HT & DoM Lab Manual

LAB MANUAL
HEAT TRANSFER AND DYNAMICS OF MACHINES

LABORATORY
JAI BHARATH COLLEGE OF

MANAGEMENT AND ENGINEERING
TECHNOLOGY
A DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL
JB Campus, Arackappady, Vengola.P.O, ENGINEERING
Perumbavoor, Cochin – 683556 MANUAL ON
HEAT TRANSFER AND DYNAMICS OF MACHINES
LABORATORY
Prepared by
ARUNKUMAR.V
Lab Instructor
Mechanical Engineering Department
JBCMET, ARACKAPPADY
CONTENTS
Sl.No. TOPIC PAGE NO.
Heat Transfer Experiments

PARALLEL FLOW / COUNTER FLOW HEAT
1 5
EXCHANGER
2 STEPHAN BOLTZMAN APPARATUS 11
3 EMISSIVITY MEASUREMENT APPARATUS 17
4 COMPOSITE WALL APPARATUS 21

5 HEAT TRANSFER BY NATURAL CONVECTION 25
6 HEAT TRANSFER BY FORCED CONVECTION 31
7 CALIBRATION OF PRESSURE GAUGE 39
8 CALIBRATION OF THERMOCOUPLE 43
TERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF INSULATING
9 45
POWDER
10 HEAT PIPE DEMONSTRATER 49
11 REFRIGERATION TEST RIG 55
12 AIR-CONDITIONING TEST RIG 61
Dynamics of Machines Experiments
UNDAMPED FREE VIBRATION OF EQUIVALENT
13 67
SPRING MASS SYSTEM
DAMPED FORCED VIBRATION OF SPRING
14 71
MASS SYSTEM
15 WHIRLING OF SHAFT 75
16 WATT GOVERNOR 79
17 MOTORIZED GYROSCOPE 85
TABULAR COLUMN
Mass flow rate Mass flow rate Temperature of Temperature of
of Hot water of Cold water cold water in 0C hot water in 0C
Type of flow
mh mc Tci Tco Thi Tho
( cm3/ sec ) ( cm3/ sec )
Parallel flow
Counter flow
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
4 | JBCMET , Arackappady Department of Mechanical

Engineering
Ex. No. 1
Date:
PARALLE FLOW / COUNTER FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER
AIM
To determine the Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference ( LMTD ) , Overall Heat
Transfer Coeffcient and Effectiveness for Parallel and Counter flow Heat Exchanger.
APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of a concentric tube heat exchanger. The hot fluid namely hot water is
obtained from the Geyser ( heater capacity 3 KW ) and it flows through the inner tube. The
cold fluid i.e. cold water can be admitted at any one of the ends enabling the heat exchanger
to run as a parallel flow or as a counter flow exchanger. Measuring jar is used for measuring
flow rate of cold and hot water. This can be adjusted by operating the different valves
provided. Temperature of fluid can be measured using thermocouples with digital display
indicator. The outer tube is provided with insulation to minimize the heat loss to the
surroundings.
SPECIFICATION
Specimen material : Copper tube
Size of the specimen : Ø 0.0125 m × 1.5 m long
Outer shell material : G.I.
Size of the Outer shell : Ø 0.04 m
Geyser capacity : 1 ltr , 3 KW
THEORY
Heat exchangers are devices used for exchange of heat between two fluids that are at
different temperatures. They are used in many applications like Power systems , Food
processing systems , Refrigeration and air conditioning systems , Chemical plants ,
Condensers and boilers in staem plants , Inter coolers and pre-heaters , Automobile radiators ,
Regenerators , Aeronautical applications etc.
Classification
1. Based on the nature of heat exchange process
i. Direct contact type - Here the heat transfer takes place by direct mixing of
hot and cold fluids
ii. Indirect contact heat exchangers - Here two fluids are separated through a
metallic wall , eg: Regenerators , Recuperators etc.
2. Based on the relative direction of fluid flow
i. Parallel flow heat exchanger - Here both hot and cold fluids flow in the same
direction

Engineering
ii. Counter flow hear exchanger - Here hot and cold fluids flow in opposite
direction
iii. Cross flow heat exchangers - Here two fluids cross one another
Sample Calculation
Parallel flow
1. θ1 = Thi - Tci =
θ2 = Tho - Tco =
θ2−θ1
LMTD = θ2 =
ln
θ1
2. mass flow rate of hot water , mh = 35 cm3/s = 0.035 kg / s

Specific heat of hot water, Cph = 4186 J / kg .K
Inlet temperature of hot fluid , Thi =
Outlet temperature of hot fluid , Tho =
Heat transfer rate from hot water , Qh = mh Cph ( Thi - Tho ) =
mass flow rate of cold water , mc = 50 cm3/s = 0.05 kg / s

Specific heat of cold water, Cpc = 4186 J / kg .K
Inlet temperature of cold fluid , Tci =
Outlet temperature of cold fluid , Tco =
Heat transfer rate from cold water , Qc = mc Cpc ( Tci - Tco ) =
Q h+ Q c
Q =
2
Outer diameter of tube , do =

length of the tube , l =
Ao = π d o l =
Overall heat transfer coefficient based on outer surface area of inner tube
Q
Uo = =
A o × LMTD
Thi – T ho
3. Effectiveness , ε = T h i – T ci =

Engineering
The Recuperators or surface heat exchangers in which two fluids donot come in direct contact
with each other are most commonly used. In a double pipe heat exchanger either of the hot or
cold fluid occupies the annular space and the other fluid moves through the inner pipe. If the
fluids move in the same direction the arrangement is called Parallel flow. In the Counter flow
arrangement both fluids move in opposite direction.
Equations used
1. Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference
θ2−θ1
LMTD = θ2 0
C
ln
θ1
θ1 = Thi - Tci and θ2 = Tho - Tco for parallel flow heat exchanger
θ1 = Tho - Tci and θ2 = Thi - Tco for counter flow heat exchanger
2. Heat transfer rate from hot water , Qh = mh Cph ( Thi - Tho ) Watts
mh = mass flow rate of hot water in kg/ sec = 0.035 kg /s
Cph = Specific heat of hot water = 4186 J / kg .K
Thi = Inlet temperature of hot fluid in 0C
Tho = Outlet temperature of hot fluid in 0C
Heat gained by Cold fluid , Qc = mc Cpc ( Tci - Tco ) Watts

mc = mass flow rate of cold fluid in kg/ sec = 0.05 kg /s
Cpc = Specific heat of cold fluid = 4186 J / kg .K
Tci = Inlet temperature of cold fluid in 0C
Tco = Outlet temperature of cold fluid in 0C
Q h+ Q c
Q = Watts
2
Q
Uo = W / m2. 0K
A o × LMTD
Ao = πdo l m2
d0 = Outer diameter of tube in m
l = length of the tube in m

Engineering
T hi – T ho
3. Effectiveness , ε = T –T for parallel flow heat exchanger
hi ci
T co – T ci
= for counter flow heat exchanger
T hi – T ci
Counter flow
1. θ1 = Tho - Tci =
θ2 = Thi - Tco =
θ2−θ1
LMTD = θ2 =
ln
θ1
2. mass flow rate of hot water , mh = 35 cm3/s = 0.035 kg / s

Specific heat of hot water, Cph = 4186 J / kg .K
Inlet temperature of hot fluid , Thi =
Outlet temperature of hot fluid , Tho =
Heat transfer rate from hot water , Qh = mh Cph ( Thi - Tho ) =
mass flow rate of cold water , mc = 50 cm3/s = 0.05 kg / s

Specific heat of cold water, Cpc = 4186 J / kg .K
Inlet temperature of cold fluid , Tci =
Outlet temperature of cold fluid , Tco =
Heat transfer rate from cold water , Qc = mc Cpc ( Tci - Tco ) =
Q h+ Q c
Q =
2
Outer diameter of tube , do =

length of the tube , l =
Ao = π d o l =
Q
Uo = =
A o × LMTD

Engineering
T co – T ci
3. Effectiveness , ε = T –T =
hi ci
PROCEDURE
1. First switch ON the unit panel
2. Start the flow of cold water through the annulus and run the exchanger as counter
flow or parallel flow
3. Switch ON the Geyser provided on the panel and allow water to flow through the
inner tube by requlating the valve
4. Adjust the flow rate of hot water to 35 cm3/s and cold water to 50 cm3 /s by using
rotameters and valves
5. Keep the flow rate same till steady conditions are reached
6. Note down the temperature on hot and cold water sides. Also note the flow rate
7. Repeat the experiment for different flow rates and for different temperatures. The
same method is followed for parallel flow also.
Precaution
Switch ON the heater only after starting the water supply
RESULT
Parallel Flow
LMTD =
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient , Uo =
Effectiveness , ε =
Counter Flow
LMTD =
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient , Uo =
Effectiveness , ε =

Engineering
INFERENCE
TABULAR COLUMN
Thermocouple Temperature of
Copper hemisphere
in 0C
T1
T2
T3
T4
Temperature – time response of test disc :

Time Temperature Temperature
t ( sec ) T5 ( 0C ) T5 ( K )

Engineering
Ex. No. 2
Date:
STEFAN BOLTZMAN APPARATUS
AIM
To determine the value of Stefan Boltzman constant for radiation heat transfer
To plot the graph : Temperature of test disk vs Time.
APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of a flanged copper hemisphere fixed on a flat non-conducting plate.
Atest disc made of copper is fixed to the plate. Thus the test disc is completely enclosed by
the hemisphere. The outer surface of the hemisphere is enclosed in a vertical water jacket
used to heat the hemisphere to a suitable constant temperature. Three Cr-Al thermocouples
are attatched at four strategic places on the surface of the hemisphere to obtain the
temperatures. The disc is mounted on an ebonite rod which is fitted in a hole drilled at the
center of the base plate. Another Cr-Al thermocouple is fixed to the disc to record it’s
temperature. Water is filled in the SS water container with immersion heater kept on top of
panel.
SPECIFICATION
Specimen material : Copper
Size of the disc : Ø 0.02 m × 0.0008 m thickness
Base Plate : Ø 0.25 m × 0.012 m thickness ( hylam )
Heater : 1.5 KW capacity , immersion type
Copper bowl : Ø 0.2 m
Digital temperature indicator : 0 - 199.9 0C
Thermocouples used : 3 numbers on hemisphere
Stop watch : Digital type
Overhead tank : SS , approx. 10 litre capacity

