CVG 5175

Numerical Methods for

Geotechnical Engineers

CVG 5175

1
 CVG 5175

The Finite Element Method

● First defined for structural problems
● Involves modeling the structure using small
interconnected elements
● Every element is linked to the other through
shared nodes or boundary lines or surfaces

2
 CVG 5175

Steps of the FEM

1.Discretize and Select Element Types
2.Select a Displacement Function
3.Define the Strain/Displacement and
Stress/Strain Relationships
4.Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix and
Equations
5.Assemble the Element Equations, Introduce
Boundary Conditions

3
 CVG 5175

Steps of the FEM

6.Solve for Generalized Displacements
(degrees of Freedom)
7.Solve for Element Strains and Stresses
8.Interpret Results

4
 CVG 5175

1. Discretize and Select

Element Types
● The domain is divided in finite elements.
● The type and shape of element are selected.
● Elements must be small enough to give useful
results and large enough to reduce
computational effort
● Good judgement required

5
 CVG 5175

1. Discretize and Select

Element Types
● Various element shapes exist for different
number of dimensions:
– 1 D truss elements or beam elements
y

6
 CVG 5175

1. Discretize and Select

Element Types
● Various element shapes exist for different
number of dimensions:
y
– 2D
● Triangular Elements

x
● Trapezoidal Elements y

x
7
 CVG 5175

1. Discretize and Select

Element Types
● Various element shapes exist for different
number of dimensions: y
– 3D
x
● Prismoidal Elements

● Tetrahedral Elements
y z

8
z
 CVG 5175

1. Discretize and Select

Element Types
● Various element shapes exist for different
number of dimensions:
– Axysimmetric Elements
●

9
 CVG 5175

2. Select Displacement
Function
● A displacement function is chosen within each
element.
● It is defined using the nodal values of the
element.
● Frequent functions are linear, quadratic and
cubic polynomials
● Trigonometric series can also be used.

10
 CVG 5175

3. Define Strain/Disp and

Stress/Strain
● Relates strain to displacements
– In 1D, for small strains: du
εx =
dx
● Stress relationship to strain is the “constitutive
relationship” (constitutive law)
● Simples constitutive relationship is Hooke's
law: σ x =E ε x

11
 CVG 5175

4. Element Stiffness Matrix

& Equations
● Direct Equilibrium Method: best suited for
structural 1D elements
● Work or Energy Methods: for more general
application in structural problems
(stress/strain)
● Methods of Weighted Residuals: allows the
finite element method to be applied directly to
any differential equation.

12
 CVG 5175

4. Element Stiffness Matrix

& Equations
● The stiffness matrix [k] relates the element
nodal forces {f} to the element nodal
displacements {d}
{f }=[k ]{d }

or

{}[ ]{ }
f1 k 11 k 12 k 1 3 ⋯ k 1n d1
f2 k2 1 k 22 k 2 3 ⋯ k 2n d2
f 3 = k31 k 32 k 3 3 ⋯ k 3 n d3
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
fn kn1 k n 2 kn 3 ⋯ k n n dn

13
 CVG 5175

5. Assemble Global
Stiffness Matrix and BD
● Direct stiffness method allows superposition of
element nodal forces.
{F }=[ K ]{d }

● Basic assumption: continuity (the structure has

no tears anywhere)
● Boundary nodal conditions must be introduced
otherwise the matrix [K] is singular
(determinant = 0)

14
 CVG 5175

6. Solve for Generalized

Displacements
● N is the total structural unknown nodal
degrees of freedom

{ }[ ]{ }
F1 K 1 1 K 1 2 K 13 ⋯ K 1N d1
F2 K 21 K 2 2 K 23 ⋯ K 2N d2
F3 = K31 K 32 K 33 ⋯ K 3 N d3
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
FN KN 1 KN 2 K N3 ⋯ K N N dN

15
 CVG 5175

7. Solve for Element Strain

and Stress
● Stress and Strain can be obtained from the
node displacements.
● Based on relationships established previously.

16
 CVG 5175

8. Interpret Results
● Objective of analysis
● Identify regions in structure where
deformations and stresses are most important.
● Visualization tools usually useful in this step.

