NOTES OF LESSON

HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE

Key points
Asexual Reproduction in Plants
• Spore formation → eg. Bacteria, fungi
• Budding → eg. Fungi (yeast)
• Fragmentation → eg. Algae, fungi
• Vegetative propagation
i. Natural method
a. By roots → eg. Sweet potato
b. By stems → eg. Ginger, potato
c. By leaves → eg. Bryophyllum
ii. Artificial method
a. Cutting → eg. Rose
b. Layering → eg. Strawberry, lemon
c. Grafting → eg. Mango, rose
Sexual Reproduction in Plants
• Flower is the reproductive organ.
• It has four whorls – Calyx, Corolla, Androecium, Gynoecuim.
• Calyx and corolla are accessory parts.
• Androecium - Male reproductive organ producing pollen grains.
• Gynoecium - Female reproductive organ having ovule (egg).
• Pollination – Transfer of pollens from anther to stigma for fertilization.
• Fertilization – Fusion of male and female gametes.
• Double fertilization (Triple fusion and syngamy) – unique events in the embryo sac of
ovules.
Asexual Reproduction in Animals
• Fission
i. Binary fission → eg. Amoeba
ii. Multiple fission → eg. Plasmodium
• Budding → eg. Hydra
• Regeneration → eg. Planaria, Hydra
Sexual Reproduction (Human)
• Human being is heterosexual.
• Reproductive system includes:
a. Primary sex organs: Testes (males) and ovaries (females)
b. Secondary sex organs: Genital ducts and glands (males) and fallopian tubes,
uterus, vagina (females)
 • Male sex hormone is testosterone and female sex hormones are progesterone and
estrogen.
• Puberty is attained at the age of 13 – 14 years in males and 10 – 12 years in females.
• The zygote formed after fertilization develops into embryo which gets implanted in
uterus.
• Placenta (a disc-like special tissue) develops between uterine wall and embryo for
nourishment of the embryo.
• Gestation period in humans is 280 days.
Reproductive Health
• Birth control prevents unwanted pregnancies.
o Barrier methods
o Chemical methods
o Intrauterine contraceptive device
o Surgical method
• Sexually transmitted diseases (STD) are caused by bacteria, protozoa and viruses.
• AIDS is an incurable viral disease.

NCERT IN-TEXT QUESTIONS SOLVED

1. What is the importance of DNA copying in reproduction?
Ans: DNA copying is an important phenomenon of reproduction through which the
organisms pass on their characteristics to their offspring. It maintains the characteristics
in different generations of the species. It also produces variations which are useful for
the survival of species for long time.

2. Why is variation beneficial to the species but not necessary for the individual?
Ans: Accumulation of variations after several generations results in new set of traits
required for survival.
As they show results after many generations so they are not important for individual.

3. How does binary fission differ from multiple fission?

Ans: In binary fission, the parent organism splits or divides to form two new organism.
On the other hand, in multiple fission the parent organism splits to form many new
organism simultaneously.
Ex: Amoeba reproduces by the process of binary fission whereas the malarial parasite
plasmodium reproduces by the process of multiple fission.
4. How will an organism be benefited if it reproduces through spores?
Ans: The reproduction by spores takes place in plants. Spores are covered by hard
protective coat which enables them to survive under unfavourable conditions like lack
of food, lack of water and extreme temperatures. But when the conditions become
favourable, then the spores can grow to produce new plants. Thus, the reproduction by
spores benefits the plants because by surviving under adverse conditions, the spores
make these plants live forever.
5. Can you think of reasons why more complex organisms cannot give rise to new
individuals through regeneration?
Ans: More complex organisms cannot give rise to new individuals because:
i. Their body design is highly complicated.
ii. There are specific organs to do specific functions.
iii. There is a labour division in the body of complex organisms.
iv. Exception is lizard, which can regenerate its tail.
6. Why is vegetative propagation practised for vowing same types of plants?
Ans: Vegetative propagation is practiced for growing some type of plants because it
has the following advantages.
i. All the plants produced by vegetative propagation are genetically similar enough
to the parent plant to have all its characteristics.
ii. The fruit trees grown from seeds may take many years before they start to bear
fruits. But the fruit trees grown by vegetative propagation methods like cuttings
or by grafting start to bear fruits much earlier.
iii. The plants grown by vegetative propagation usually need less attention in their
early years than the plants grown from seeds.
iv. Many plants can be grown from just one parent plant by artificial propagation.
v. Vegetative propagation makes possible the propagation of plants such as banana,
rose, jasmine, and orange that have lost the capacity to produce viable seeds.
7. Why is DNA copying an essential part of the process of reproduction?
Ans: DNA copying is needed because information stored in DNA is used to make
protein. Synthesis of different proteins will lead to altered body design. Thus,
reproduction at its most basic level involves making copies of the blueprints of body
design.
8. How is the process of pollination different from fertilization?
Ans:
i. Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a stamen to the
stigma of a carpel. These are transferred by agents such as insects, birds, wind
or water.
ii. Fertilization is defined as the fusion of a male gamete with a female gamete to
form a zygote by sexual reproduction.
 9. What is the role of seminal vesicles and prostate gland?
Ans:
i. Seminal vesicles are a pair of thin-walled muscular and elongated sacs which
secrete a fluid for nourishment of sperms.
ii. Prostate glands also produce a fluid which is released in the urethra along with
secretion of seminal vesicle. It affects the vaginal pH so that sperms move
smoothly inside the vagina.
10. What are the changes seen in girls at the time of puberty?
Ans: The various changes which occur in girls at puberty are:
• Hair grow under armpits and pubic region
• Mammary glands develop and enlarge
• The hips broaden
• Extra fat is deposited in various parts of the body like hips and thighs
• Fallopian tubes, uterus and vagina enlarge
• Ovaries start to release eggs
• Menstruation starts
• Feeling and sexual drives associated with adulthood begin to develop