Engineering
Water jacket : Ø 0.23 m , SS
Mass of test disc : 0.0196 kg
THEORY
Stephan Boltzman law states that : “ The total emissive power of a perfect black body is
proportional to fourth power of the absolute temperature of the black body surface “
Eb = σ T4
σ = Stephan Boltzman constant = 5.6697 × 10
-8 2
W / m .K
4
Sample Calculation
1. mass of test disk , m =

Specific heat of copper , Cp = 385 J / kg .K
dT
. obtained from graph =
dt
dT
Rate of change of heat capacity of the disc = m Cp =
dt
2. diameter of the disc , d =

π 2
Area of the disc , A =
4 d =
Temperature of the disc before inserting to test chamber , Td = T4 + 273 =
T 1 +T 2+T 3
Average temperature of hemisphere , Tavg = + 273 =
3
4 4
Net energy radiated on the disc = σ A ( Tavg - Td ) =
dT
m Cp
3. Stefan Boltzman Constant , σ = dt =
4 4
A ×(T avg −T d )

Engineering
Equations used
dT
1. Rate of change of heat capacity of the disc = m Cp
dt
Where
m = mass of test disc in kg
Cp = Specific heat of copper = 385 J / kg .K
dT
. is obtained by ploting the graph : Temperature of the disc vs Time
dt
which passes through/nearer to all points
2. Net energy radiated on the disc = σ A ( Tavg - Td )

4 4
Where
σ = Stephan Boltzman constant in W / m2.K4
2 π 2
A = Area of the disc in m = 4 d ; d is the diameter of the disc in m
Td = Temperature of the disc before inserting to test chamber in K ( ambient )

T 1 +T 2+T 3
Tavg = Average temperature of hemisphere = + 273 K
3

Engineering
3. Rate of change of heat capacity of the disc = Net energy radiated on the disc
dT
m Cp
dt
= σ Ad ( Tavg4 4
- Td )
Thus ‘σ ‘ can be evaluated as shown

d
m Cp T
σ = dt 2 4
W / m .K
A ×(T avg4 −T d4 )
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Engineering
PROCEDURE
Engineering
1. Remove the test disk before starting the experiment
2. Heat the water in SS container by immersion heater upto a temperature of 800C ( T4 )
3. Allow the boiling water into the container kept at the bottom containing copper
hemisphere until it is full.
4. Allow sufficient time to attain thermal equilibrium which is indicated by the four
thermocouples provided on the hemisphere
5. Insert the test disk fixed on the ebonite rod sleeve completely inside and lock it. Start
the stop clock simultaneously
6. Note down the temperature of the test disc at different short intervals of time
7. Repeat the experiment at other temperatures of the hemisphere
RESULT
Value of Stefan Boltzman Constant , σ =
INFERENCE
TABULAR COLUMN
Sl Heat input Temperature of Temperature of Chamber
Engineering
No 0
Black body in C
0
Grey body in C Temperature
( Watts ) 0
( C)
V I Q= T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7
(Volts) (Amps) V×I
Ex. No. 3

Engineering
Date:
EMISSIVITY MEASUREMENT APPARATUS
AIM
To determine the Emissivity of Grey surface
APPARATUS
The experimental setup consists of two circular brass plates of identical dimensions. One of
the plates is made Black by applying a thick layer of lamp black while the other plate whose
emissivity is to be measured is a Grey body. Heating coils are provided at the bottom of the
plates. The plates are mounted on asbestos cement sheet and kept in an enclosure to provide
undisturbed natural convection condition. Three thermocouples are mounted on each plate to
measure the average temperature. One thermocouple is in the chamber to measure the
ambient temperature or chamber air temperature. Both discs are heated simultaneously. The
heat input can be varied with the help of dimmerstat for both the plates and can be measured
separately by a common digital voltmeter and ammeter by using a selector switch.
SPECIFICATION
Specimen material : Brass
Specimen size : Ø 0.15 m , 0.006 m thickness ( grey and black body )
Voltmeter : Digital type , 0 – 300 V
Ammeter : Digital type , 0 – 3 Amps
Dimmerstat : 0 – 200 V , 2 amps
0
Temperature indicator : Digital type , 0 – 300 C , K type
Thermocouples used : 7 Numbers
Heater : Sandwiched type Nichrome heater , 400 W
THEORY
Any hot body maintained by a constant heat source , loses heat to surroundings by conduction
, convection and radiation. If two bodies made of same geometry are heated under identical
conditions , the heat loss by conduction and convection can be assumed same for both the
bodies, when the difference in temperatures between these two bodies is not high. In such a
case , when one body is black and the other body is grey , Emissivity can be calculated from
the values of different surface temperatures of the two bodies maintained by a constant power
source. The heat loss by radiation depends on :
a) Characteristic of the material
b) Geometry of the surface and
c) Temperature of the surface
Sample Calculation
Engineering
Heat input , Q = V × I =
T 1 +T 2+T 3
Average temperature of black body , T b = + 273 =
3
T 4+ T 5 +T 6
Average temperature of grey body , Tg = + 273 =
3
Chamber temperature , Ta = T7 + 273 =
4 4
T b −T a
Emissivity of Grey brass surface , εg = 4
T g −T a
4 =
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
T7
T1 T2 T4 T5
T3 T6
T1, T2, T3 - Black body temperature

T4, T5, T6 - Gray body temperature
T7 - Chamber temperature

Engineering
Equations used
Consider a black body and grey body with identical geometry being heated under identical
conditions , assuming conduction and convection heat loss to remain the same. Let Qb and Qg
be the heat supplied to black body and grey body respectively
If heat input to both bodies are same
i.e., Qb = Qg = Q = V × I Watts
where V and I are the respective Voltmeter ( Volt ) and Ammeter ( Amp ) readings
Then , Heat loss by radiation by black body = Hea loss by radiation by grey body
σ Ab εb ( Tb4 – Ta4 ) = σ Ag εg ( Tg4 – Ta4 )

Where
σ = Stephan Boltzman constant = 5.6697 × 10
-8 2
W / m .K
4
2
Ab and Ag are the surface area of black body and grey body respectively in m
As the geometry of two bodies are identical , Ab = Ag
εb = Emissivity of black body = 1
εg = Emissivity of grey body

T 1 +T 2+T 3
Tb = Average temperature of black body = + 273 K
3
T 4+ T 5 +T 6
Tg = Average temperature of grey body = + 273 K
3
Ta = Chamber temperature = T7 + 273 K
4 4
T b −T a
Therefore, εg = 4
T g −T a
4
PROCEDURE
1. Connect the two heaters to electric supply and switch ON the electric mains
2. Operate the dimmerstat very slowly and give same power input to both the heaters by
using/operating cam switches provided
3. When steady state is reached note down the temperaturs T1 to T7 by rotating the
temperature selection switch
4. Also note down the voltmeter and ammeter readings
5. Repeat the experiment for different heat inputs
RESULT
Emissivity of the Grey body , εg =

Engineering
INFERENCE
TABULAR COLUMN
Sl Heat input 0
Temperature readings in C
No
( Watts )
V I Q= T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
(Volts) (Amps V×I
)
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Engineering
Ex. No. 4
Date:
COMPOSITE WALL APPARATUS
AIM
To find out the total Thermal Resistance and total Thermal Conductivity of Composite slab
APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of MS pipes of different diameters and same thickness( Pipes of 2
inches and 4 inches diameter, with thickness of 3 mm ). It is insulated with glass wool. The
heating coil is placed inside the first cylinder which is connected to heater input of 230 V,
50Hz. The whole arrangement is covered by another MS pipe of 6 inch diameter and 3 mm
thickness. Length of pipe is 0.5 m. A dimmerstat is provided to vary heat input of heaters and
it is measured by a digital voltmeter and ammeter. Thermocouples are embedded between
interfaces of slabs. A digital temperature indicator is provided to measure temperature at
various points.
SPECIFICATION
1. Slab assembly arranged symmetrically on both sides of the slab
2. Nichrome heater wound on mica heater of 300 – Watt capacity
3. Dimmerstat open type , 230 V , 0-2 amp , Single phase
4. Voltmeter
5. Ammeter
Engineering
6. Digital temperature indicator
7. Enclosure size : 0.3 × 0.3 × 0.3 m
8. Slab diameter = 0.2 m
9. Thickness of mild steel = 0.02 m
10. Thickness ofm Bakelite = 0.012 m
11. Thickness of wood = 0.0 12 m
12. Total thickness of slab = 0.044 m
THEORY
Lagged pipe is made of concentric tubes with some insulating material placed
between the tubes so that the heat transfer to the surrounding is minimized. Lagged pipes are
used for many industrial applications including transfer of fluids in HVAC, boilers, etc. It can
also be used as a sound reduction wrap for noice reduction in pipes and ducts by acting as a
noice barrier. An insulating material is one which retards the heat flow with reasonable
effectiveness. Heat is transferred through insulation by conduction, convection and radiation
or the combination of these three.
Sample Calculation
1) Heat input , Q = V × I =
T 1 +T 2
TA = =
2
T 3 +T 4
TB = =
2
T 5 +T 6
TC = =
2
T 7 +T 8
TD = =
2
T A+ T D
Thermal Resistance of Slab , R = =
Q
2) Diameter of the slab , d =

π 2
Area of Slab, A = d =
4

Engineering
Thickness of slab , t =
Q ×t
Thermal Conductivity , k = W /m.K =
A ×(T ¿ ¿ A – T D ) ¿
Equations Used
1) Heat input , Q = V × I Watts
V and I are Voltmeter (Volt) and Ammeter (Amp) readings
T 1 +T 2 0 T 3 +T 4 0
TA = C : TB = C
2 2
T 5 +T 6 0 T 7 +T 8 0
TC = C : TD = C
2 2
T A+ T D 0
Thermal Resistance of Slab , R = C/W
Q
Q ×t
2) Thermal Conductivity , k = W /m.K
A ×(T ¿ ¿ A – T D )¿
Where
2 π 2
A = Area of Slab in m = 4 d
d = diameter of the slab in m

t = thickness of slab in m
PROCEDURE
1. Arrange the plates in proper fashion on both sides of heater plates
Engineering
2. Operate the box by hand press to ensure perfect contact between plates
3. Close the box by acrylic cover sheet to achieve proper environmental condition
4. Connect the equipment to a 230 V , 5 amps , 50 Hz electrical source and start the
main switch
5. By adjusting the dimmerstat knob clockwise , fix the heat input to heater to a desired
voltage
6. Take the readings of all ( 8 ) thermocouples at an interval of 10 min , until the final
steady state
7. Tabulate the readings
8. Turn the dimmerstat knob to ‘ zero ‘ position and then switch off the main
9. Repeat the experiment for different heat inputs
Precautions
a) Keep the dimmerstat to zero before starting the experiment
b) While removing plates donot disturb thermocouples
c) Use the selector switch knob and dimmer knob gently
d) Increase the voltage slowly
e) Donot increase power input above 150 V
RESULT
i. Total Thermal resistance of given slab , R =
ii. Total Thermal Conductivity of given slab , k =
INFERENCE
TABULAR COLUMN
Sl Heat input Thermocouple readings in C
0
No
( Watts )
V I Q= T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
(Volts) (Amps) V×I (Ambient
Temperature)

