Editor-in-Chief

Dr. Seyed Mojtaba Sadrameli Tarbiat Modares University, Iran

Editorial Board Members
Mohammad Hooshmand, Iran Huaping Wang, China
Pramod Kumar Gupta, India Chiara Belvederesi, Canada
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Cheng Sun, China Yushi Liu, China
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Muthanna Adil Abbu, Iraq
 Volume 3 Issue 1 · January 2020 · ISSN 2630-5232 (Online)

Journal of
Architectural Environment &
Structural Engineering
Research
Editor-in-Chief
Dr. Seyed Mojtaba Sadrameli
 Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2020 | Page 1-27
Journal of Architectural Environment &
Structural Engineering Research

Contents
Article
1 Evaluating the Use of Drones in the Area of Transportation / Construction
Kasim A. Korkmaz Shariq I. Mohammed
Time-varying Reliability Analysis of Long-span Continuous Rigid Frame bridge under
5 Cantilever Construction Stage based on the Monitored Strain Data
Yinghua Li Kesheng Peng Lurong Cai Junyong He
17 Impact of Autonomous Vehicles on Parking Spaces
Nikhil Sai Yekollu Kasim A Korkmaz

Review
24 Quality Problems and Countermeasures in Construction Process
Chao Xu Guoping Chen Honghui Hua

Copyright
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 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 03 | Issue 01 | January 2020

Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research

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ARTICLE
Evaluating the Use of Drones in the Area of Transportation / Con-
struction
Kasim A. Korkmaz*　Shariq I. Mohammed
Eastern Michigan University, School of Visual and Built Environment, Ypsilanti, MI, USA

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history Drones are proving out as a valuable tool and growing quickly in the world
Received: 3 April 2019 of technological advances. The applications of these vehicles are spreading
widely in the areas of remote sensing, real time monitoring, goods delivery,
Accepted: 14 April 2019 security, defense, surveillance, infrastructure inspection. Although, the
Published Online: 30 April 2020 intent behind creating this tool was remote sensing. Smart drones will be
the next big innovation and modification, which would have much wider
Keywords: applications especially in the field of infrastructure where it can reduce
Drone applications risks and lower costs. Current direct evaluation techniques are tedious, and
the information caught is frequently not led in a precise manner with the
Transportation areas tested not being geographically correct and the resulting reports being
Construction delivered past the point of no return. These were the reasons, which have
Civil applications increased the demand and usage of unmanned vehicles. In this research
paper, we present critical review of main advancements of Drones in the
area of transportation and agriculture. We present all the research related to
civil applications in those areas and challenges including traffic monitoring,
Bridge condition assessment, Roadway asset detection and many other ap-
plications related to infrastructure inspection enhancement. The paper also
contributes with a discussion on the opportunities, which are opened, and
the challenges that need to be addressed. Findings from the case studies, it
is reported that around 25% of the bridges in united states are deficient and
need continuous monitoring for enhancements to prevent any hazard. Un-
manned vehicles could be a great help in monitoring these bridges and oth-
er important components of transportation, which can efficiently minimize
the cost as well as the time spent on inspection for each of this component,
as manual inspection requires labor and time which would be subsequently
reduced by incorporating the usage of drones in the area of transportation.

　 Introduction
1. tion procurement and sensors to be utilized are included to

D
rone applications have become a regularly grow-
ing territory in remote sensing (RS) as of late,
determined by their both scholarly and business
triumphs. Although, these practices are exceptionally di-
vergent in any event, for the equivalent or comparative
application, essentially because of the way that informa-
be more adaptable than customary ways. These practices
are frequently created through a research process, and
there exist a couple of papers that survey current works of
transportation and infrastructure applications.
One of the hugest challenges confronting United Na-
tions (UN) Agencies and Non-Governmental Organizations
(NGOs) when reacting to quick beginning debacles, like

*Corresponding Author:
Kasim A. Korkmaz,
Eastern Michigan University, School of Visual and Built Environment, Ypsilanti, MI, USA;
Email: kkorkmaz@emich.edu

Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jaeser.v3i1.1787 1

 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 03 | Issue 01 | January 2020