17
 CVG 5175

1-D Spring Element

● Simplest conceptual form of a finite element
problem.
AE
● Spring constant of a bar is given by: k=
L
– A is cross-sectional area
– L is bar length
– E is modulus
y of elasticity

1 2
x
f^ 1 x , d^ 1 x f^ 2 x , d^ 2 x
18
k L
 CVG 5175

1-D Spring Element

● For a prismatic circular cross-section bar in
torsion:
JG
● Spring constant of a bar is given by: k=
L
– J is polar moment of inertia
– L is bar length
– G is sheary modulus

1 2
x
f^ 1 x , d^ 1 x f^ 2 x , d^ 2 x
19
k L
 CVG 5175

1-D Spring Element

● For 1-D heat conduction problem,

A K xx
● “Spring constant” is given by: k=
L
– A is cross-sectional area
– L is bar length
– Kx x is thermal
y conductivity of the material

1 2
x
f^ 1 x , d^ 1 x f^ 2 x , d^ 2 x
20
k L
 CVG 5175

1-D Spring Element

● For 1-D flow through a porous medium:

A K xx
● “Spring constant” is given by: k=
L
– A is cross-sectional area
– L is bar length
– Kx x is hydraulic
y conductivity of the material

1 2
x
f^ 1 x , d^ 1 x f^ 2 x , d^ 2 x
21
k L
 CVG 5175

1. Select Element Type

● A spring can be an element in a system of
springs subjected to Tension.
● The nodes as springs are labelled
● The original distance between the spring
nodes is labelled L.

22
 CVG 5175

2. Select Displacement
Function
● A displacement function û is selected.
● A linear function is assumed between end
points
u^ =c 1 +c 2 ^x

23
 CVG 5175

2. Select Displacement
Function
● A displacement function û is selected.
● A linear function is assumed between end
points
u^ =c 1 +c 2 ^x

● The total number of coefficients c is equal to

the total number of degrees of freedom of the
element.

24
 CVG 5175

2. Select Displacement
Function
● A displacement function û is selected.
● A linear function is assumed between end
points
u^ =c 1 +c 2 ^x

● In matrix form this becomes:

{}
u^ = [ 1 x^ ] c 1
c2

25
 CVG 5175

2. Select Displacement
Function
● Expressing û as a function of nodal
displacements d^ 1 x and d^ 2 x :

u^ (0)= d^ 1 x =c 1 +c 2 0=c 1
u^ (L)= d^ 2 x =c 1 +c 2 L=c1= d^ 1 x +c 2 L

c 1= d^ 1 x d^ 2 x − d^ 1 x
c 2=
L

26
 CVG 5175

2. Select Displacement
Function
● Expressing û as a function of nodal
displacements d^ 1 x and d^ 2 x :

^ − d^
( d
)
u^ = d^ 1 x + 2 x 1 x x^
L

27
 CVG 5175

2. Select Displacement
Function
● Expressing û as a function of nodal
displacements d^ 1 x and d^ 2 x :

x^ ^ x^ ^
( )
u^ = 1− d 1 x + d 2 x
L L

28
 CVG 5175

2. Select Displacement
Function
● Expressing û as a function of nodal
displacements d^ 1 x and d^ 2 x :

[
{u^ }= 1−
x^
L ]{ }
x^ d^ 1 x
L d^ 2 x

29
 CVG 5175

2. Select Displacement
Function
● Expressing û as a function of nodal
displacements d^ 1 x and d^ 2 x :

{u^ }=[ N 1 N 2 ]
{ }
d^ 1 x
d^ 2 x

30
 CVG 5175

2. Select Displacement
Function
● Expressing û as a function of nodal
displacements d^ 1 x and d^ 2 x :

{u^ }=[ N 1 N 2 ]
{ }
d^ 1 x
d^ 2 x

Where: x^ x^
N 1 =1− and N 1=
L L
Are called the shape functions because they describe the shape
of assumed displacement within the element domain

31
 CVG 5175

3. Strain/Displacement
Stress/Strain
● Tensile force T produces a total elongation δ.
● T and δ are related through Hooke's law
T =k δ

k
1 2

d1x L
d2x

32
 CVG 5175

3. Strain/Displacement
Stress/Strain
● Tensile force T produces a total elongation δ.
● T and δ are related through Hooke's law
T =k δ
(δ is the deformation of the spring) δ= u^ ( L)−^u (0)
k
1 2

d1x L
d2x

33
 CVG 5175

3. Strain/Displacement
Stress/Strain
● Tensile force T produces a total elongation δ.
● T and δ are related through Hooke's law
T =k δ
(δ is the deformation of the spring) δ= d^ 2 x − d^ 1 x
k
1 2

d1x L
d2x

(-) (+) 34
 CVG 5175

3. Strain/Displacement
Stress/Strain
● Tensile force T produces a total elongation δ.
● T and δ are related through Hooke's law
T =k δ
(δ is the deformation of the spring) δ= d^ 2 x − d^ 1 x
k
1 2 (Here, d^1x is
negative because
it is opposite
element x ^
direction, while d2x
d1x L is +)
d2x