Engineering
Ex. No. 5
Date:
HEAT TRANSFER BY NATURAL CONVECTION
AIM
1. To determine the average Surface heat transfer coefficient for a vertical tube losing
heat by natural convection
2. To compare it with the value obtained from empirical relations
3. To calculate and plot the variations of local heat transfer coefficient along the length
of the tube
APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of a stainless steel tube fitted in a rectangular duct in vertical position.
The duct is open at the top and bottom forming an enclosure and serving the purpose of
undisturbed surroundings. One side of the duct is made of acrylic sheet ( transparent ) for
visual observation. An electrical heating element embedded in a copper tube act as the
heating source. The heat is lost from the tube to surrounding air by natural convection. The
surface of the tube is polished to minimize radiation losses. Digital temperature indicator
measures the temperature at different points with the help of seven thermocouples, including

Engineering
one for measuring surrounding temperature. The heat input to the heater is measured by
Digital Voltmeter and Digital Ammeter , which can be varied by a dimmerstat.
SPECIFICATION
Specimen : Stainless Steel tube
Size of the Specimen : I.D - 0.04 m / O.D - 0.05 m , 0.5 m length
Heater : Nichrome wire type heater along it’s length
Thermocouples used : 8 numbers
Ammeter : Digital type , 0 – 2 amps , AC
Voltmeter : Digital type , 0 – 300 Volts , AC
Dimmerstat for heating coil : 0 - 230 V , 2 amps , AC power
Enclosure with acrylic door : For visual display of test section ( fixed )
THEORY
Natural convection heat transfer takes place by movement of fluid particles within solid
surface caused by density difference between the fluid particles on account of difference in
temperature. Hence there is no external agency facing fluid over the surface. It has been
observed that the fluid adjascent to the surface gets heated, resulting in thermal expansion of
the fluid and reduction in it’s density. Subsequently a buoyancy force acts on the fluid
causing it to flow up the surface. Here the flow velocity is developed due to difference in
temperatures between fluid particles. Natural convection is used in cooling of transformers
transmission lines and rectifiers, heating of houses by stream or electrical radiations, cooling
of reactor core in nuclear power plants, cooling of electronic devices by finned heat sinks,
heat loss from steam pipe lines in power plants and heat gain in refrigerant pipe lines etc.
Sample Calculation
1. Outer diameter of tube , d =

Length of tube , L =
Surface area of tube, A = πdL =
T 1 +T 2+T 3 +T 4 +T 5+ T 6 +T 7
Surface temperature , Ts = =
7
Ambient temperature , Ta = T8 =
Heat input , Q = V×I =
Experimental heat transfer coefficient

Engineering
Q
hexp = A ×(T ¿ ¿ s – T a) ¿ =
2. Kinematic viscosity air , v =

Acceleration due to gravity , g = 9.81 m/s2
Volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion , β = 1 / T f for ideal gases
Absolute film temperature at which the properties are taken
Tf = { ( Ts + Ta ) + 273 } / 2 =
3 (T ¿ ¿ s – T a )
Grashof number , Gr = L β g ¿ =
v2
Prandtl number , Pr = ( µ Cp ) / k =
Rayleigh Number , Ra = Gr .Pr =
1/3
Nusselt number , Nu = 0.13 ( Ra ) =
Length of specimen , L =
Thermal conductivity of air , k =
Theoretical heat transfer coefficient

Nuk
hthe = =
L
Equations used
The following empirical correlations may be used to find out the heat transfer coefficient for
vertical cylinder in natural convection
1. Experimental heat transfer coefficient
Q
hexp = A ×(T ¿ s – T ) ¿ W / m2 .K
¿ a
Where
Surface area of specimen in m2, A = πdL
where d and L are the respective outer diameter and length of the tube in m
0 T 1 +T 2+T 3 +T 4 +T 5+ T 6 +T 7
Ts = Surface temperature in C =
7
0
Ta = Ambient temperature in C = T8
Engineering
Q = Heat input = V × I Watts
2. Theoretical heat transfer coefficient

Nuk 2
hthe = W / m .K
L
Where
L = Length of specimen in m
k = Thermal conductivity of air in W / m.K
¼ 5
Nu = Nusselt number = 0.53 ( Ra ) for Ra < 10
¼ 5 8
= 0.56 ( Ra ) for 10 < Ra < 10
1/3 8 12
= 0.13 ( Ra ) for 10 < Ra < 10
Ra = Rayleigh Number = Gr .Pr

3 (T ¿ ¿ s – T a )
Gr = Grashof number = L βg 2
¿
v
2
v = Kinematic viscosity air in m / s
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
β = Volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion = 1 / Tf for ideal gases
Tf = Absolute film temperature at which the properties are taken
= { ( Ts + Ta ) + 273 } / 2 K
Pr = Prandtl number = ( µ Cp ) / k
‘ Gr ‘ , ‘ Pr ‘ , ‘ k ‘ and ‘ v ‘ are obtained from properties of air table
To find out the local heat transfer coefficient

h1 = Q / A ( T 1 – Ta ) =
h2 = Q / A ( T 2 – Ta ) =
h3 = Q / A ( T 3 – Ta ) =
h4 = Q / A ( T 4 – Ta ) =
h5 = Q / A ( T 5 – Ta ) =
h6 = Q / A ( T 6 – Ta ) =
h7 = Q / A ( T 7 – Ta ) =
Engineering
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
50 mm
40mm
70
T7
70 70 T6
T1-T8-Thermocouples T8
70 T5
70
T 4 500 MM
70 T3
70 T2
40 T1
40
Experiment setup
PROCEDURE
1. Ensure that all ON/OFF switches given on the panel are OFF position
2. Ensure that variac knob is at zero position , provided on the panel
3. Now switch on the main power supply ( 220 V AC , 50 Hz )
4. Switch on the panel with the help of mains ON/OFF switch given on the panel
5. Fix the power input to the heater with the help of variac , voltmeter and ammeter
provided
6. Take thermocouple , voltmeter and ammeter readings when steady state is reached
7. When experiment is over , switch off the heater first
8. Adjust variac to zero position
9. Switch off the panel with the help of Mains ON/OFF switch given on the panel
10. Switch off the power supply to the panel

Engineering
Precautions
1. Never switch on main power supply before ensuring that all ON/OFF switches on the
panel are at OFF position
2. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 or above 200 Volts
3. Keep the dimmerstat to ‘ 0 ‘ position before start
4. Increase the voltage slowly
5. Donot increase power input above 150 V
RESULT
i. Experimental heat transfer coefficient , hexp =
ii. Theoretical heat transfer coefficient , hthe =
INFERENCE
TABULAR COLUMN
Sl Heat input Manometer Air Temperature 0
Surface Temperature in C
No Reading in
0
C
( Watts )
V I Q= hm Inlet Outlet T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
(Volts) (Amps) V×I (m) T1 T7

Engineering
Table for plotting thermocouple location vs heat transfer coefficient graph
Length ( m ) Area ( m2 ) h ( W / m2.K )
Ex. No. 6
Date:
HEAT TRANSFER BY FORCED CONVECTION
AIM
1. To determine the heat transfer coefficient and rate of heat transfer by forced
convection flow of air inside a horizontal pipe
2. To plot the graph Thermocouple location vs Heat transfer coefficient

Engineering
APPARATUS
The experimental setup consists of a blower fitted with a test pipe. The air from the blower
passes through a flow passage , heater and then to the test section. Air flow is measured by an
orifice meter placed near the test section. Alever valve is fitted in the delivery pipe in order to
regulate the air flow rate. A five band type Nichrome heater placed around the tube heats the
air and heat input is controlled by a dimmerstat. A part of heat supplied is conducted through
the pipe wall of test section and then to the flowing air by forced convection. Temperature of
air at inlet ( T1 ) and outlet ( T7 ) is measured using thermocouples. The surface temperature
of the tube wall is measured at different sections using five thermocouples embedded in the
walls. Test section is enclosed in an asbestos rope to avoid heat loss to outside.The energy
input to the heater is measured by voltmeter and ammeter. Temperatures are displayed by the
digital temperature indicator with selection switch.
SPECIFICATION
Specimen : Copper Tube
Size of the Specimen : I.D. 0.02 m , OD 0.04 m , 0.4 m length
Heater : Externally heated , Nichrome wire Band Heater
Ammeter : Digital type , 0 – 2 amps , AC
Voltmeter : Digital type , 0 – 300 Volts , AC
Electronic Dimmer : 0 – 230 V , 1.5 KW
Thermocouples used : 7 numbers
Centrifugal Blower : Single Phase 230 V , 50 Hz , 13000 rpm
Manometer : U – tube with mercury as working fluid
Orifice diameter , ‘do ‘ : 0.02 m

G.I pipe Outer diameter : 0.04 m
Sample Calculation
1.) Heat input , Q = V × I =
2
2.) Atmospheric pressure , P = 101325 N / m
Gas constant for air , R = 287 J / kg.K

Engineering
Room temperature , TR =
P
Mass density of air , ρa = RT R = 1.165 kg / m3
Mass density of mercury , ρm

3
= 13600 kg / m
Differential manometer reading , hm =

Pressure drop across orifice meter
ρm −ρa
Ha = × hm =
ρa
diameter of orifice , do =
π 2
Area of orifice , a = d =
4 o
Coefficient of discharge of orifice , Cd = 0.62
acceleration due to gravity , g = 9.81 m / s 2
Volume flow rate of air , Qa = a × Cd × √ 2 gH a =
Inner diameter of the specimen , ds =