floods, tremors, and typhoons, is to comprehend the ne- tion. Roahcs et al. (2006) additionally condense the regular
cessities of the influenced populace precisely and quickly. person’s use of the drones with concentrating on their ap-
Current direct evaluation techniques are tedious, and the plication in crisis the board. Different usage of drone aerial
information caught is frequently not led in a precise manner imagery, in the post-disaster evaluation and recovering, in
with the areas tested not being geographically correct (ex- the Philippines. Camara [2] talk about some potential uses
cessively grouped and excessively few), and the resulting of automations over disaster effected situations. They also
reports being delivered past the point of no return. These studied drone application in the field of disaster preven-
were the reasons which have increased the demand and tion and moderation, look and rescue task, land resource
usage of unmanned vehicles. The drone see from above is monitoring, and forest fire counteractive action. Xu, et al.,
fundamental for helpful purpose as they can catch aerial (2014) break down strategies for getting to and preparing
pictures/view at a far higher resolution, more rapidly and at computerized picture information in the rocky territory and
much lower cost than the satellite. In contrast to satellites, its application to crisis reaction.
individuals from the general population can really buy a In the literature review of this paper, it emphasizes on
drone, which implies that calamity influenced networks can applications of drone in rescue and real time application in
react to an emergency. disaster mitigation and gives an opportunity to the readers
With millions of people in US rely on the transporta- to explore it in other areas application wise. It also identi-
tion network, the safety, reliability and security of this is fies trends and suggest directions of future research.
an essential aspect which cannot be taken for granted or
3. Overview of Drone Use
ignored. As per the statistics, it is reported that around
25% of the bridges in united states are deficient and need Drone datasets are generally comprehended as drones
continuous monitoring for enhancements to prevent any with RGB cameras, it is significant that there exists a wide
hazard. Unmanned vehicles could be a great help in mon- scope of sensor alternatives while thinking about expert
itoring these bridges and other important components of applications. Many existing and costly RS instruments
transportation which can efficiently minimize the cost for flying and satellite stages are presently grasping their
as well as the time spent on inspection for each of this scaled down and ease adaptations for drone stages, for
component as manual inspection requires labor and time example, multispectral, hyperspectral, short/mid-wave run
which would be subsequently reduced by incorporating cameras and light-weight LiDAR (Light Identification and
the usage of drones in the area of transportation [3]. Running). Knowing the qualities of these sensors and their
details will better illuminate engineers and researchers.
2. Literature Review
Table 1. Use of Drones with Their Advantages and Disad-
The development of an drones is been there for over a vantages
decade. The first and foremost important usage was that it
Type Applications Advantages Disadvantages
was used right after the attack of 9/11 as a humanitarian re-
Calibration;
sponse and there exists of couple of disasters like launching High availability in
Visual analysis, and lack of
RGB Cameras products cost, reso-
them in typhoon Haiyan in Philippines in the year of 2013. mapping
lution, and weight
spectral infor-
mation
In Haiti right after hurricane sandy to evaluate conditions,
Visual analysis, Data format
and it was also flown in the famous flooding of china after Light-weight Wider spectrum
vegetation detec- compatibility
multispectral range and narrower
an earthquake which was also known as Balkan flooding cameras tion and analysis,
bandwidth
for software
[8] crop monitoring packages;
. The expanded interest for innovation following the Gulf
Abundant spectral
war was increased generously by the post-9/11 attack, in Land cover/land
information, 10 nm-
High cost;
Hyperspectral use mapping, most of them
Afghanistan and Iraq. These contentions, combined with sensors vegetation indices
level bandwidth
are linear-ar-
the more extensive Global War on Terror, made an opening for more advanced
estimation ray
applications
for the extended utilization of automatons on an extraor- Well-targeted sensor Lack of tex-
dinary scale [4]. According to (Hall, 2014)), world govern- Light-weight
Tracking creatures,
for surface tempera- ture informa-
ments spent more than $6.6 billion on drone technology in thermal infra- ture measurement tion of its im-
red sensors volcanos detection that drives a lot of ageries brings
2012. These numbers are expected to rapidly increased and new applications difficulties
is estimated to go upto $11.4 billion, which would bring Direct geometric High equip-
the worldwide drone market close to $100 billion. Liu, et Vegetation canopy measurement; ment cost;
analysis, esti- multiple returns of highly depen-
al. [6] give a review drone advancement and their potential Drone-Lidar
mation of forest the signals are useful dent on expen-
applications in infrastructure and civil engineering, such carbon absorption for terrain modeling sive onboard
as seismic assessment, transportation, and disaster mitiga- under thin canopies. measurement

2 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jaeser.v3i1.1787

 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 03 | Issue 01 | January 2020
4. Applications in Construction Industry
4.1 Surveying
Furnished with suitable sensors and camera advances,
drones give a practical stage to getting land information.
GPS empowered drones consequently follow a GPS con-
trolled flight way arranged ahead of time. Utilizing pho-
tographic frameworks which can give high goals pictures,
covering photographs taken by the drones are assembled
in a mosaic which is then changed into high goals 3D sur-
face models that can be utilized for topographic mapping,
volumetric figuring, or three dimensional portrayals of
places of work. drones outfitted with thermal imaging can
be utilized to find vitality spills by directing building en-
velope surveys [6].
4.2 Aerial Photography
The construction business has commonly used aerial pho-
tography to give photographs and video of the construc-
tion site from a 10,000 ft see. Taken from a crane, kept an
eye on fixed wing airplane or helicopter, this data gives a
one of a kind viewpoint to show progress on a project, and
is utilized in promoting for future business. Because of
their little size and mobility, drones can gather information
from much lower altitudes, beginning from ground level,
moving through the project at different statures and per-
spectives, just as fly-over perspectives over the site. The
outcomes can be found in minutes and at a small amount
of the expense of utilizing a plane or helicopter. Aerial
pictures created by drones can be taken every day to de-
sign the arrangement of put away materials, the progres-
sion of laborers and vehicles in and around the site, and to
recognize potential issues with introduced construction or
the constructability of arranged establishments.
Drones with GPS innovation are utilized with foreor-
dained waypoints to catch pictures from a similar aerial
point of view over time to follow genuine construction
progress against arranged advancement. Courses are pre-
arranged so the drone can follow foreordained courses
freely planning programming permits explicit courses,
rates, altitudes, and camera focuses to be entered, and
with certain frameworks, arrival can be practiced conse-
quently [10].
4.3 Construction Inspection
It has been approved by the oil business that utilizing
drones can improve the pipeline investigation proce-
dure and safety by decreasing specialist introduction to
unforgiving conditions in outrageous atmospheres. In a
business construction situation, a drone could examine
Distributed under creative commons license 4.0
an outside water spill on an upper floor of an elevated
structure where a window outline is associated to be
the source with the hole. A bustling expressway, mak-
ing access by different methods troublesome, flanks the
building. A drone could catch various photographs from
different edges and zoom settings surprisingly fast. The
whole activity can be led without street terminations, or
establishment of suspended framework, at significantly
lower cost.
4.4 Safety and Security Monitoring
A construction safety supervisor’s proficiency can be
expanded extraordinarily with the utilization of a drone.
Pictures and video caught by a drone can give significant
documentation of jobsite conditions in situations where
mishaps happen, and can give an apparatus to cover a
bigger zone of the site in a shorter measure of time. Secu-
rity of construction sites can likewise be upgraded using
drones incorporated into the security caution framework.
A drone could dock on a housetop station that keeps the
battery charged. At the point when an alarm is gotten, the
drone is conveyed and moves over the construction site to
catch video of what is going on.
5. Conclusion
Commercial applications for drones are developed across
many industries, including building construction. The
objectives of this research are to explore current uses of
drones within the construction industry, to evaluate the ex-
tent of in-house versus subcontracted operation of Drones
by construction companies, to identify risks associated
with using drones on job sites, and to identify future
drones’ uses on construction sites. Drones present numer-
ous open doors for those in the construction industry and
for construction instruction. In various examples they can
create critical cost investment funds when contrasted with
ordinary strategies. For college spending plans that are as
of now obliged, a drone gives an ease answer for investi-
gate aerial photographic, construction assessment proce-
dures, and for different applications that in any case would
be illogical. Safety both in the academic environment is a
key thought.
References
[1] Cai, G. L.. A Brief Overview on Miniature Fixed-
Wing Unmanned Aerial. 8th IEEE Conference on
Control and Automation. 2010: 285-290.
ISBN: 9781424451951
[2] Camara, D.. Cavalry to the rescue: Drones fleet to
help rescuers operations over disasters. IEEE Con-
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 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 03 | Issue 01 | January 2020
ference on Antenna Measurements and Applications,
2014.
[3] Colin Brooks, R. J.. Evaluating the Use of Drones for
Transportation. Michigan Tech Research Institute,
2015.
[4] Elliot, T., Hall, M.. Sea robot-assisted. IEEE Robot-
ics and Automation Magazine, 2011, 18(2), 5876204:
96-107.
[5] Liu, M. C.. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles in the Con-
struction Industry. 53rd ASC Annual International
Conference Proceedings, 2017.
[6] Liu, P., Chen, A., Huang, Y. N., Han, J.-Y., Lai, J.-S.,
Kang, S.C Tsai.. A Review of rotorcraft unmanned
aerial vehicle (UAV) developments and applications
in civil engineering. Smart Structures and Systems,
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2014, 13(6): 1065-1094.
[7] Miller, P. C. Agriculture and Power Grid Inspection
Are Among the Fastest Growing UAV.
http://www.virtual- strategy.com/2015/09/18/agricul-
ture-and-pow
[8] Meir, P.. Humanitarian in the sky: drones for disaster
response, 2014.
[9] Molla, D.. Drones for AEC: How every stage of a
building project can benefit from drone technology,
2015.
[10] Neil D. Opfer, r. D.. Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Ap-
plications and Issues for Construction. 121st ASCE
annual conference, 2014.
[11] S.Pedrozo, F.. Power and space in drone age- A liter-
ature review. Germany: Insitut de Geographie, n.d..
DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jaeser.v3i1.1787
 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 03 | Issue 01 | January 2020

Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research

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ARTICLE
Time-varying Reliability Analysis of Long-span Continuous Rigid
Frame bridge under Cantilever Construction Stage based on the Mon-
itored Strain Data
Yinghua Li1*　Kesheng Peng2　Lurong Cai3　Junyong He4
1. Shixing County Bureau of transportation, Shixing, Shaoguan, Guangdong, 512500, China
2. HARDA (XIAMEN) PLASTIC CO.,LTD, TongAn Industrial Area, Xiamen, 361000, China
3. Zhongshan city Waterway Administration, Zhongshan, Guangdong, 512500, China
4. Guangdong College of Industry and Commerce, Guangzhou, 512500, China

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history In general, the material properties, loads, resistance of the prestressed
Received: 28 March 2019 concrete continuous rigid frame bridge in different construction stages are
time-varying. So, it is essential to monitor the internal force state when
Accepted: 14 April 2019 the bridge is in construction. Among them, how to assess the safety is one
Published Online: 30 April 2020 of the challenges. As the continuous monitoring over a long-term period
can increase the reliability of the assessment, so, based on a large number
Keywords: of monitored strain data collected from the structural health monitoring
Continuous rigid frame bridge system (SHMS) during construction, a calculation method of the puncti-
form time-varying reliability is proposed in this paper to evaluate the stress
Structural health monitoring state of this type bridge in cantilever construction stage by using the basic
Construction stage reliability theory. At the same time, the optimal stress distribution function
Punctiform time-varying reliability in the bridge mid-span base plate is determined when the bridge is closed.
This method can provide basis and direction for the internal force control of
Strain data preprocessing
this type bridge in construction process. So, it can reduce the bridge safety
and quality accidents in construction stages.

　
1. Introduction tion stage, and its role is to ensure the safety evaluation

D
uring the construction of bridge engineering,
quality accidents have occurred sometimes. For
example, two collapse accidents happened on
Quebec Bridge during construction in Canada, of which
the span is 548.46 meters. Therefore, monitoring and
controlling of the bridge from the beginning of construc-
tion is an important methodology to ensure the bridge
construction safety and quality, especially the long-span
bridges. Today, construction monitoring is an essential
part of the modern large-span bridges in the construc-
for the construction quality and safety of the bridge.
Because of the influence of many factors (such as: non
uniformity of the material itself, non stability of material
properties, the changing of temperature and humidity
etc.) and the changing of structure shape, loads and re-
sistance in the construction stage, it makes the internal
force safety assessment by the monitoring information
of the continuous rigid frame bridge become the difficult
parts.
At present, many international scholars have done a
lot of research on the theory of engineering structure re-

*Corresponding Author:
Li Yinghua,
Shixing County Bureau of transportation, Shixing, Shaoguan, Guangdong, 512500, China;
Email: lyh304236@163.com

Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jaeser.v3i1.1779 5

 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 03 | Issue 01 | January 2020
liability assessment during construction, and the achieve-
ment is widely used. Ayyub [1-2] analyzed the cause of the
collapse accident of a cast-in-place reinforced concrete
structure in Florida beach by the reliability evaluation
method during construction period, and puts forward the
basic method for structural reliability analysis during
construction phase of the project. EI-shahhat, Rosowsky
and Chen [3-4] did the structural reliability analysis by
using the improved structure analysis method in con-
struction period and the computer numerical simulation
method. Yuji Niihara [5] studied the reliability of the
prestressed cable stayed bridge during cantilever con-
struction under the condition of wind vibration. Casus
[6]
suggested a set of partial safety factors for compo-
nent stability design of the prestressed concrete bridges
during cantilever construction. Animesh and Mahadevan
[7]
et al. proposed a numerical simulation technology of
the time-varying load and resistance, and calculate the
structural reliability by this method, of which the prac-
ticability and accuracy of the method are verified by
examples. The document [8] established the reinforced
concrete structure resistance and load effects probabi-
listic models according to the characteristic during con-
struction stage. K.J.M. etc [9] suggested using the normal
probability distribution to describe the distribution char-
acters of the monitored stress data got from the SHMS
of long-span bridges, and applied the reliability theory
to evaluate the safety based on the monitored data. Degt-
yarev [10] presented a reliability-based evaluation method
of the CSSBI 12M provisions for composite steel deck in
the construction stage. Liu Yang etc [11] did some theoret-
ical research of reliability calculation of the prestressed
concrete continuous rigid frame bridge by the use of MC
method in construction stage.
However, it is still lack of the research of reliability
assessment method for the cantilever casting concrete
bridges based on the monitored data during construction
stage, and that it is mainly lack of safety evaluation on
the stress state in the phase of the construction and the
safety level judgment basis of the stress state when the
bridge is closed. So, it is lack of the internal force con-
trolling and regulating basis of this type bridge during
construction. Therefore, based on the monitored strain
data from the monitoring system of a continuous rigid
frame bridge during construction, a safety assessment
method is proposed to evaluate the stress state of the
continuous rigid frame bridge from the beginning of the
construction stage to the bridge closure construction.
This method can be used to evaluate the internal force
state in each construction stage, and it can ensure the op-
timal security level of the internal force state of this type
6 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0
bridge when the bridge is in closure construction.
2. Illustration of the Health Monitoring Sys-
tem
2.1 Monitoring of the Strain Data during Con-
struction Stage
The sensors applied to bridge monitoring and test from
construction to operation are mainly resistance strain
gauge, vibrating wire strain gauge and optical fiber
strain sensor etc. As for the strain data records, we use
the automation comprehensive test system, which is a
powerful distributed automatic static network data ac-
quisition system and adaptive to various automatic en-
gineering monitoring spots, and it can be widely used in
engineering field environment monitoring with long time
unattended automatic test, such as bridge construction,
water conservancy, hydroelectric power, railway, dam,
highway etc.
In this manuscript, the strain monitoring during the
bridge construction is implemented by JMZX-215 intel-
ligent string type digital strain gauge, which is a kind of
embedded concrete strain gauge and capable of simultane-
ous measurement of strain and temperature, and is adapt
to various concrete structure internal strain measurement,
long-term monitoring and automatic measurement. The
parameters of JMZX-215 type strain gauge are shown
in Table 1. The strain gauge installation adopts binding
method, and then the strain measurement is carried out
after the casting concrete is solidified. Figure 1 is the pic-
ture of JMZX-215 string type digital strain embedded in
the bridge before casting. Sensors are embedded in the
bridge’s key sections, and the embedded positions are
shown in Figure 2. The cross sections with the measur-
ing points of the health monitoring system in the bridge
girder locate near piers, in mid-span and in 1/4 span, and
there are total 20 sections (seen in Figure 3). By the ad-
opted system and sensors, the bridge can be monitored in
real-time in the construction stage. The data acquisition
frequency is one hour.
Table 1. Basic performance parameters of JMZX-215
type strain gauge
Name Range Sensitivity Gauge length Remarks
Intelligent digital Strain gauge
vibrating strain ±1500 µε 1 µε 157 mm embedded in
gauge concrete
DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jaeser.v3i1.1779
 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 03 | Issue 01 | January 2020
Figure 1. JMZX-215 intelligent string-type digital strain
gauge installed inside the bridge before casting
Figure 2. Positions of the embedded sensors in the bridge
cross-section
Figure 3. Section locations of the embeded sensors in the
bridge girder
2.2 The Initial Monitored Data
The bridge construction was started in 2003 September,
closed in June 2005, and was opened to traffic in October
2005. Here, the data collected from the sensors named
4G1-1, 4G1-2, 4-5MID-1 and 4-5MID-2 located near the
roots and mid-span between the main pier 4# and 5# are
selected as analysis examples, of which the selected mon-
itoring time section is from the bridge 0# block construc-
tion (2004 August) to the bridge closure construction, and
the time is before opening to traffic (2005 September).
Figure 4 shows the shape of the original data collected in
the time range from each segmental box girder construc-
tion to the bridge finishing.
Distributed under creative commons license 4.0
4G1h-2
3000
2400
The initial value
1800
4G1h-1
1200
600 4-5MID-1
-600 4-5MID-2
200412070000 200503042000 200507012200
Time
Figure 4. The data profile collected from the bridge
SHMS during construction
3. The Main Idea of Punctiform Time-vary-
ing Reliability Calculation based on the Mon-
itored Strain Data
3.1 The Reliability Calculation Method
There are many kinds of methods to compute the reli-
ability, such as: the center point method, the first-order
second-moment method, the checking point method (JC
method), the geometric method, the Monte Carlo numer-
ical method etc. As the reliability calculation by using
first-order second-moment method is simple, and its
calculation accuracy can meet the requirement of engi-
neering. In the following, this paper uses the first-order
second-moment method to solve the practical engineering
reliability calculation problem in construction stages.
However, the solving result by this method is accurate
only if the random variables statistic is independent and
obey the normal distribution, otherwise it can only get ap-
proximate results.
The resistance R(t) and load effects S(t) of large-span
prestressed concrete bridges in cantilever casting con-
struction are both functions of time. As the prestressed
concrete bridge cantilever casting is carried out according
to construction stage sequence, the function of each con-
struction stage can be expressed as:
(1)
In the formula: N is the number of construction stage
experienced by the structural member; i expresses the ith
construction stage. In the above equation, the function
expressed by Eq. (1) is the whole of random process with
parameter t, and it is complex to calculate the reliability
DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jaeser.v3i1.1779 7
 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 03 | Issue 01 | January 2020
directly according to the above equation. Therefore, this
article uses the structural dynamic reliability analysis
method to calculate the reliability, which can take dynam-
ic reliability analysis of structure construction whole pro-
cess as a collection of static reliability of each construc-
tion stage.
In this article, the basic theory of structural reliability
calculation is adopted to calculate the bridge component
reliability index under each construction stage, and the
failure probability P fi of the bridge structure members
during each construction stage (or reliability βi) can be
written as [9]:
(2)
In the formula: the meanings of N and i are the same as
the above; fri(r)and fsi(s)are the probability density func-
tion of the random variable R of component resistance
and load effects S in each construction stage respectively.
If fri(r) and fsi(s) both obey normal distribution respective-
ly, the calculation formula of reliability index βi in each
construction stage can be written as:
(3)
In the formula: Φ-1 is the inverse function of the stan-
dard normal distribution; μRi and μSi are the mean of the re-
sistance and load effects respectively in the bridge’s each
construction stage; σRiand σSi are the resistance standard
deviation and load effects standard deviation respectively
in each construction stage, of which the load effects can
be obtained by the internal force monitoring in construc-
tion. As the applied stresses and stress capacities both are
dependent on concrete material properties, and the cor-
relation between the applied stresses and stress capacities
is basically independent. So, we use the material strength
as the resistance R in this paper.
3.2 The Probability Density Function of the Struc-
tural Resistance
The concrete material strength probability distribution
function is taken as the probability density function of the
resistance R, which generally obey the Gauss distribution.
As the tensile and compressive properties of the concrete
are different, two equations are adopted to represent the
compressive and tensile strength distribution function:
(4a)
8 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0
(4b)
In the formula: fRci(r) and fRti(r) are the Gauss distribu-
tion function of the compressive and tensile strength of
concrete respectively in each bridge construction stage; μci
is the mean compressive strength of concrete material in
each bridge construction stage; σ2ci is the variance of the
compressive strength of concrete material in each bridge
construction stage; μti is the mean of the tensile strength
of concrete material in each construction stage; σ2ti is the
variance of the tensile strength of concrete material in
each construction stage.
However, the concrete strength changes with time [12].
Zhang Jianren [13] has carried out experimental study on
the early change law of the compressive strength and
elastic modulus of concrete, and acquired the mechanical
property and change law of early strength and modulus
of different strength grade concrete , and its strength in
different time section can still be assumed to obey normal
distribution. As for the strength grade C50 concrete used
in the bridge, its cubic compressive strength time-varying
model is:
u fcu (t) = u fcu 0 •η (t) = u fcu 0 [exp(−1.3 / t)]
 (5)
σ fcu (t) = σ fcu 0 • ζ (t) = σ fcu 0 [(0.1189 + 0.0475t ) / t]
In the formula: μfcu0 and σfcu0 are the mean and standard
deviation of 28 days curing compressive strength of con-
crete cubes; μfcu(t) and σfcu(t) are the mean and standard
deviation variation of concrete cube compressive strength
after t days. For the cantilever casting prestressed concrete
bridge which adopts C50 strength grade concrete, Eq. (5)
can be used to estimate the mean and standard deviation
of concrete axial compressive strength in each construc-
tion stage. Among them μfcu0 and σfcu0 can be got by in-situ
test.
As we lack field test data of concrete tensile strength
parameters, so, we estimate them theoretically. According
to the specification [14], there is a approximate relationship
between the mean axial tensile strength of the concrete
used in the bridge member and the mean standard cube
compressive strength. So, we use the following formula to
calculate the mean axial tensile strength of concrete mate-
rial.
(6)
As for the variation law of C50 concrete tensile
DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jaeser.v3i1.1779
 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 03 | Issue 01 | January 2020
strength in construction stage, combined type (5) and (6),
this article assumes that it obeys the following changes:
ut (t) =• ut 0 η (t)0.55 = ut 0 [exp(−1.3 / t)]0.55
 (7)
σ t (t) =σ t 0 • ζ (t) =σ t 0 [(0.1189 + 0.0475t ) / t]
In the formula: μt0 and σt0 are the mean and standard de-
viation of the concrete cube tensile strength after 28 days
curing; μt(t) and σt(t) are the mean and standard deviation
variation equation of concrete cube tensile strength after
t days. So, Eq. (7) is used to estimate the mean μti and the
deviation σt(t) of the concrete axial tensile strength in each
construction stage in this paper.
On the above, it has been written that the mean com-
pressive strength μfcu0 can be obtained by in situ test. Then,
the concrete member axial tensile strength μt0 is estimated
by the above Eq. (7) in each bridge construction stage.
Also, according to the variation coefficient δf in specifica-
tion [14], which suggests taking the value 0.11, then, stan-
dard deviation σt0 of the axial tensile strength of concrete
can be estimated. So, the mean and standard deviation of
the concrete tensile strength are got, seen in Table 2. Of
course, there are uncertainties in the variation of the ten-
sile capacity of concrete applied in this paper and can be
eliminated by field test data.
Table 2. The mean and standard deviation of the concrete
compressive and tensile strength
Strength Mean (MPa) Standard deviation (MPa)
compressive 55.12 6.063
tensile 3.2783 0.361
3.3 Structural Load Effects Probability Density
Function
Generally, the bridge load effects probability density func-
tion also obeys normal distribution [9]. So, this paper as-
sumes that the load effects probability density function in
each concrete bridge construction stage can be expressed
as the following formula:
(8)
In the formula: fSi(s) is the Gauss distribution function
of the concrete member load effects in each bridge con-
struction stage; μsi is the mean of component load effects
in each bridge construction stage; σ2si is the variance of
component load effects in each bridge construction stage.
Distributed under creative commons license 4.0
According to the previous discussion, if the resistance
and load effects of the bridge in each construction stage
are both obey normal distribution, Then, the reliability of
the concrete bridge in each construction stage can be cal-
culated according to Eq. (3).
As the bridge member resistance has two probability
density functions fRci(r) and fRci(r) in each construction
stage, therefore, according to Eq. (2), there are two reli-
ability indexes βci and βti responding to the load proba-
bility density function fsi(s) in each construction stage. In
view of this, the calculation method of the above two re-
liability indexes in this paper is: if there is |μsi-μci|<|μsi-μti|,
calculate reliability index βci according to Eq. (2); if not,
then, calculate the reliability index βti, of which the mean-
ing is that the load stress distribution is gradually close to
concrete compressive or tensile strength distribution with
time and so there is no need to consider the difference in
variance, shown in the calculation diagram below.
Figure 5. Reliability index calculation schematic diagram
of the bridge in each construction stage
4. Preprocessing of the Strain Data
4.1 The Step of the Preprocessing
As the monitored strain can not be directly used for reli-
ability calculation, it must be carried on some necessary
preprocessing to transform into stress, and then can be
used to calculate the reliability. The steps are as follows:
(1) Take the sensor initial settings after the casted con-
crete is solidified. Because the sensors are embedded be-
fore the concrete casting, the concrete hydration heat will
produce initial strain in sensors. So, the monitored strain
of each sensor should be subtracted from this value, of
which the goal is to get setting values of the sensors after
the concrete is solidified.
(2) Subtract the shrinkage and creep strain values
from the sensor monitored strain. According to the finite
element technology (For example, use finite element cal-
culation software), we build a simulation model of the
DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jaeser.v3i1.1779 9
 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 03 | Issue 01 | January 2020