(-) (+) 35
 CVG 5175

4. Element Stiffness Matrix

● Sign convention of the element requires that:
f^ 1 x =−T f^ 2 x =T

36
 CVG 5175

4. Element Stiffness Matrix

● Sign convention of the element requires that:
f^ 1 x =−T f^ 2 x =T

● Since
T =k δ and δ= d^ 2 x − d^ 1 x

37
 CVG 5175

4. Element Stiffness Matrix

● Sign convention of the element requires that:
f^ 1 x =−T f^ 2 x =T

● Since
T =k δ and δ= d^ 2 x − d^ 1 x

● Then
T =− f^ 1 x =k ( d^ 2 x − d^ 1 x )
T = f^ 2 x =k ( d^ 2 x − d^ 1 x )

38
 CVG 5175

4. Element Stiffness Matrix

● Sign convention of the element requires that:
f^ 1 x =−T f^ 2 x =T

● Since
T =k δ and δ= d^ 2 x − d^ 1 x

● Then
f^ 1 x =k ( d^ 1 x − d^ 2 x )
f^ 2 x =k ( d^ 2 x −d^ 1 x )

39
 CVG 5175

4. Element Stiffness Matrix

● Sign convention of the element requires that:
f^ 1 x =−T f^ 2 x =T

● Since
T =k δ and δ= d^ 2 x − d^ 1 x

● Then

{ }[ ]{ }
f^ 1 x = k −k d^ 1 x
f^ 2 x −k k d^ 2 x

40
 CVG 5175

4. Element Stiffness Matrix

● The element stiffness matrix (local stiffness
matrix) is given by:
[ k^ ]= [ k −k
−k k ]

41
 CVG 5175

4. Element Stiffness Matrix

● The element stiffness matrix (local stiffness
matrix) is given by:
[ k^ ]= [ k −k
−k k ]
● It is a symmetric square matrix

42
 CVG 5175

5. Assemble Global
Equations & B.C.
● Global stiffness matrix and global force matrix
are assembled using node force equilibribum

43
 CVG 5175

6. Solve for the node

displacement
● The displacement are solved by imposing
boundary conditions and solving
{ F }= [ K ] { d }

44
 CVG 5175

7. Solve element forces

● The element forces are determined by back-
substitution of node displacements into the
local equations.

45
 CVG 5175

Example 1
● Consider the spring assemblage of the
following figure:

1 3 2
x
F3 x F2 x

k1 k2

46
 CVG 5175

Example 1
● For element 1

{ }[ ]{ }
f 1 x = k 1 −k 1 d1 x
f 3x −k 1 k 1 d 3 x

47
 CVG 5175

Example 1
● For element 1

{ }[ ]{ }
f 1 x = k 1 −k 1 d1 x
f 3x −k 1 k 1 d 3 x

● For element 2

{ }[ ]{ }
f 3 x = k 2 −k 2 d 3 x
f 2x −k 2 k 2 d 2 x

48
 CVG 5175

Example 1
● Compatibility requirements forces
displacement at the common node to be
equal:
(1)
d 3 x =(2)d 3 x =d 3 x

49
 CVG 5175

Example 1
● Node equilibrium equations is given by:
(1) (results from reaction at fixed support)
F1 x= f 1 x
F 2 x =(2)f 2 x

F 3 x =(1)f 3 x +(2) f 3 x

50
 CVG 5175

Example 1
● Combining with element equations

{ }[ ]{ }
(1)
F1 x= f 1 x (1)
f 1 x = k 1 −k 1 d 1 x
(2)
(1)
f 3x −k 1 k 1 d 3 x
F2 x= f 2 x

F 3 x =(1)f 3 x +(2) f 3 x

{ }[ ]{ }
f 3 x = k 2 −k 2 d 3 x
(2)

(2)
f 2x −k 2 k 2 d 2 x

51
 CVG 5175

Example 1
● Combining with element equations
F 1 x =k 1 d 1 x −k 1 d 3 x
F 2 x =−k 2 d 3 x +k 2 d 2 x

F 3 x =−k 1 d 1 x + k 1 d 3 x +k 2 d 3 x −k 2 d 2 x

52
 CVG 5175

Example 1
● Combining with element equations
F 1 x =k 1 d 1 x −k 1 d 3 x
F 2 x =k 2 d 2 x −k 2 d 3 x