π 2
Cross sectional area of the specimen , Ac = 4 ds =
Velocity of air in the pipe , Va = Qa / Ac =
THEORY
Convective heat transfer between a fluid and a solid surface takes place by the
movement of fluid particlaes relative to the surface. If the movement of fluid particles is
caused by means of external agency such as a pump or blower that forces the fluid over the
surface , then the process of heat transfer is called forced convection. In convection heat
transfer , there are two flow regions namely laminar and turbulent. The non-dimensional
number called Reynold’s number is used as the criterion to determine change from laminar to
turbulent flow. For smaller value of Reynold’s number , viscous forces are dominant and the
Engineering
flow is laminar. For larger values of Reynold’s number the inertia forces become dominant
and the flow is turbulent. Dittus-Boelter correlation for fully developed turbulent flow in
circular pipes is
0.8 n
Nu = 0.023 Re Pr
Where, n = 0.4 for heating of fluid
= 0.3 for cooling of fluid
Nu = Nusselt number = hds / k
Re = Reynold’s number = Vads / v
Pr = Prandtl number = µCp / k
Equations used
1. Heat input , Q = V × I Watts
P
2. Mass density of air , ρa = RT R = 1.165 kg / m3
Where, P = Atmospheric pressure = 101325 N / m2

R = Gas constant for air = 287 J / kg.K
TR = Room temperature in K
Pressure drop across orifice meter in m of air
ρm −ρa
Ha = ρa × hm
where, ρm = Mass density of mercury = 13600 kg / m3
hm = Differential manometer reading in m of mercury
3.) Kinematic viscosity of air , v =

V a× ds
Reynold’s number , Re = =
v
Thermal conductivity of air , k =

Engineering
Prandtl number , Pr = ( µ Cp ) / k =
0.8 0.3
Nu = Nusselt number = 0.023 Re Pr =
N u× k
Heat transfer coefficient , h = =
ds
T 2 +T 3+ T 4 + T 5 +T 6
4.) Average surface temperature of pipe , T s = =
5
T 1 +T 7
Mean temperature of air , Ta = =
2
Length of the specimen , L =

Surface area of the pipe , As = πdsL =
Rate of heat transfer , q = h × A s ( T s - Ta ) =
a × Cd × √ 2 gH a m / s
3
Volume flow rate of air , Qa =
π 2
where, a = Area of orifice = d ; ( do = diameter of orifice in m )
4 o

Engineering
Cd = Coefficient of discharge of orifice = 0.62
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m / s2
Velocity of air in the specimen , Va = Qa / Ac m/s

π 2
where Ac is the cross sectional area of the specimen in m2 = 4 ds
( ds is the inner diameter of specimen in m )
N u× k 2
3. Heat transfer coefficient , h = W / m .K
ds
Where
ds = Inner diameter of the specimen in m
k = thermal conductivity of air in W / m.K
0.8 0.3
Nu = Nusselt number = 0.023 Re Pr
Pr = Prandtl number
V a× ds
Re = Reynold’s number =
v
v = kinematic viscosity of air in m2/s
4. Rate of heat transfer , q = h × As ( Ts - Ta ) Watts

Where
T 2 +T 3+ T 4 + T 5 +T 6
Ts = Average surface temperature of pipe in 0C =
5
T 1 +T 7
Ta = Mean temperature of air in 0C =
2
As = Surface area of the specimen in m2 = πdsL
L = length of the pipe in m
T s+T a
Properties of air are taken at , Tm = + 273 K
2
At temperature Tm , kinematic viscosity ‘ v ‘ , Prandtl number ‘ Pr ‘ and
thermal conductivity ‘ k ‘ are taken from properties of air table

Engineering
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Engineering
PROCEDURE
1. Plug the 230 V AC mains to the main supply line and switch ON the mains
2. Put on the heater and adjust the voltage to desired value by using electronic voltage
regulator and maintain it as constant
3. Switch on the blower and regulate the flow for desired value by using electronic
regulator ( First press the switch on the blower and then control through the electronic
regulator )
4. Allow the system to stabilize for about 20 – 30 minutes and reach steady state
5. Note down all the temperatures T1 to T7 , voltmeter and ammeter readings , and
manometer readings
6. Repeat the experiment for different heat input and flow rates
Precautions
i. Keep the dimmerstat to zero position before start
ii. Increase the voltage slowly
iii. Donot increase power input above 150 V
RESULT
1. Heat transfer coefficient , h =
2. Rate of heat transfer , q =
INFERENCE

Engineering
TABULAR COLUMN
Sl Pressure in Pressure in Correction Error % Error
No Dial Gauge Digital indicator Pc - Pg Pg - Pc { ( P g – Pc ) / Pg }
Pc Pg × 100
(kg / cm2 ) (kg / cm2 )

Engineering
Ex. No. 7
Date:
CALIBRATION OF PRESSURE GAUGE
AIM
To calibrate the given pressure cell and to find the unknown weight given .
Plot the graphs : Pc vs Pg , Pc vs %error and Pc vs correction
APPARATUS
Pressure cell , Digital type pressure indicator , Digital type pressure indicator , Dead weights
and Unknown weight
SPECIFICATION
Capacity : 10 kg / cm2
Type : Strain gauge type
Sensing element : Foil type strain gauge
Overload : 10 % rated capacity
Excitation : 10 V , D.C.
Resistance in Ohms : 350 Ohms typical
Operating temperature : 100 C to 500 C
THEORY
The Pressure cell calibrated here is of bonded strain gauge type . Strain gauges are bridged
and supplied by excitation voltage . Strain gauges sense the deflection of diaphragm . This
deflection is calibrated in terms of pressure , using dead weight pressure gauge tester.
Equations used
Correction = P c – Pg
Error = P g – Pc
% Error = { ( Pg – Pc ) / Pg } × 100
Where
Pc = Pressure in dial gauge in kg / cm2
Pg = Pressure in digital indicator in kg / cm2

Engineering
Sample Calculation
Pressure in dial gauge , Pc =
Pressure in digital indicator, Pg =
Correction = P c – Pg =
Error = P g – Pc =
% Error = { ( Pg – Pc ) / Pg } × 100 =

Engineering
PROCEDURE
1. Connect the mains to 230 V / 50 Hz supply
2. Connect the sensor to the sensor socket provided at the front panel
3. Switch ON the equipment
4. Release the pressure in the pressure cylinder
5. Note the reading in the digital meter . If it is not zero , make it zero
6. Apply pressure by using pressure pump
7. When applied pressure reaches 2 kg / cm2 , note the reading in digital meter . If not 2
then correct the value to 2
8. Repeat the procedure until the values become same
9. Release the pressure fully
10. Apply the pressure of 0.5 kg / cm2 and note the reading
11. Repeat the experiment for different loads step by step and note the readings of digital
meter and analog meter
12. Calculate the error if any
RESULT
Correction =
Error =
Percentage Error =
INFERENCE

Engineering
TABULAR COLUMN
Sl No Thermometer Reading Indicator Reading Percentage error
Tt Ti (%)
( C)
0
( C)
0
Sample Calculation
Thermometer reading , Tt =
Indicator reading , Ti =
% Error = { ( Ti - Tt ) / Ti } × 100 =

Engineering
Ex. No. 8
Date:
CALIBRATION OF THERMOCOUPLE
AIM
To calibrate the given thermocouple using thermometer
APPARATUS
Thermocouple , thermometer
THEORY
Percentage Error = { ( Ti - Tt ) / Ti } × 100 %
Where
Tt = Thermometer reading in 0C
Ti = Indicator reading in 0C
PROCEDURE
1. Check the connection made and switch on the instruments
2. Check the room temperature using thermometer
3. Adjust the knob of thermocouple indicator to thermometer reading
4. Connect the power supply to the kettle
5. Set the temperature of the thermocouple to the temperature of thermometer indicator
when the water is boiling
6. Note the readings at different temperatures
7. Calibrate the thermocouple
RESULT
Maximum percentage error =
INFERENCE

Engineering
TABULAR COLUMN
Sl Heat input Inner surface temperature in 0C Outer surface temperature in 0C
No
( Watts )
V I q= T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12
(Volts) (Amps) V×I

Engineering
Ex. No. 9
Date:
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF INSULATING POWDER
AIM
To determine the thermal conductivity of insulating powder at various heat inputs.
APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of two concentric copper spheres. Heating coil is provided in the inner
sphere. The space between the inner and outer spheres are filled by the insulating powder
whose thermal conductivity is to be determined. The power supply to the heating coil is
adjusted by using variac.Chromel-Alumel thermocouples are used to record the temperatures.
Thermocouples 1 to 6 are embedded on the surface of inner sphere and 7 to 12 are embedded
on the outer shell surface.
SPECIFICATION
1. Radius of inner sphere = 0.05 m
2. Radius of outer sphere = 0.1 m
3. Voltmeter 0 - 300V & Ammeter 0 - 5amps.
4. Variac – 2 amps.
5. Temperature indicator 0 - 3000C , calibrated for chromel alumel
6. Dimmerstat 0 – 5A, 0 – 300 V.
7. Heater coil - Strip Heating Element sandwiched between mica sheets – 200 watts.
8. Chromel Alumel Thermocouples – No. (1) to (6) embedded on inner sphere to
measure Ti.
9. Chromel Alumel Thermocouples – No. (7) to (12) embedded on outer sphere to
measure To.
10. Insulating Powder – Asbestos magnesia commercially available powder and packed
between the two spheres.
THEORY
Fourier’s law of heat conduction

This law states that rate of heat flow through a surface is directly proportional to the
area normal to the surface and the temperature gradient across the surface.
dT
q A
dX

Engineering
dT
ie., q - kA
dX
Negative sign indicates that the heat flows from higher temperature to the lower temperature.
‘ k ’ is called the thermal conductivity.
Sample Calculation
Rate of heat transfer in Watts , q = V×I =

Radius of inner sphere , ri =
Radius of outer sphere , ro =
T 1 +T 2+T 3 +T 4 +T 5+ T 6
Temperature of the inner sphere , Ti =
6
=
T 7 +T 8 +T 9+ T 10 +T 11+T 12
Temperature of the outer sphere , T o =
6
q(r ¿ ¿ o – r i )
Thermal Conductivity , k = ¿
4 π r o r i (T ¿ ¿i −T o)¿