background bridge according to each construction stage, ness coefficient EI according to the deflection monitored
and modify the finite element model by the field test data. data. The model defines 28 construction stages based on
Then, based on the FEM model of the bridge, we calculate the construction process, seen in Table 3.
and extract the shrinkage and creep values corresponding
to the embedded strain sensor position in each construc-
tion stage. Then, we subtract the extracted shrinkage and
creep values from the sensor measured strain values.
(3) Subtract the thermal expansion strain from the
sensor monitored strain. Due to the variation of environ-
mental temperature, the monitored strain includes thermal
strain. It is best to choose temperature digital strain senor,
as mentioned above, which can simultaneously monitor
temperature. So, it is easy to remove the thermal strain
from the monitored strain. Figure 6. FE model
As the bridge is in construction and not come into ser-
vice, so, we assume that the measured stains are linearly Table 3. Definition of construction phase of the FE model
related to the stresses in this paper and that the concrete
Stage Describe
material is in linear elastic deformation stage. When the
monitored data is processed according to the above meth- Stage 1 construction of the pier body
od, the stress data can be conversed from the strain data Stage 2 construction of block 0# and 1#
by the following formula: Stage 3 construction of block 2#
Stage 4 construction of block 3#
σ E (t ) • ε (9)
= Stage 5 construction of block 4#
Stage 6 construction of block 5#
In the formula: E(t) is the concrete time-varying elastic
Stage 7 construction of block 6#
modulus. During the construction period, the early phase
strength and modulus of concrete are changing with time. Stage 8 construction of block 7#

