerant evaporates at
low temperatures. The input to the system is in the form of mechanical energy required to run the
compressor. Hence these systems are also called as mechanical refrigeration systems. Vapour
compression refrigeration systems are available to suit almost all applications with the
refrigeration capacities ranging from few Watts to few megawatts. A wide variety of refrigerants
can be used in these systems to suit different applications, capacities etc.

Aim
To determine the performance of Vapour compression refrigeration system.

Theory
A simple vapour compression refrigeration system consists of an
evaporater, compressor, condenser and an expansion valve. The
cycle consists of four processes
• 1-2: Isentropic compression
• 2-3: Constant pressure heat rejection
• 3-4: Throttling
• 4-1: Constant pressure heat absorption
In an ideal VCR cycle, the refrigerant enters the compressor at
state 1 as saturated vapour and is compressed isentropically to the
condenser pressure. The temperature of the refrigerant increases
during this isentropic compression process to well above the surrounding temperature. The
refrigerant then enters the condenser as superheated vapour at state 2 and leaves as saturated
liquid at state 3 as a result of heat rejection to the surrounding. The saturated liquid refrigerant at
state 3 is throttled to evaporator pressure by passing through an expansion valve. The
temperature of the refrigerant drops below the temperature of the refrigerated space during this
process. The refrigerant enters the evaporator at state 4 as a low quality saturated mixture, and it
completely evaporates by absorbing heat from the refrigerated space. The refrigerant leaves the
evaporator as saturated vapour and enters the compressor, completing the cycle.

47
Heat Transfer Lab
 48
Heat Transfer Lab
Experimental setup
The set up includes, in addition to the basic components, an accumulator between the evaporator
and the compressor and a receiver between the condenser and the expansion valve. The
accumulator ensures that only vapour refrigerant enters the compressor. The receiver is used to
store the excess refrigerant in liquid form so that it can be used when the load increases. The
pressure and temperature at the four salient points are measured by the gauges provided.
The refrigerant vapour coming from the evaporator is compressed isentropically from the
evaporator pressure to the condenser pressure. This compressed vapour is condensed in the
condenser at constant pressure and the liquid thus obtained is stored in the receiver. The liquid
refrigerant is expanded to the evaporator pressure by thermostatic expansion valve. In the
thermostatic expansion valve the amount of refrigerant throttled is regulated by the feeler bulb
connected to the evaporator exit. As the load increases the degree of super heat increases which
in turn makes the expansion valve to supply more refrigerant and thereby reducing the degree of
super heat. The evaporator is situated in a closed cold storage. It has insulated walls and the load
on the system is the heat to be carried away from the cold storage. Artificial load is provided by
means of four electric heaters.

Experimental procedure
• The refrigerant flow path is kept open and the compressor is started.
• The condenser and evaporator fans are due started.
• The cold storage is kept well closed and heaters in the cold storage are switched ON.
• After about 15 minutes when steady state has reached the pressures and temperatures at
the salient points are recorded.
• Energy meter readings of the compressor and heater are recorded. The cold storage and
ambient temperatures are recorded.

Working Formulae

Actual work input from compressor

Where, n2 = number of compressor energy meter disc revolutions

t2 = time taken for n2 revolutions of energy meter disc in sec
K2 = energy meter constant of compressor 1500 rev/kWhr
𝑅𝑎
Actual COP𝑎 =
𝑊𝑎
Theoretical refrigeration capacity Rth = h1− h4 kJ/kg
Theoretical work input Wth = h2− h1 kJ/kg

𝑅𝑡ℎ
Theoretical COP𝑡ℎ =
𝑊𝑡ℎ

49
Heat Transfer Lab
Observations Tabulations and Calculations

Single Double
Measurements
Heater Heater
Evaporator Temperature TE ◦C
Compressor Inlet Temperature T1 ◦C
Compressor Exit Temperature T2 ◦C
Compressor Inlet Pressure P1
Compressor Exit Pressure P2

Condenser Exit Temperature T3 ◦C

Condenser Exit Pressure P3

Expansion Valve Exit Temperature T4 ◦C

Expansion Valve Exit Pressure P4
Compressor energy meter time t1 sec
Heater energy meter time t2 sec

50
Heat Transfer Lab
Sample Calculations

Result
The actual and theoretical COP of the VCR system was found to be
Actual COPa =
Theoretical COPth =

Inference

51
Heat Transfer Lab
 Study of Fuel Cells
Aim
To study basic principles and working of fuel cells

Theory
A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into
electricity through an electro chemical reaction of hydrogen containing fuel with oxygen or
another oxidizing agent. Fuel cells are different from batteries in requiring a continuous source
of fuel and oxygen.

Fig.Proton - Conducting fuel cell

Types of Fuel Cells

• Polymer electrolytic membrane fuel cell.
• Direct methanol fuel cell
• Alkaline fuel cell.
• Phosphoric acid fuel cell.
• Molten carbonate fuel cell.
• Solid oxide fuel cell.
• Reversible fuel cell etc.

Chemical Reactions
Anode: 2H2 → 4H++4e-
Cathode: O2 + 4H+ + 4e- → 2H2O
52
Heat Transfer Lab
 Overall; 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

Advantages
• H2 is a very abundant element which is primarily used in fuel cells
• H2 has the highest energy constant.
• H2 is non-polluting element.
• H2 is a reusable fuel source.
• Reduces dependence on natural gas.

Disadvantages
• Storage of H2 is an issue due to its high combustibility.
• H2 is currently very expensive because it is difficulty to generate and handle
• it can be stored at moderate temperature and pressure in a tank containing a metal
hydroxide or carbon.
• H2 is very light, and it gets dispersed in air very quickly. Therefore, on board storage is a
major issue.

Result

53
Heat Transfer Lab
 Study of Phase Change Material

Aim
To study and understand basic principle behind PCM (Phase Change Material)

Theory
The principle of thermal energy storage with reference to phase change material (PCM) is very
simple. When heat transferred to the PCM, it undergoes phase change and energy stored in it as
latent heat. The stored energy is used for the needs during the peak demand hours. Thermal
energy storage systems can be designed using chilled water, ice and macro encapsulated PCM. In
general, PCMs are substances with a high latent heat of fusion which, melting and solidifying at
a certain temperature, can store and release large amounts of energy. Energy is absorbed when
the material changes from solid to liquid and vice versa. Thus, PCMs are classified as latent heat
storage (LHS) units. Variation of energy of the PCM against its temperature will be as shown in
Fig. below.

Liquid

Energy
storage
(J)
Phase change

Solid

Tm (melting point)
Temperature (K)
(K)(°C)
Fig. Energy Storage in Phase Change Materials

Based on the nature of material, PCMs are classified into 3 types:

1. Organic PCMs: Paraffin carbohydrate and lipid derivative

54
Heat Transfer Lab
2. Inorganic PCMs: Salt hydrates
3. Eutectic PCMs: organic-inorganic, inorganic-inorganic compounds etc

Advantages of PCMs
• Higher energy density and improved performance
• Grid load stabilization by shifting the peak demand to low demand period
• Reduce air pollution and carbon emission
• Increase energy storage capacity
• Can be engineered with minimum equipment cost
• Completely passive thermal transfer process
• Stores renewable energy

Result

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Heat Transfer Lab