Engineering
Thermal Conductivity
This can be defined as the amount of heat that can flow per unit time across a unit
cross sectional area when the temperature gradient is unity. The unit of thermal conductivity
is W/m-K. Materials having higher thermal conductivity are called conductors while those
having lower thermal conductivity are called insulators. Examples for good conductors
include all metals. While asbestos, magnesia, glass wool etc., are some of the examples for
insulators.
Equations Used
The radial heat conduction for single hollow sphere transferring heat from inside to
outside is given by
4 π k r o r i (T ¿ ¿ i – T o )
q = ¿
ro – ri
Where,
q = rate of heat transfer in Watts = V×I
k = Thermal conductivity in W/m-K
ri = radius of inner sphere in meters
ro = radius of outer sphere in meters
Ti = Temperature of the inner sphere in 0C
T 1 +T 2+T 3 +T 4 +T 5+ T 6
=
6
To = Temperature of the outer sphere in 0C
T 7 +T 8 +T 9+ T 10 +T 11+T 12
=
6
PROCEDURE
1. Connect the unit to an AC source 240 V 5amps and switch on the MC
2. Operate the Variac slowly to increase the heat input to the heater and adjust the
voltage to any desired voltage (do not exceed 150V)
3. Maintain the same heat input throughout the experiment until the temperatures
reaches a steady state.
4. Note down the following readings provided in the Observation table.
5. Repeat the experiment for other heat inputs.
RESULT
Engineering
The thermal conductivity of insulating powder at various heat inputs has been determined.
Thermal Conductivity , k =
INFERENCE
TABULAR COLUMN
1. STAINLESS STEEL PIPE
Sl Heat input Readings of thermocouple along Quantity Temperature
No 0
the pipe in C of water of water in 0C
( Watts )
V I Q= mw
T1 T2 T3 T4 Ti Tf
(Volts) (Amps) V×I ( kg )
2. COPPER PIPE

No 0
( Watts )
V I Q= mw
T1 T2 T3 T4 Ti Tf
(Volts) (Amps) V×I ( kg )
3. HEAT PIPE

No 0
( Watts )
V I Q= mw
T1 T2 T3 T4 Ti Tf
( kg )

Engineering
(Volts) (Amps) V×I
Ex. No. 10
Date:
HEAT PIPE DEMONSTRATER
AIM
To compare the performance characteristics of a heat pipe with two other geometrically
similar pipes of copper and stainless steel.
APPARATUS
The heat pipe demonstrator has been designed and developed to reveal clearly the
super conducting device. It consists of three identical cylindrical conductors. One end of
these is heated electrically while there are small capacity tanks acting as heat sinks at the
other end. The unit consists of a heat pipe , a copper pipe and a stainless steel pipe.
Thermocouples are embedded along the lengths to measure the temperature distribution and
the heat transfer rate is noted in terms of temperature rise in the heat sink tanks.
The heat pipe is copper seamless tube with ‘ X ‘ m I.D & ‘ Y ‘ m O.D. Copper
perforated sheet is used as a wick. With all heat pipes , cleanliness is of prime importance to
ensure that no incapacity exists and to make certain that the wick and wall will be wetted by a
working fluid. When the heat pipe is vaccum tight , the required amount of water is fed to it.
Ideally the amount of liquid added should be just sufficient to saturate the wick. A
heater block made of a 5 cm long Aluminium rod wound with electrical resistance wire is
used as the heat source and located at one end of the pipe. Heat is picked up by the cooling
water passing through a jacket, which is fitted to the opposite end. Temperature of pipe outer
wall, at the inlet and outlet of cooling water and of vapour are detected by iron-constantan
thermocouples. Power input can be measured using voltmeter and ammeter.
SPECIFICATION
I.D of pipes , X =
O.D of pipes, Y =

Engineering
Porosity of copper =
Average particle size =
Length of pipes =
Condenser tank size =
Sample Calculation
1. Stainless Steel Pipe
Energy input to heater in time ∆t , Q = V × I × ∆t =
Mass of water in heat sink , Mw =

Specific heat of water , Cw = 4186 J / kg.K
Initial temperature of water , Ti =
Final temperature of water , Tf =
Heat transferred to water, Qw = Mw Cw ( Tf – Ti ) =
T1 = ; T2 = ; T3 = ; T4 =
2. Copper Pipe

T1 = ; T2 = ; T3 = ; T4 =
3. Heat Pipe

Engineering
T1 = ; T2 = ; T3 = ; T4 =
THEORY
The performance of the heat pipe as a super-conducting device could be studied well
in terms of the temperature distribution along the length at a given instant and could be
compared with the other two members. Nearly isothermal termperature distribution and fast
rise of temperature in heat sink tank reveals the heat pipe superiority over the conventional
conductors.
Equations Used
Energy input to heater in time ∆t is given by
Q = V × I × ∆t Watts
Heat transferred to water, Qw = Mw Cw ( Tf – Ti ) Watts
Where
Mw = Mass of water in heat sink , in kg

Cw = Specific heat of water = 4186 J / kg.K
Ti = Initial temperature of water in 0C
Tf = Final temperature of water in 0C

Engineering
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Engineering
Engineering
PROCEDURE
1. Fill the known quantity of water in three heat sinks and measure its intial temperature.
2. Switch on the mains and supply the same power input to each heater equipped with
three pipes.
3. Wait for steady state conditions,and note down the readings of thermocouples
connected to pipes.
4. Measure the final temperature of water in three heat sinks.
5. Repeat the experiment for different heat input.
RESULT
The performance characteristics of a heat pipe with two other geometrically similar pipes of
copper and stainless steel has been determined.
INFERENCE

Engineering
TABULAR COLUMN # 1
Sl Mass of Initial Final Temperature Pressure Time taken Time taken
No water in Temperature Temperature for 50C fall for ‘ n ‘
( 0C ) ( PSI )
Tank of Water of Water in blinks of
temperature energymeter
mw Ti Tf
T1 T2 T3 T4 P1 P2 P3 P4 ∆t t
( kg ) ( C)
0
( C)
0
( sec ) ( sec )
TABULAR COLUMN # 2
Actual COP Carnot COP Relative COP

Engineering
Ex. No. 11
Date:
REFRIGERATION TEST RIG
AIM
To conduct performance test on refrigeration test rig and to determine the
(i) Experimental COP, (ii) Carnot COP, (iii) Relative COP of the refrigeration system.
APPARATUS
1. The test rig consist of compressor, condenser unit placed inside trolley and fitted with
(i) R-134a reciprocating compressor (ii) Air cooled condenser, (iii) Cooling fan for condenser
and (iv) Liquid receiver.
2. The chilled water calorimeter consisting of a refrigerated stainless steel vessel placed
inside an insulated wooden box and provided with (i) Evaporative coil, (ii) Stirrer,
(iii) Electric heater, (iv) Sensing bulb of a low temperature thermostat, (v) A high
temperature thermostat and (vi) A thermometer to measure the temperature of chilled water.
The above unit is located on the trolley behind front panel.
3. The front panel of the test rig consist of (i) Capillary expansion tube with isolation valve,
(ii) Thermostatic expansion valve and solenoid thermostat, solenoid switch, indicator and
isolating valve (iii) Drier cum strainer and sight glass, (iv) Thermostat at inlet and outlet of
both evaporator and condenser, (v) Pressure gauge at inlet and outlet of evaporator and
condenser,(vi) Main switch and compressor safety high pressure / low pressure (HP/LP) cut-
out, (vii) Heat power regulator switch and regulator, (viii) Energy meter to measure the
power consumed either by hater or by compressor.
SPECIFICATION
A. A compressor condenser unit placed inside trolley and fitted with
1. R-134a reciprocating compressor
2. Condenser
3. 0.5 hp, 220 V, single phase capacitor start induction motor with condenser cooling fan
4. A receiver with angle check valve
B. Chilled water calorimeter consisting of a refrigerated S.S vessel of ample capacity
placed inside a well insulated wooden box and provided with
1. Evaporator coil
2. Stirrer
3. Electric heater 230 V, A.C.
4. The sensing bulb of low temperature thermostat.
5. A high temperature thermostat.
6. A Thermometer to measure the chilled water temperature

Engineering
Sample Calculation
1. Mass of water in kg , mw =
Specific heat of water , Cp = 4186 J/ kg K
Temperature drop in the water , ∆T = 5°C
Time for fall in temperature of water by 5°C , ∆t =
Actual Refrigeration Effect = m × Cp × ( ∆T / ∆t ) =
Time taken for ‘n’ blinks of energy meter , t =
Energy meter constant , Ne = 3200 blinks / KWhr
n ×3600
Work done = KW =
N e ×t
Actual Refrigeration Effect

Actual COP = =
Work Done
2. Pressure gauge readings , p1 = ; p2 = ; p3 = ; p4 =
Lower temperature to be maintained in the evaporator ,

TL = pmin = ( P1 + P4 ) / 2 =
Higher temperature to be maintained in the Condenser ,
TH = pmax = ( P2 + P3 ) / 2 =
TL
Carnot COP = =
TH – TL
ActualCOP
3. Relative COP = =
Carnot COP

Engineering
C. The front panel on which are mounted the following
1. Capillary expansion tube with isolating valve.
2. Thermostatic expansion valve and solenoid thermostat, solenoid switch, indicator and
isolating valve
3. Drier cum strainer and sight glass
4. Thermostat at inlet and outlet of both evaporator and condenser
5. Pressure gauge at inlet and outlet of evaporator and condenser
6. Main switch and compressor safety high pressure / low pressure (HP/LP) cut-out
7. Heat power regulator switch and regulator
8. Energy meter to measure the power consumed either by hater or by compressor.
THEORY
Abbreviation and notation:
P1 = pressure of the refrigerant before the compressor.
P2 = pressure of the refrigerant after the compressor.
P3 = pressure of the refrigerant before the expansion valve.
P4 = pressure of the refrigerant after the expansion valve.
T1 = temperature of the refrigerant before compression.
T2 = temperature of the refrigerant after compression.
T3 = temperature of the refrigerant before expansion.
T4 = temperature of the refrigerant after expansion.
Conversion:
Convert all the pressure in PSIG to bar (multiply the value in PSIG by 0.06894 and add 1.013
to convert to bar abs)
Equations used
1. Experimental COP
Actual Refrigeration Effect
Actual COP =
Work Done
Actual Refrigeration Effect = m × Cp × ( ∆T / ∆t )

Where
mw = mass of water in kg
Cp = specific heat of water =4186 J/ kg K
∆T = Temperature drop in the water = 5°C
∆t = Time for fall in temperature of water by 5°C , in seconds
Work done = Energy consumed by the compressor motor to be found out
from the energy meter
n ×3600
= KW
N e ×t
Where

Engineering
n is the number of blinks of the energy meter
t = time taken for ‘n’ blinks of energy meter , in seconds
Ne is the energy meter constant = 3200 blinks / KWhr

Engineering
2. Carnot COP
TL
Carnot COP =
TH – TL
Where
TL = Lower temperature to be maintained in the evaporator in ° K
= pmin = ( P1 + P4 ) / 2;
TH = Higher temperature to be maintained in the Condenser in ° K
= pmax = ( P2 + P3 ) / 2;
3. Relative COP
ActualCOP
Relative COP =
Carnot COP
PROCEDURE
1. Fill the chilled water calorimeter with pure water so that the evaporative coils are
fully immersed.
2. If using the capillary tube line then select it by opening the shut-off valve on this line
and closing the one on the thermostatic expansion valve line. In this case the solenoid
switch is switched OFF. If using the thermostatic expansion valve line , then select it
by opening the shit-off valve on this line and closing the one on the capillary line. In
that case the solenoid switch is switched ON.
3. Start the compressor and run for some time so that the chilled water temperature is
lowered to the given test temperature.
4. Switch on the heater and slowly increase the power.
5. The temperature in water calorimeter is allowed to reach the equilibrium temperature.
6. Connect energy meter to motor and heater by the selector switch one after another and
note down the time taken for ‘ n ‘ blinks of the energy meter disc.
7. Note down the pressure and temperature readings at locations 1,2,3 & 4 and tabulate
the readings.
8. Switch off the plant after experiment is over by switching off the compressor motor
first. Allow the fan motors to run for 10 minutes and then switch off. the heater and
the mains.
RESULT
The performance test on a refrigeration test rig was conducted and the results are as follows.