F 3 x =−k 1 d 1 x −k 2 d 2 x +(k 1 + k 2 )d 3 x

53
 CVG 5175

Example 1
● Combining with element equations

{ }[ ]{ }
F1 x k1 0 −k 1 d 1 x
F2 x = 0 k2 −k 2 d 2 x
F3 x −k 1 −k 2 k 1 + k 2 d 3 x

54
 CVG 5175

Example 1
● Combining with element equations
F=[ K ]d

[ ]
k1 0 −k 1
[ K ]= 0 k2 −k 2
Total Stiffness Matrix
−k 1 −k 2 k 1 + k 2

55
 CVG 5175

Assembling [K] by
Superposition
● Direct stiffness method:
d1 x d3 x d2 x d3 x
(1)
[
[k ]=
k 1 −k 1
−k 1 k 1 ] (2)
[
[k ]=
k 2 −k 2
−k 2 k 2 ]

56
 CVG 5175

Assembling [K] by
Superposition
● The element stiffness matrix is expanded to
global elements

{ }[ ]{ }
(1) (1)
f 1x k 1 0 −k 1 d1 x
(1)
f 2x = 0 0 0 (1)
d2 x
(1)
f 3x −k 1 0 k 1 (1)
d3 x

{ }[ ]{ }
(2) (1)
f 1x 0 0 0 d1 x
(2)
f 2 x = 0 k 2 −k 2 (1)
d2 x
(2)
f 3x 0 −k 2 k 2 (1)
d3 x

57
 CVG 5175

Assembling [K] by
Superposition
● The element stiffness matrix is expanded to
global elements

{ }[ ]{ }
(1) (1)
f 1x 1 0 −1 d1x
(1)
f 2 x =k 1 0 0 0 (1)
d2x
(1)
f 3x −1 0 1 (1)
d3 x

{ }[ ]{ }
(2) (1)
f 1x 0 0 0 d1 x
(2)
f 2 x =k 2 0 1 −1 (1)
d2 x
(2)
f 3x 0 −1 1 (1)
d3 x

58
 CVG 5175

Assembling [K] by
Superposition
● Considering force equilibrium at each node:

{ }{ }{ }
F1 x (1)
f 1x 0
(2)
F2 x = 0 + f 2x
(1) (2)
F3 x f 3x f 3x

59
 CVG 5175

Assembling [K] by
Superposition
● Considering force equilibrium at each node:

{} [ ]{ } [ ]{ }
(1) (1)
F1 x 1 0 −1 d1 x 0 0 0 d1 x
F2 x =k 1 0 0 0 (1)d 2 x +k 2 0 1 −1 (1)
d2 x
F3 x −1 0 1 (1)d 0 −1 1 (1)
d3 x
3x

60
 CVG 5175

Assembling [K] by
Superposition
● Considering force equilibrium at each node:

{ }[ ]{ }
F1 x k1 0 −k 1 d 1 x
F2 x = 0 k2 −k 2 d 2 x
F3 x −k 1 −k 2 k 1 + k 2 d 3 x

61
 CVG 5175

Boundary Conditions
● From the previous example, d1x =0 (fixed end)

{ }[ ]{ }
F1 x k1 0 −k 1 0
F2 x = 0 k2 −k 2 d 2 x
F3 x −k 1 −k 2 k 1 + k 2 d 3 x

62
 CVG 5175

Boundary Conditions
● From the previous example, d1x =0 (fixed end)

{ }[ ]{ }
F1 x k1 0 −k 1 0
F2 x = 0 k2 −k 2 d 2 x
F3 x −k 1 −k 2 k 1 + k 2 d 3 x

● Expanding yields the following matrix equation

{ }[
F2 x = k2
F3 x ]{ }
−k 2 d 2 x
−k 2 k 1 + k 2 d 3 x

63
 CVG 5175

Solving Node
Displacements
● The previous equation can be solved:
−1

{ }[
d2 x = k 2
d3 x
−k 2
−k 2 k 1 + k 2 ]{ } F2 x
F3 x

64
 CVG 5175

Solving Node
Displacements
● The previous equation can be solved:

[ ]
1 1 1
+
k2 k1 k1 F2 x
{ }
d2 x
d3 x
=
1 { }
1 F3 x
k1 k1

65
 CVG 5175

Reaction at 1
● The reaction at 1 is then given by:
F 1 x =k 1 d 1 x −k 1 d 3 x

66
 CVG 5175

Reaction at 1
● The reaction at 1 is then given by:
F 1 x =k 1 (0)−k 1 d 3 x

67
 CVG 5175

Reaction at 1
● The reaction at 1 is then given by:
F 1 x =−k 1 d 3 x

● and
1 1
d3 x= F2x + F3 x
k1 k1

68
 CVG 5175

Reaction at 1
● The reaction at 1 is then given by:
F 1 x =−k 1 d 3 x

● and
1 1
d3 x= F2x + F3 x
k1 k1

● therefore
k1 k1
F 1 x =− F 2 x − F 3 x
k1 k1

69
 CVG 5175

Reaction at 1
● The reaction at 1 is then given by:
F 1 x =−k 1 d 3 x

● and
1 1
d3 x= F2x + F3 x
k1 k1

● therefore
F 1 x =−F 2 x −F 3 x

70
 CVG 5175

Example 2
● For the spring assembly shown in the figure
find the global stiffness matrix, displacement of
node 3 and 4, and reactions at node 1 and 2.

1 3 4 2
x

P=5000 lb
k1=1000 lb/in k2=2000 lb/in k3=3000 lb/in

71
 CVG 5175

Example 2
● Element stiffness matrices:
1 3 3 4

[(1)k ]= [ 1000 −1000

−1000 1000 ] [(2)k ]= [ 2000 −2000
−2000 2000 ]
4 2

[(3)k ]= [ 3000 −3000

−3000 3000 ]
72
 CVG 5175

Example 2
● Assembling stiffness matrix:
1 2 3 4

[ ]
1000 0 −1000 0
0 3000 0 −3000
[ K ]=
−1000 0 1000+2000 −2000
0 −3000 −2000 2000+3000

73
 CVG 5175

Example 2
● Assembling stiffness matrix:

[ ]
1000 0 −1000 0
0 3000 0 −3000
[ K ]=
−1000 0 3000 −2000
0 −3000 −2000 5000

74
 CVG 5175

Example 2
● Global force to displacement

{ }[ ]{ }
F1x 1000 0 −1000 0 d1x
F2 x = 0 3000 0 −3000 d 2 x
F3 x −1000 0 3000 −2000 d 3 x
F4 x 0 −3000 −2000 5000 d 4 x

75
 CVG 5175

Example 2
● Boundary Conditions

{ }[ ]{ }
F1x 1000 0 −1000 0 0
F2x = 0 3000 0 −3000 0
0 −1000 0 3000 −2000 d 3 x
5000 0 −3000 −2000 5000 d 4 x

76
 CVG 5175

Example 2
● Boundary Conditions

{ }[ ]{ }
0 = 3000 −2000 d 3 x
5000 −2000 5000 d 4 x

77
 CVG 5175

Example 2
● Solving
−1

{ }[
d3 x
d4 x
=
3000 −2000
−2000 5000 ]{ } 0
5000

78
 CVG 5175

Example 2
● Solving

[ ]
15 2

{ }
d3 x
d4 x
= 33 000
2
11 000
11 000
3
11 000
0
{ }
5000

79
 CVG 5175

Example 2
● Solving

[ ]
15 2

{ }
d3 x
d4 x
= 33 000
2
11 000
11 000 in/lb 0 lb
3
11 000
{ }5000

2×5000 10
d 3 x =0+ = in
11000 11

3×5000 15
d 4 x =0+ = in
11000 11

80
 CVG 5175

Example 2
● Solving for reactions

]{ }
0

{ }[
F1x 1000 0 −1000 0 0
F2x = 0 3000 0 −3000 10
0 −1000 0 3000 −2000 11
5000 0 −3000 −2000 5000 15
11

81
 CVG 5175

Example 2
● Solving for reactions

]{ }
0

{ }[
F1x 1000 0 −1000 0 0
F2x = 0 3000 0 −3000 10
0 −1000 0 3000 −2000 11
5000 0 −3000 −2000 5000 15
11
10 000 −10 000
F 1 x =0+0− lb+0= lb=−909.1 lb
11 11