As the bridge adopts C50 grade concrete, according to the Stage 9 construction of block 8#
reference [8], the early stage modulus variation law of C50 Stage 10 construction of block 9#
concrete can be approximately expressed as the following Stage 11 construction of block 10#
formula: Stage 12 construction of block 11#
Stage 13 construction of block 12#
E (t ) = E0 (t ) • exp(−0.3 / t ) (10) Stage 14 construction of block 13#
Stage 15 construction of block 14#
In the formula: E0(t) is the initial modulus after 28 days
Stage 16 construction of block 15#
curing of the concrete, and E0(t)can be got by in situ test.
Due to the randomness of concrete materials, Eq. (10) Stage 17 construction of block 16#

should be revised by measured data. However, due to Stage 18 construction of the pier 1#
lacking field test data, we use Eq. (10) to get the approxi- Stage 19 casting of side span
mate values in this paper. Stage 20 closure counterweight
Stage 21 closure of the secondary side span
4.2 The Building of FEM Model for Simulating
Stage 22 Removal of cast-in-place support and hanger
the Bridge Construction
Stage 23 closure of the side span
4.2.1 The building of FEM model Stage 24
removal of secondary side span closure segment hanger and
bracket
In order to deduct the shrinkage and creep effects, this pa- Stage 25 closure of the mid span
per uses 3-D finite element program to establish numerical Stage 26 removal of mid span closure segment hanger and bracket
model according to the specific construction process of the Stage 27 bearing transformation of 2# and 6# piers
bridge (seen in Figure 6). The shrinkage and creep models Stage 28 application of the dead load
adopt CEB-FIP 90 model [15], and the material parameters
are determined by field measurement, and revise the stiff- Through calculation, the creep and shrinkage values
around the embedded sensors can be acquired.

10 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jaeser.v3i1.1779

 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 03 | Issue 01 | January 2020

4.2.2 The Verification of the FEM Model
In order to check the reliability of the finite element mod-
el, a calibration work has been done by using the mea-
sured elevation data. Figure 7 shows the comparison of
part of the main beam elevation and deflection changes
between the FE modal and the measured data during con-
struction. Through comparison, the calculation models are
basically in line with the reality. So, The FEM model built
in this paper can be used to calculate the concrete shrink-
age and creep strain values of the bridge.
41.2
Main beam elevation (m)
corresponding to the dead load construction, 19# corre-
sponding to the time section from the bridge finished to
the time before the bridge opening to traffic.
As the reliability calculated by the above proposed
method only reflects the local reliability state and the
time-varying characters around the embedded sensors, so,
we call this punctiform time-varying reliability.
4.4 Example Analysis
In this paper, we take the data collected from the sensor
named 4G1h-1 and 4-5MID-2 embedded in the support-
ing base top plate and the mid-span section base plate
Measured data between 4# and 5# pier of the bridge as example, and

FEM values
40.8 preprocess the data according to the method suggested in
40.4
Section 4.1, and convert the data into stress data, and then
40.0

39.6
do statistical analysis of the stress data. Seen from Figure
39.2 8 and Figure 9, the stress data are basically normally dis-
320 340 360 380 400 tributed, but still appear some randomly truncated on the
Axial coordination of the bridge (m)
left or on the right, for which the main reason is that there
(a) The main beam elevation are too many influence factors when the bridge is in con-
struction. In this article, we assume that all the variables
Measured data
are normally distributed and deal with the statistical data
Deflection change values (m)

0.1 FEM values

by Gauss distribution fitting, which can be seen in Figure
0.0 8 and Figure 9. The mean and standard deviation are ob-
tained and shown in Table 4.
-0.1

-0.2 0.16 Data: Data1_I

Model: Gauss
-0.3
Equation: y=y0 + (A/(w*s
648 656 664 672 680 0.12 Weighting:
Axial coordination of the bridge (m) y No weighting
probability

0.08 Chi^2/DoF = 0.0002

(b) Deflection changes of the main beam R^2 = 0.92921

0.04 y0 0.0237 ¡ À
0.0073
Figure 7. Comparison of part of the main beam elevation xc -1.28196 ¡
w 0.53271 ¡
and deflection during construction process 0.00 A 0.09284 ¡
-2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0
stress(MPa)
4.3 Division of Statistical Data Time Segment
According to the characteristics of the bridge construction (0#)20040902 ～ 20040927
phase, in this paper, we take each construction stage as
the statistical time period (The construction stage divi- Data: Data3_H
0.125 Model: Gauss
sion is detail described in Table 3). The sample capacity Equation: y=y0 + (A/(w*sqrt(PI/2
Weighting:
of each statistical segment is about 200 ~ 600, which is 0.100 y No weighting
enough for load effects statistics, and the derived load ef-
probability