Engineering
1. Actual C.O.P. of the system =.
2. Carnot C.O.P. of the system =.
3. Relative C.O.P. of the system =
INFERENCE
TABULAR COLUMN
Sl Manometer Reading Atmospheric Conditional Pressure Time taken COP
No Air Air for ‘ n ‘
( m.m ) ( PSI )
blinks of
( C)
0
( C)
0
energymeter
t
h1 h2 H= T1D T1W T2D T2W P1 P2 P3 P4 Actual Carnot
( sec )
h1 – h2 DBT WBT DBT WBT

Engineering
Ex. No. 12
Date:
AIR-CONDITIONING TEST RIG
AIM
To conduct performance test on Air conditioning test rig to determine the co-efficient of
performance.
APPARATUS
The test rig consist of
1. An air duct support of stand
2. A Blower to set up air flow through the duct along with a speed control to vary the
velocity of air.
3. A heater to rise the air temperature with regulator and energy meter.
4. Water spray, collecting tray, reservoir with gauge pump.
5. Wet and dry bulb bi-metallic dial type thermometers.
4. Compressor and condenser unit placed inside trolley and fitted with
(i) Freon-22 (CCI2F2) reciprocating compressor
(ii) Air cooled condenser
(iii) Cooling fan for condenser and
(iv) Liquid receiver.
SPECIFICATIONS
Orifice diameter =
Refrigerant - R -22
Energy meter constant = 3200 blinks / KW hr
THEORY
Abbreviation and notation:
P1 = pressure of the refrigerant before the compressor.
P2 = pressure of the refrigerant after the compressor.
P3 = pressure of the refrigerant before the expansion valve.
P4 = pressure of the refrigerant after the expansion valve.
Conversion:

Engineering
Convert all the pressure in PSIG to bar (multiply the value in PSIG by 0.06894 and add 1.013
to convert to bar abs)
Equations used
1. COP of Air Conditioner
Refrigeration Effect
COP of Air conditioner =
Input Energy
Sample Calculation
1. h1 & h2 are calculated using DBT and WBT in psychometric chart
Enthalpy of air at ambient condition , h1 =
Enthalpy of conditioned air , h2 =
Density of air , ρa = 1.165 kg /m3
Cd = 0.65
Diameter of orifice , d =
π 2
Area of orifice in m2 , A = d =
4
Manometric difference , Hm =
ρ m− ρ a
Ha =
ρm
× Hm =
Acceleration due to gravity , g = 9.81 m / s2

Air velocity in , V = √2g Ha =
Volume flow rate of air in , Q = A×V =
Mass flow rate of air , m = C d × ρa × Q =
Refrigeration effect by Air Conditioner , RE = m × ( h1- h2 ) =
Time taken for ‘n’ blinks of energy meter , t =
Energy meter constant , Ne = 3200 blinks / KWhr

n ×3600
Input Energy, IE = =
N e ×t
COP of Air conditioner = =
Input Energy
2. Capacity of Air conditioner = =
3.5
3. Pressure gauge readings , p1 = ; p2 = ; p3 = ; p4 =

Engineering
Lower temperature to be maintained in the evaporator ,
TL = pmin = ( P1 + P4 ) / 2 =
Higher temperature to be maintained in the Condenser ,
TH = pmax = ( P2 + P3 ) / 2 =
TL
Carnot COP = =
TH – TL
Refrigeration effect by Air Conditioner ( RE )

RE = m × ( h1- h2 ) KW
Where,
h1 = enthalpy of air at ambient condition
h2 = enthalpy of conditioned air
h1 & h2 are calculated using DBT and WBT in psychometric chart
m = Mass flow rate of air in kg / sec
= Cd × ρa × Q
ρa = density of air = 1.165 kg /m3
Cd = 0.65
Q = volume flow rate of air in m3 /sec
= A×V
π 2
A = Area of orifice in m2 = d ;
4
d is the diameter of orifice in m
V = Air velocity in m / s = √2 g Ha
ρ m− ρ a
Ha =
ρm
× Hm
Hm is the manometric difference in m of Hg
Input Energy ( IE )
n ×3600
IE = KW
N e ×t
Where
n is the number of blinks of the energy meter
t = time taken for ‘n’ blinks of energy meter , in seconds
Ne is the energy meter constant = 3200 blinks / KWhr
2. Capacity of Air Conditioner
Capacity of Air conditioner = Tone
3.5

Engineering
3. Carnot COP
TL
Carnot COP =
TH – TL
Where
TL = Lower temperature to be maintained in the evaporator in ° K
= pmin = ( P1 + P4 ) / 2;
TH = Higher temperature to be maintained in the Condenser in ° K
= pmax = ( P2 + P3 ) / 2;

Engineering
PROCEDURE
1. Fill water in the wet bulb temperature probe trays.
2. Start the main.
3. Start the blower and run it the required speed by keeping the speed regulator at
position.
4. Start the spray pump and open the gate valve suitably.
5. Start the heater.
6. Select the expansion device (Capillary tube / Thermostatic expansion valve)
7. Start the cooling compressor.
8. Wait for some time till thermometers show practically constant readings and note
down the following readings:
(i) DBT and WBT of atmospheric air ( T1D & T1W )
(ii) DBT and WBT of conditioned air ( T2D & T2W )
(iii) Pressure gauge readings ( p1 , p2 , p3 & p4 )
(iv) Time in seconds ‘ t’ for ‘ n ‘ blinks of the energy meter disc
(v) Manometer readings ( h1 & h2 )
9. Repeat the above procedures for four more different settings of the fan Regulator
(Position 1,2,3,4 & 5). If sensible cooling range is narrow, then switch off the spray
and repeat as above. If the atmosphere is cool, the heater may be set for greater
dissipation. If more readings are required for cooling below dew point and
dehumidification switch off heater and repeat procedure.
10. Switch OFF all the mains.
RESULT
The performance test on a Air conditioning test rig was conducted and the results are as
follows.
1. Experimental ( Actual C.O.P ) =.
2. Capacity of the Air conditioner =.
3. Carnot COP =
INFERENCE

Engineering
TABULAR COLUMN
Sl Spring deflection Time taken Time taken Theoretical Natural
No. ∆L for ‘ n ‘ for 1 Frequency Frequency
( m.m ) oscillations oscillation fn th fn exp
L1 L2 ∆L = t T=t/n ( Hz ) ( Hz )
L2 – L1 ( sec ) ( sec )
Observations
1. Mass of the weight platform , m1 =
2. Mass of the beam with exciter assembly , M =
3. Distance of m1 from the pivot , l1 =
4. Length of beam from pivot , l =
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Engineering
Ex. No. 13
Date:
UNDAMPED FREE VIBRATION OF EQUIVALENT SPRING MASS
SYSTEM
AIM
To determine the Time period , Natural frequency and Theoretical frequency of undamped
free vibration of equivalent spring mass system.
APPARATUS
The arrangement is designed to study free undamped vibrations. It consists of M.S
rectangular beam supported at one end by a trunion pivoted in ball bearing. The bearing
housing is fixed to the side member of the frame. The other end of beam is supported by the
lower end of helical spring; upper end of helical spring is attached to screw. The exciter unit
can be mounted at any position along the beam. Additional known weights may be added to
the weight platform under side exciter.

Engineering
THEORY
1. Theoretical frequency , fn th =
Where
1
2π × √ g
∆L
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m / s2
∆L = Spring deflection in m = ( L2 - L1 ) / 1000

L1 = Initial length of the spring in mm
L2 = Final length of the spring in mm
1
2. Natural frequency , fn exp = Hz
T
Where
T = Time taken for 1 oscillation in seconds = t/n
t = Time taken for ‘ n ‘ oscillations in seconds
3. Percentage error of the system between theoretical and experimental natural

f n t h−f n t h
frequency = × 100 %
f nt h
Sample Calculation
1. Acceleration due to gravity , g = 9.81 m / s2

Initial length of the spring , L1 =
Final length of the spring , L2 =
Spring deflection , ∆L = ( L2 - L1 ) / 1000 =
Theoretical frequency , fn th =
1
2π × √ g
∆L
=
2. Time taken for ‘ n ‘ oscillations , t =

Time taken for 1 oscillation , T = t/n =

Engineering
1
Natural frequency , fn exp = =
T
f n t h−f n t h
3. Percentage Error = × 100 =
f nt h
PROCEDURE
1. Support one end of beam in the slot of trunion and clamp it by means of screw.
Attach the other end of the beam to lower end of spring.
2. Adjust the screw to which the spring is attached such that beam is horizontal in
position.
3. Weigh the exciter assembly along with discs, bearings and weight platform.
Clamp the assembly at any convenient position.
4. Measure the distance L1 of the assembly from pivot. Allow system to vibrate freely.
5. Measure the time for any 10 oscillations and find periodic time and natural frequency
of vibration.

Engineering
6. Repeat the experiment by varying L1 and by also putting different weights on
platform.
RESULT
1. Time period of oscillation , T =
2. Natural Frequency , fn exp =
3. Theoretical frequency , fn th =
4. % Error =
INFERENCE
TABULAR COLUMN
Sl Time taken for Time taken for Natural Angular Critical
No. ‘ n ‘ oscillations 1 oscillation Frequency velocity damping
t T=t/n fn exp ωn coeffieicnt
( sec ) ( sec ) ( Hz ) ( rad / s ) Cc
( N-s / mm )

Engineering
Observations
1. Mass attatched to the spring , m1 =
2. Mass of the beam with exciter , M =
3. Distance of m1 from the pivot , l1 =
4. Length of beam from pivot , l =
Ex. No. 14
Date:
DAMPED FORCED VIBRATION OF SPRING MASS SYSTEM
AIM
1. To study the forced vibrations of equivalent spring mass system and to determine the
logarithmic decrement, damping ratio, damped frequency and damping coefficient for
damped vibration
2. To Plot the graph Amplitude vs. frequency for each damping condition.