45 000 −45 000

F 2 x =0+0+0− lb= lb=−4090.9 lb
11 11
82
 CVG 5175

Example 2
● Forces in element 1

{}
0
{ }[
f 3x −1000 1000 ]
f 1 x = 1000 −1000 lb/in
10 in
11

−10 000
f 1 x= lb=−909.1 lb
11

10 000
f 3 x= lb=+909.1 lb
11

83
 CVG 5175

Example 2
● Forces in element 2

{}
10

{ }[
f3x
f4x −2000 2000 15]
= 2000 −2000 lb/in 11 in

11
20 000 30 000 −10 000
f 3 x= ( 11
−
11 )lb=
11
lb=−909.1 lb

−20 000 30 000 10 000

f 4 x= ( 11
+
11 )
lb=
11
lb=+909.1 lb

84
 CVG 5175

Example 2
● Forces in element 3

{}
15
{ }[
f 2x −3000 3000 ]
f 4 x = 3000 −3000 lb/in
11
0
in

45 000
f 4 x= lb=4090.9 lb
11

−45 000
f 4 x= lb=−4090.9 lb
11

85
 CVG 5175

Material Models
● Sigma/W includes 6 material models
– Linear Elastic
– Anisotropic
– Nonlinear Elastic (Hyperbolic Model)
– Elastic-Plastic (Mohr-Coulomb or Tresca)

86
 CVG 5175

Elastic Model
● Stresses are directly
proportional to the
strains
● Proportionality
σ
constants are E, and
ν.

87
 CVG 5175

Elastic Model
● Required parameters
– E (Young's Modulus)

– ν (Poisson's Ratio)

● Additional

[ ]{ }
1−ν ν ν 0
parameters σx 1−ν 0 εx

{}
ν ν
σy = E εy
σ z (1+ ν)(1−2 ν) ν ν 1−ν 0 ε
τx y 1−2 ν τ z
– c (cohesion) 0 0 0
2
xy

–  (friction angle)

(used only for “contour”)

88
 CVG 5175

Anisotropic Elastic Model

● Required parameters
– E x , x σ
– Ey
– Gxy, xy ε
●

89
 CVG 5175

Anisotropic Elastic Model

and

where where

(from the SIGMA/W Manual)

90
 CVG 5175

Anisotropic Elastic Model

● When the local and global coordinates do not
coincide (angle β is non-zero), the [C'] matrix
must ce converted from local to global
coordinates
● [C]=[T][C'][T]T

91
 CVG 5175

Nolinear Elastic
(Hyperbolic)
● As soil approaches failure, stress/strain is
increasingly non-linear
● The hyperbolic model (Duncan & Chang 1970)
offers a simple alternative

92
 CVG 5175

Nolinear Elastic
(Hyperbolic)
● 3 modui needed
– Initial Modulus Ei Et
1
B
– Tangent Modulus Et
A
– Unloading/Reloading EUR

σ1-σ3
Modulus Eur 1

Ei C

1
O strain

93
 CVG 5175

Nolinear Elastic
(Hyperbolic)
● Duncan & Chang
proposed the
following relationship
for Ei:
n
σ3
( )
E i=K L Pa
Pa

● Nonlinear
relationship
Note:
● n often 1/2 (square SIGMA/W lets you specify Ei as a

root of σ3) constant if convenient

94
 CVG 5175

Nolinear Elastic
(Hyperbolic)
● Tangent Modulus
2

[
E t = 1−
2 c (cos φ)+2σ 3 sin φ]
R f (σ 1 −σ 3 )(1−sin φ)
Ei

95
 CVG 5175

Nolinear Elastic
(Hyperbolic)
● Limitations of hyperbolic model:
– Dilation under shear stress cannot be modeled:
shear stress can cause only shear strains without
any axial strain or volumetric strain
– Strain softening cannot be modeled
– The effect of intermediate principal stress on teh
deformation and strength behaviour of soils is not
accounted for. (only major and minor principal
stresses)

96
 CVG 5175

Plasticity
● Consider a soil sample subjected to uniaxial
loading.
σ

Plastic Elastic
Strain Strain
97
 CVG 5175

Plasticity
● The classical theory of plasticity requires:
– A yield criterion
– A flow rule
– A work-hardening (or softening) rule
– A failure criterion

98
 CVG 5175

Elastic-Plastic
(Mohr-Coulomb or Tresca)
● Requires
– Elastic Modulus
– Poisson's Ratio
– Friction Angle
– Cohesion
σ
– Dilation Angle

ε
99
 CVG 5175

Modified Cam-Clay
(critical state)

ε
100
 CVG 5175

Modified Cam-Clay
(critical state)
e τ

p' p'

101
 CVG 5175

Cam-Clay model
● Requires parameters
6 sin( φ )
– M (slope of CSL) M=
3−sin ( φ )
– λ
Cc Cr
– κ λ= κ=
2.303 2.303
– ν
– OCR
– e0

102