11. How does the embryo get nourishment from its mother’s body?
Ans: The embryo grows inside the mother’s womb and gets nourishment from its
mother’s blood through placenta. Placenta contains villi which connects the embryo
with the mother’s blood. These villi provides a large surface area for glucose and oxygen
to pass from mother to the embryo.
12. If a woman is using copper-T, will it help in protecting her front Sexually
Transmitted Diseases?
Ans: No, it will not protect the woman from sexually transmitted diseases as fluid to
fluid contact occurs in the vagina.

QUESTIONS FROM NCERT TEXTBOOK

1. What are the advantages of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction?
Ans:
• In asexual reproduction, the offspring is almost identical to the parent because
they have the same gene as their parent. Thus, variation is not present.
• Sexual reproduction involves fusion of male and female gametes. The
offspring exhibits diversity of characters because they receive some genes from
the mother and some from the father. The mixing of genes in different
combinations, results in genetic variations. This variation leads to the continuous
evolution of various species to produce various organisms.
2. What are the functions performed by testis in human beings?
Ans: The function of testis is to produce sperms and male sex hormones called
testosterone.
3. Why does menstruation occur?
Ans: Menstruation occurs in females when the egg produced inside the cervix is not
fertilized. Since the egg does not fuse with the male gamete, so the thick and soft lining
of uterus having a lot of blood capillaries in it are not required. This unfertilized egg
dies within a day and the lining breaks down shedding blood along with other tissues.
This comes out of the vagina in the form of bleeding.
4. Draw a labelled diagram of the longitudinal section of a flower.

5. What are the different methods of contraception?

Ans: Contraception is the method to avoid pregnancy. Various methods of
contraception are as follows:
• Physical Barrier Methods: Use of condoms, diaphragms, cervical caps. These
prevent the entry of sperms into the female genital tract by acting as a barrier
between them.
• Chemical Methods: Oral pills can be used which change the hormonal balance
and stop release of egg. Vaginal pills kill the sperms.
• Surgical Methods: This includes vasectomy (sperm duct is removed) in males
and tubectomy (removal of small portion of fallopian tube) in females.
6. How are modes of reproduction different in unicellular and multicellular
organisms?
Ans: Unicellular organisms have only one cell. There is no separate tissue for
reproduction. So, they can reproduce by the process of fission or budding. Multicellular
organisms contain various cells and have separate system for reproduction. So, they can
reproduce by both sexual and asexual methods.
7. How does reproduction help in providing stability to the population of species?
Ans: The process of reproduction introduces some variations in the individual
organisms of a species. The variations introduced in some individual organisms may
enable them to survive even in adverse environmental conditions such as excessive heat
or cold or shortage of water, etc. In this way, the introduction of variations during
reproduction provides stability to the populations of various species by preventing some
of their individuals from getting wiped out during adverse environmental conditions.
8. What could be the reasons for adopting contraceptive methods?
Ans: The reasons for adopting contraceptive methods could be:
• Protection from sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV-AIDS, gonorrhoea,
syphilis, warts etc.
• Restricting the number of children.
• Sufficient gap between successive births.
• Enjoying a good reproductive health.

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