Engineering
APPARATUS
It consists of M.S rectangular beam supported at one end by a trunnion pivoted in ball
bearing. The bearing housing is fixed to the side member of the frame. The other end of beam
is supported by the lower end of helical spring; upper end of helical spring is attached to
screw. The exciter unit can be mounted at any position along the beam. Additional known
weights may be added to the weight platform under side exciter. The exciter unit is coupled
to D.C variable speed motor. Speed of motor can be varied with the speed control unit
provided. Speed of rotation can be known from speed indicator on control panel. It is
necessary to connect the damper unit to the exciter. Amplitude of vibration can be recorded
on strip chart recorder.
THEORY
x1
1. Logarithmic decrement , 𝛿 = ln
x2
x1 and x2 are two successive amplitudes from graph
δ
2. Damping ratio , ζ =
√ 4 π 2 +δ 2
ωd
3. Damped frequency , fd = Hz
2π
Where
ωd = Damped angular velocity in rad / s = ωn √ 1−ζ 2
ωn = Angular Velocity in rad / s = 2π fn
fn = Natural frequency in Hz = 1/T
T = Time period in seconds = t/n
t is the time taken for ‘ n ‘ oscillations , in seconds
Sample Calculation
1. x1 and x2 are two successive amplitudes obtained from graph

x1
Logarithmic decrement , 𝛿 = ln =
x2

Engineering
δ
2. Damping ratio , ζ = =¿
√ 4 π 2 +δ 2
3. time taken for ‘ n ‘ oscillations , t =

Time period , T = t/n =
Natural frequency , fn = 1/T =
Angular Velocity , ωn = 2π fn =
Damped angular velocity , ωd = ωn √ 1−ζ 2 =
ωd
Damped frequency , fd = =
2π
4. Mass attatched to spring , m1 =

Mass of beam with exciter , M =
m = m1 + M
Distance of ‘ m1 ‘ from pivot , l1 =
Length of beam from pivot , l =
Equivalent mass of the spring , meq = m ( l 1 / l )2 =
Critical damping coefficient , Cc = 2 meq ωn =
Damping coefficient , C = Cc × ζ =
5. Damping coefficient , C = Cc × ζ N – s / mm
Where
Cc = Critical damping coefficient
= 2 meq ωn N – s / mm
meq = Equivalent mass of the spring
= m ( l1 / l )2
m = m1 + M
m1 = Mass attatched to spring in kg
M = Mass of beam with exciter in kg
Engineering
l1 = Distance of ‘ m1 ‘ from pivot in mm
l = Length of beam from pivot in mm
PROCEUDRE
1. Support one end of beam in the slot of trunnion and clamp it by means of screw.
2. Attach the other end of the beam to lower end of spring.
3. Adjust the screw to which the spring is attached such that beam is horizontal in
position.
4. Weigh the exciter assembly along with discs, bearings and weight platform.
5. Clamp the assembly at any convenient position.
6. Start the motor and allow the system to vibrate.
7. Wait for 1 to 2 minute for amplitude to build the particular forcing frequency.
8. Adjust the position of strip chart recorder. Take the record of amplitude vs. time on
strip chart recorder by starting recorder motor. Press recorder platform on the pen
gently. Avoid excessive pressure to get good results.
9. Take record by changing forcing frequencies.
10. Repeat the experiment for different damping. Damping can be changed by adjusting
the holes on the piston of damper.
11. Plot the graph of amplitude vs. frequency for each damping condition.
RESULT
1. Logarithmic decrement , 𝛿 =
2. Damping ratio , ζ =
3. Damped frequency , fd =
4. Damping coefficient , C =
5. The graph Amplitude vs Frequency for each damping condition was plotted
INFERENCE
TABULAR COLUMN
Fixed support Shaft Cross Moment Theoretical Experimental
end condition diameter sectional of Inertia critical speed critical speed
Area
d I ( rpm ) ( rpm )
2
(m) A (m )
(m4 )
Shaft Node : 1

Engineering
1 Node : 2
Shaft Node : 1
2 Node : 2
Observation
Length of shaft , L =
Diameter of shaft , d =
Young’s Modulus , E =
Density of shaft , ρ =
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
Ex. No. 15
Date:
WHIRLING OF SHAFT
AIM
To determine experimentally the critical speed of the Shaft with different end conditions and
to compare the value with theoretical prediction
APPARATUS
Engineering
The Whirling of shaft apparatus is designed for study of whirl phenonemenon of shaft for
different end conditions. The apparatus consists of a frame to support driving motor , end
fixing blocks , sliding blocks etc. variable speed motor with speed control unit. Following
shafts are supplied with the unit
i. 0.005 m dia of length 1.33 m
ii. 0.006 m dia of length 1.33 m
End fixing arragngement
At Motor end , as well as tail end different end conditions can be developed by making use of
different fixing blocks
a) Supported end condition – Makes use of end block with single self aligning bearing
b) Fixed end condition – Makes use of end block with double bearing
Guards
The guards can be fixed at any position on the supporting bars
Speed control and drive motor
The driving motor is AC/DC , 1/6 HP , 6000 rpm , motor and speed controller is dimmerstat
THEORY
Theoretical Critical Speed = F × 60 rpm
√
α EI
F = Theoretical critical frequency in Hz = 2 ×
L Aρ
Where
∝ = Numerical coefficient depending upon node and support
L = Length of the shaft in m
E = Young’s modulus = 2.06 × 1011 N / m2
ρ = Mass density of shaft = 7991.8 kg / m2
π 2
A = Cross sectional area of shaft in m2 = d ; where d is the diameter in m
4
π 4
I = Moment of inertia of the shaft in m4 = d
64
Sample Calculation
1. Node : 1
Length of the shaft , L =

Young’s modulus , E = 2.06 × 1011 N / m2

Engineering
Mass density of shaft , ρ = 7991.8 kg / m2
π 2
Cross sectional area of shaft , A = d =
4
π 4
Moment of inertia of the shaft , I = d =
64
√
α EI
Theoretical critical frequency , F = 2 × =
L Aρ
Theoretical Critical Speed = F × 60 =
2. Node : 2
Length of the shaft , L =

Young’s modulus , E = 2.06 × 1011 N / m2
Mass density of shaft , ρ = 7991.8 kg / m2
π 2
Cross sectional area of shaft , A = d =
4
π 4
Moment of inertia of the shaft , I = d =
64
√
α EI
Theoretical critical frequency , F = × =
L2 Aρ
Theoretical Critical Speed = F × 60 =
The various values of ∝ are;

value of ∝
End fixing st nd
1 node 2 node
Supported end 2.45 7.96

Engineering
Fixed end 3.38 9.82
PROCEDURE
1. Fix the shaft to be tested
2. Switch on the power supply
3. Gradually increase the speed of the motor until the first node of vibration is formed
4. Note down the corresponding readings of the shaft
5. Gradually increase the speed of the motor until the 2nd node vibration is formed
6. Study the 2nd node of vibration and note down the corresponding speed of shaft
7. Reduce the speed gradually and when it stops , cut off the main power
8. Repeat the experiment for another shaft of different diameter
RESULT
The experiment on whirling of shaft is done
Shaft 1
Theoretical critical speed at Node 1 =
Experimental critical speed at Node 1 =
Shaft 2
INFERENCE
TABULAR COLUMN
Sl Speed Final lift Actual lift Height of Radius Angular Centrifugal Frictional
No of sleeve of sleeve rotation of velocity force force
N
rotation

Engineering
( rpm ) h2 ( m ) h = h2 –h1 Hn ( m ) R (m) ω F f
(m) ( rad / s ) (N) (N)
Observation
Initial lift of the sleeve , h1 =
Initial speed of governor =
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
Ex. No. 16
Date:

Engineering
WATT GOVERNOR
AIM
To determine the sensitiveness of Watt governor by plotting the Controlling force curve , to
find the Frictional force in the sleeve and to plot the following graphs
i. Speed vs Lift
ii. Speed vs Controlling force
iii. Speed vs Friction
iv. Controlling force vs Radius of rotation
APPARATUS
The gravity controlled governor apparatus consists of a small FHP drive motor to drive
governor spindle. The apparatus is designed to exhibit the character of dead weight type
governor as well as spring loaded type governor. A variable speed drive is provided to vary
the speed of the spindle. A graduated scale is provided to measure the displacement of sleeve
in vertical direction. The center sleeve incorporates a weight sleeve to which weights can be
added.
SPECIFICATION
Drive Motor : ¼ HP , 1500 rpm , D.C Motor
Mass of sleeve assembly , m1 : 2.05 kg
Mass of central load , m2 : 0.382 kg

Mass of one ball , m : 0.4 kg
Length of each arm , l : 0.13 m
Initial height of governor, hi : 0.08 m

Distance between central
axis and top link tip , y : 0.05 m

Engineering
Sample Calculation
1.) Initial lift of the sleeve , h1 =

Final lift of the sleeve , h2 =
Actual lift of sleeve , h = h 2 - h1 =
Initial height of governor , hi =
h
Height of rotation , Hn = hi - 2 =
Length of each arm , l =

x = √ l 2−H n2 =
distance between central axis and top link tip , y =
Radius of rotation , R = x + y =
Speed , N =
2 πN
Angular velocity , ω = 60 =
Mass of one ball , m =
Centrifugal force , F = m Rω 2 =
2.) mass of sleeve assembly , m1 =

mass of central load , m2 =
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m / s 2
Total weight on the sleeve , W = ( m1 + m2 ) × g =

weight of one ball , w = m × g =
Frictional force , f = m ω 2 Hn - ( W + w ) =
3.) % change of speed , c = 0.01

Effort of the governor , Q = ( W + w + f ) × c =

Engineering
THEORY
h
1. Height of rotation , Hn = hi - 2 m
where, hi = Initial height of the governor in m
h = Actual lift of sleeve in m = h2 – h1
h1 and h2 are the respective initial and final lifts of the sleeve
Radius of rotation , R = x + y m
where x = √ l −H n
2 2
m
l = length of the each arm in m
y = distance between central axis and top link tip in m
2 πN
Angular velocity , ω = 60 rad / s
where , N = Speed in m
Terefore
Centrifugal force , F = m Rω 2 Newtons
Where, m = mass of one ball in kg
2. Frictional force , f = m ω 2 Hn - (W + w) Newtons
Where, w = weight of one ball in N = m×g