0.075 Chi^2/DoF = 0.00047

fects include the influence of environmental temperature R^2 = 0.75758

(include extreme weather), the structure shape, live load 0.050 y0 -0.0048¡ À0.02528
xc -5.37152 ¡ À0.085
and resistance changing with time during the bridge con- w 1.38472 ¡ À0.398
0.025
struction etc. Each statistical time section is named in the A 0.18378 ¡ À0.086

sequence: 0#, 1#, 2#, 3#, 4#, 5#, 6#, 7# 8#, 9#, 10#, 11#, 0.000
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4
12#, 13#, 14#, 15#, 16#, 17#, 18#, 19#. Among them, 0 ~
stress(MPa)
16# indicate each segmental concrete pouring construc-
tion, 17# corresponding to the closure construction, 18# (2#)20041012 ～ 20041026

Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jaeser.v3i1.1779 11

 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 03 | Issue 01 | January 2020

0.25
Data: Data4_K 0.20 Data: Data8_I
Model: Gauss Model: Gauss
0.20 Equation: y=y0 + (A/(w*sqrt(PI/2)))*exp(-2*((x-xc)/w)^2) Equation: y=y0 + (A/(w*sqrt(P
Weighting: 0.16 Weighting:
y No weighting y No weighting
0.15

probability
probability
0.12
Chi^2/DoF = 0.00076 Chi^2/DoF = 0.00035
R^2 = 0.77711 R^2 = 0.93733
0.10 0.08
y0 0.05827 ¡ À0.01391 y0 0.02331 0.0
¡ À
xc -7.53615 ¡ À0.10691 xc -10.49639 ¡ À
0.0
0.05 0.04
w 1.08249 ¡ À0.27645 w 0.4854 ¡ À0.05782
A 0.16142 ¡ À0.04838 A 0.09966 ¡ À
0.0
0.00
0.00 -12.0 -11.4 -10.8 -10.2 -9.6
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5
stress(MPa)
Stress(MPa)
(7#)20041205 ～ 20041220
(3#)20041026 ～ 20041105

0.20 0.24

0.20 Data: Data9_I

0.16 Model: Gauss
Data: Data5_K
Model: Gauss Equation: y=y0 + (A/(w*sqrt(PI/2)))
0.16 Weighting:

probability
Equation: y=y0 + (A/(w*sqrt(PI/2)))*exp(-2*((x-xc)/w)^2)
0.12
probability

Weighting: y No weighting
y No weighting 0.12
Chi^2/DoF = 0.00032
0.08 Chi^2/DoF = 0.00048 0.08 R^2 = 0.957
R^2 = 0.85787
y0 -0.01045 ¡ À0.02963
0.04 y0 0.00545 ¡ À0.01764 0.04 xc -11.86278 ¡ À0.02054
xc -8.04718 ¡ À0.06475 w 0.65636 ¡ À0.11336
w 0.94708 ¡ À0.21924 0.00 A 0.1694 ¡ À0.0484
0.00 A 0.14771 ¡ À0.04633 -12.5 -12.0 -11.5 -11.0
-9.6 -9.0 -8.4 -7.8 -7.2
stress(MPa)
stress(MPa)
(8#)20041220 ～ 20041228
(4#)20041105 ～ 20041115
0.20 Data: Data10_I
Model: Gauss
0.15 0.16 Equation: y=y0 + (A/(w*sqrt(PI/2)))*
Data: Data6_I
Model: Gauss Weighting:
Equation: y=y0 + (A/(w*sqrt(PI/2)))*exp(-2*((x-xc)/w)^2) y No weighting
Weighting: 0.12
probability
probability

0.10 y No weighting Chi^2/DoF = 0.00093

R^2 = 0.70686
Chi^2/DoF = 0.00021 0.08
R^2 = 0.9093 y0 -0.05322 ¡ À0.1602
0.05 xc -11.29212 ¡ À0.08384
y0 0.01973 ¡ 0À.00588 0.04
xc -8.75623 ¡ À0.04125 w 1.63037 ¡ À1.2466
w 0.85659 ¡ À0.10168 A 0.34797 ¡ À0.57294
0.00
0.00 A 0.11945 ¡ À0.01617 -12 -11 -10
-11 -10 -9 -8
stress(MPa)
stress(MPa)
(9#)20041228 ～ 20050108
(5#)20041115 ～ 20041124

0.20
0.16
Data: Data7_K
0.16 Model: Gauss Data: Data11_I
0.12 Model: Gauss
Equation: y=y0 + (A/(w*sqrt(PI/2)))*exp(-2*((x-xc)/w)^2) Equation: y=y0 + (A/(w*
Weighting:
probability

Weighting:
0.12
probability

y No weighting y No weighting
0.08
Chi^2/DoF = 0.00079 Chi^2/DoF = 0.000
0.08 R^2 = 0.75982 R^2 = 0.91196
0.04 y0 0.00948
y0 -0.00116 ¡ À0.0211
0.04 xc -10.63422
xc -9.94583 ¡ À0.08969 w 1.1181 ¡ À0.187
w 1.3358 ¡ À0.31853 0.00 A 0.2009 ¡ À0.041
A 0.21273 ¡ À0.07382 -12.0 -11.2 -10.4 -9.6
0.00
-11 -10 -9 -8 stress(MPa)
stress(MPa)
(10#)20050108 ～ 20050118
(6#)20041124 ～ 20041205

12 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jaeser.v3i1.1779

Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 03 | Issue 01 | January 2020