W = Total weight on the sleeve = ( m1 + m2 ) × g Newtons
m1 = mass of sleeve assembly in kg
m2 = mass of central load in kg

3. Effort of the governor , Q = (W+w+f)×c Newtons
Where, c = % change of speed = 0.01

Engineering
.
Length of link ‘ l ‘
α Initial height
of rotation
h
β ‘ hi ‘
x y
Mass of ball ‘ m ‘
Radius of rotation R = x + y
Mass of sleeve assembly ‘ m1’ = 2.05 kg
Mass of central load m2

Engineering
PROCEDURE
1. The governor mechanism under test is fitted with the chosen rotating weights where
applicable , and the setup is arranged as a Watt governor ( This can be done by
removing the upper sleeve on the vertical spindle of the governor and using proper
linkages provided )
2. Connect the motor to speed control unit using four way cable provided
3. Switch on the supply
4. Increase the speed slowly until the sleeve rises off the lower stop and aligns with the
first division on the graduated scale.
5. Note down the sleeve position and speed
6. Increase the speed in steps to have suitable sleeve movements and note down the
displacement and speed accordingly throughout the range of sleeve movement
possible
7. Tabulate the observations and plot the required graphs
Precautions
i. Increase the speed gradually
ii. Take the sleeve displacement when the pointer is steady
iii. Ensure that the load on the sleeve does not hit the upper sleeve of the governor
iv. Bring dimmerstat at zero position and only then switch off the unit
RESULT
An experiment was performed on Watt governor and following graphs were plotted
1. Speed vs Lift
2. Speed vs Controlling force
3. Speed vs Friction
4. Controlling force vs Radius of rotation
Height of rotation , Hn =
Radius of rotation , R =
Centrifugal force , F =
Frictional force , f =
Effort of the governor , Q =
INFERENCE

Engineering
TABULAR COLUMN
Sl Load Angle of Time of Angular Torque Observed Theoretical Speed of Gyroscopic
No precision precision velocity applied angular angular the disc Couple
m
velocity velocity
θ t ω T ( rpm ) C
( kg )
( degree ) ( sec ) ( rad / s ) (N) ωp ωpt ( Nm )
( rad / s ) ( rad / s )

Engineering
Ex. No. 17
Date:
MOTORIZED GYROSCOPE
AIM
To study the gyroscopic behavior of the rotating mass and to determine the Applied Torque,
Angular velocity of precision and Gyroscopic Couple
APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of a rotor disc , mounted in bearings. The disc is driven by a
variable speed FHP motor, so that the disc can be rotated at a required speed. The disc
bracket rests over knife-edges. The knife-edge base blocks are clamped to a yoke. The yoke
can rotate about vertical axis in the bearings fitted in the round base. Thus the motions about
all three axes are possible.On the opposite side of the motor , a balancing weight is provided
to balance the motor. A stud is provided over the balance weight , onto which the required
weights can be placed to apply the required torque. An angular scale with pointer is provided
which enables us to measure the angular motion about the vertical axis.
SPECIFICATION
Diameter of the disc , d : 0.3 m
Thickness of the disc : 0.01 m
Mass of the disc, M : 6.316 kg
Distance of weight from
center of rotation , L : 0.215 m
THEORY
A gyroscope is a device used to provide stability to ships and aeroplanes. It provides a
couple opposite to the direction of unbalancing torque and restores stability. An external
torque causes the rotating disc to displace along the axis of precision to reach a stable
position. The angular velocity along the precision axis is known as angular velocity of
precision.
1. Velocity of Spin
The angular velocity of rotor is called velocity of spin. It is denoted by ‘ω ‘ and
measured in rad / s

Engineering
2 πN
ω = 60 rad / s
where, N = Speed of the disc in rpm
Sample Calculation
1.) Speed of the disc , N =
2 πN
Angular velocity , ω = 60 =
2.) Angle of precision in degree , θ =

Time of precision , t =
θ×π
Angular velocity of precision , ωp = t ×180 =
3.) mass of weight placed in weight stud , m =
acceleration due to gravity , g = 9.81 m / s 2

w = mg =
Distance of weight from center of rotaion , L =
Applied Torque , T = w × L =
4.) Mass of the disc , M =

Diameter of the disc , d =
Radius of the disc , R =
Radius of gyration , k = r / √2 =
Moment of Inertia , I = M.k2 =
T
5.) Theoretical velocity of precision , ωpt = I ×ω =
6.) Gyroscopic Couple , C = I × ω × ωp =

Engineering
2. Velocity of precision
The angular velocity of rotation of the rotor axis is called velocity of precision. This
rotation is about the vertical axis. It is denoted by ωp and measured in rad / s
θ×π
ωp = t ×180 rad / s
where, θ = Angle of precision in degree
t = time of precision in sec
3. Applied Torque
The torque applied to change the direction of angular velocity of rotor is called
applied torque. Numerically , it is the product of weight placed in the weight stud and
it’s distance from center of the disc
T = w × L Nm
Where, L = Distance of weight from center of rotaion in m
w = m g Newtons
m = mass of weight placed in weight stud in kg
4. Moment of Inertia of rotor

I = M.k2
Where, M = Mass of the disc in kg
k = Radius of gyration in m = r / √2
r = radius of the disc in m = d / 2 ; where d is the diameter of disc in m
5. Theoretical Velocity of precision

T
ωpt = I ×ω rad / s
6. Angular momentum
The product of angular velocity of rotor and moment of inertia of the disc is called
angular momentum
Angular momentum = I×ω
7. Gyroscopic Couple

Engineering
The couple generated due to change of direction of angular velocity of rotor is called
Gyroscopic Couple. As torque is applied on the rotor , direction of angular velocity is
changed and hence angular momentum is also changed. Thus
Gyroscopic couple = Rate of change of angular momentum
C = I × ω × ωp Nm

Engineering
PROCEDURE
1. Check the rotor for vertical position and adjust the balance weights slightly if required
2. Keep the dimmerstat at zero position and switch on the supply
3. Start the motor connected to the disc on no load and bring it to a steady state
4. Adjust the rotor speed as required and note down the rotor speed with a tachometer
5. Bring the pointer of precision axis to 00
6. Add a known weight gently to the weight stud and at the same time start the stop
clock
7. Note the time taken for angular displacement of θ 0
8. Remove the weight and add a greater weight after setting back the pointer to 00
9. Repeat the procedure for different weights and rotor speeds
Precautions
i. Speed of the disc should be maintained constant
ii. The frame carrying the motor should be in horizontal plane before putting weights on
the pan
RESULT
1. Angular velocity of spin , ω =
2. Observed velocity of precision , ωp =
3. Torque applied , T =
4. Theoretical velocity of precision , ωpt =
5. Gyroscopic Couple , C =
INFERENCE

Engineering

HT &amp; DoM Lab Manual

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

HT &amp; DoM Lab Manual

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

LAB MANUAL

HEAT TRANSFER AND DYNAMICS OF MACHINES

JAI BHARATH COLLEGE OF

Mechanical Engineering Department

Sl.No. TOPIC PAGE NO.

Heat Transfer Experiments

4 COMPOSITE WALL APPARATUS 21

4 | JBCMET , Arackappady Department of Mechanical

5 | JBCMET , Arackappady Department of Mechanical

2. mass flow rate of hot water , mh = 35 cm3/s = 0.035 kg / s

Heat transfer rate from hot water , Qh = mh Cph ( Thi - Tho ) =

mass flow rate of cold water , mc = 50 cm3/s = 0.05 kg / s

Heat transfer rate from cold water , Qc = mc Cpc ( Tci - Tco ) =

Outer diameter of tube , do =

6 | JBCMET , Arackappady Department of Mechanical

Heat gained by Cold fluid , Qc = mc Cpc ( Tci - Tco ) Watts

7 | JBCMET , Arackappady Department of Mechanical

2. mass flow rate of hot water , mh = 35 cm3/s = 0.035 kg / s

Heat transfer rate from hot water , Qh = mh Cph ( Thi - Tho ) =

mass flow rate of cold water , mc = 50 cm3/s = 0.05 kg / s

Heat transfer rate from cold water , Qc = mc Cpc ( Tci - Tco ) =

Outer diameter of tube , do =

8 | JBCMET , Arackappady Department of Mechanical

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient , Uo =

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient , Uo =

9 | JBCMET , Arackappady Department of Mechanical

Temperature – time response of test disc :

10 | JBCMET , Arackappady Department of Mechanical

11 | JBCMET , Arackappady Department of Mechanical

1. mass of test disk , m =

2. diameter of the disc , d =

12 | JBCMET , Arackappady Department of Mechanical

which passes through/nearer to all points

2. Net energy radiated on the disc = σ A ( Tavg - Td )

Td = Temperature of the disc before inserting to test chamber in K ( ambient )

13 | JBCMET , Arackappady Department of Mechanical

Thus ‘σ ‘ can be evaluated as shown

14 | JBCMET , Arackappady Department of Mechanical

17 | JBCMET , Arackappady Department of Mechanical

Chamber temperature , Ta = T7 + 273 =

T1, T2, T3 - Black body temperature

19 | JBCMET , Arackappady Department of Mechanical

σ Ab εb ( Tb4 – Ta4 ) = σ Ag εg ( Tg4 – Ta4 )

As the geometry of two bodies are identical , Ab = Ag

εb = Emissivity of black body = 1

εg = Emissivity of grey body

20 | JBCMET , Arackappady Department of Mechanical

21 | JBCMET , Arackappady Department of Mechanical

2) Diameter of the slab , d =

23 | JBCMET , Arackappady Department of Mechanical

d = diameter of the slab in m

25 | JBCMET , Arackappady Department of Mechanical

26 | JBCMET , Arackappady Department of Mechanical

1. Outer diameter of tube , d =

27 | JBCMET , Arackappady Department of Mechanical

2. Kinematic viscosity air , v =

Theoretical heat transfer coefficient

2. Theoretical heat transfer coefficient

Ra = Rayleigh Number = Gr .Pr

Tf = Absolute film temperature at which the properties are taken

To find out the local heat transfer coefficient

30 | JBCMET , Arackappady Department of Mechanical

31 | JBCMET , Arackappady Department of Mechanical

32 | JBCMET , Arackappady Department of Mechanical

HT & DoM Lab Manual

HT & DoM Lab Manual