Data: Data12_I
0.25 Model: Gauss 0.20 Data: Data16_I
Equation: y=y0 + (A/(w*sqrt(PI/2)))*exp(-2*((x-xc)/w)^2) Model: Gauss
0.20 Weighting: Equation: y=y0 + (A/(w*sqrt(P
y No weighting 0.15 Weighting:

probability
probability

y No weighting
0.15 Chi^2/DoF = 0.00041
R^2 = 0.91616 0.10 Chi^2/DoF = 0.00104
0.10 R^2 = 0.89234
y0 0.00785 ¡ À
0.00634
0.05 y0 -0.00754 ¡ À0.0
0.05 xc -11.45191 ¡ À
0.0172
xc -10.47431 ¡ 0À.0
w 0.40987 ¡ À
0.0401 w 0.77804 ¡ À0.1
A 0.09152 ¡ À
0.00959 0.00 A 0.22413 ¡ À0.0
0.00 -12 -11 -10 -9
-12.0 -11.2 -10.4 -9.6
stress(MPa) stress(MPa)

(11#)20050118 ～ 20050201 (15#)20050310 ～ 20050328

0.30 Data: Data17_I

Data: Data13_I Model: Gauss
0.36 Model: Gauss Equation: y=y0 + (A/(w*sqrt(P
Equation: y=y0 + (A/(w*sqrt(PI/2)))*exp(-2*((x-xc)/w)^2)
0.24 Weighting:
0.30 Weighting: y No weighting
y No weighting

probability
0.24 0.18
probability

Chi^2/DoF = 0.00305
Chi^2/DoF = 0.00063
0.18 R^2 = 0.74708
R^2 = 0.96096 0.12
0.12 y0 0.02624 ¡ 0À.0
y0 0.00932 ¡ À
0.01201
0.06 xc -9.73441 ¡ À0.0
0.06
xc -11.17393 ¡ À
0.02083
w 0.51582 ¡ À0.1
w 0.5005 ¡ 0À.05113
A 0.14033 ¡ À0.0
0.00 A 0.17951 ¡ À
0.02056 0.00
-12.0 -11.5 -11.0 -10.5 -10.0 -11.0 -10.5 -10.0 -9.5 -9.0
stress(MPa) stress(MPa)

(12#)20050201 ～ 20050215 (16#)20050328 ～ 20050415

0.30
Data: Data14_I Data: Data18_I
0.25 Model: Gauss 0.24 Model: Gauss
Equation: y=y0 + (A/(w*sqrt(PI/2)))*exp(-2*((x-xc)/w)^2) Equation: y=y0 + (A/(w
Weighting: Weighting:
0.20 0.18
probability

y No weighting y No weighting
probability

0.15 Chi^2/DoF = 0.00063 Chi^2/DoF = 0.00

R^2 = 0.95749 0.12
R^2 = 0.85536
0.10
y0 -0.00846 ¡ 0À.015950.06 y0 0.00219
xc -11.02313 ¡ 0À.02523 xc -11.07467
0.05
w 0.64733 ¡ 0.07344
À w 0.70064
A 0.21875 ¡ 0.031050.00
À A 0.19328
0.00 -12 -11 -10
-12.0 -11.5 -11.0 -10.5 -10.0
stress(MPa)
stress(MPa)
(17#)20050415 ～ 20050610
(13#) 20050215 ～ 20050225

0.20
0.25 Data: Data15_I
Model: Gauss Data: Data19_I
Model: Gauss
Equation: y=y0 + (A/(w*sqrt(PI/2)))*exp(-2*((x-xc)/w)^2)
0.15
0.20 Equation: y=y0 + (A/(w*sqrt(P
Weighting:
Weighting:
y No weighting
probability

y No weighting
probability

0.15
Chi^2/DoF = 0.002 0.10
Chi^2/DoF = 0.00047
0.10 R^2 = 0.74248 R^2 = 0.89467
y0 0.00171 ¡ À0.02005 0.05 y0 0.01747 ¡ À0.0
0.05 xc -10.61297 ¡ À0.07351 xc -11.53686 ¡ À0.0
w 0.8331 ¡ À0.19369 w 0.80602 ¡ À0.1
0.00 A 0.19457 ¡ À0.05337 A 0.15251 ¡ À0.0
-12 -11 -10 -9 0.00
-14 -13 -12 -11
stress(MPa)
stress(MPa)
(14#) 20050225 ～ 20050310
(18#)20050610 ～ 20050704

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 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 03 | Issue 01 | January 2020

It can be seen from Figure 8 and Figure 9 that the

stress variation range produced by the live load during
Data: Data20_I
0.12 Model:the
Gaussbridge construction phase is about 3MPa, and the load
Equation: y=y0 + (A/(w*sqrt(PI/2)))*exp(-2*((x-xc)/w)^2)
probability effects
Weighting: distribution basically obey normal distribution. So,
0.08 y we can use the method in Section 3 for the calculation of
No weighting

reliability.
Chi^2/DoF = 0.00029At the same time, as the resistance is time-vary-
R^2 = 0.88293
0.04
ing, this article only takes mean value of resistance pa-
y0 0.01467 ¡ À0.00541
xc rameters
-12.95492 of
¡ À each construction stage for the calculation of
0.04572
0.00
-16 -15 -14 -13 -12
w
A
reliability.
0.92894
0.13991
¡ À
¡ À
0.10694
0.01755
stress(MPa)
Table 4. The standard deviation of the measured load
(19#)20050704 ～ 20050920
effects probability distribution in each time section
number of the sensor
Figure 8. Stress distribution statistics and Gaussian distri-
Construction
bution fitting of the data collected from the sensor 4G1h-1 sequence
4G1h-1 4-5MID-2
Standard devia- Standard devia-
mean(MPa) mean(MPa)
tion(MPa) tion(MPa)
0.30
0# -1.282 0.533
Data: Data1_H
0.24 Model: Gauss 1#
Equation: y=y0 + (A/(w*sqrt(PI/2)))*exp(-2*((x-xc)/w)^2)
Weighting:
0.18 2# -5.372 1.384
probability

y No weighting

0.12 Chi^2/DoF = 0.00026 3# -7.536 1.082

R^2 = 0.95742

0.06 y0 0.00984 ¡ 0.004354#

À -8.047 0.947
xc -1.0131¡ À
0.01741
w 0.54922 0.037785#
¡ À -8.756 0.857
0.00 A 0.15866 ¡ À
0.01078
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0
6# -9.945 1.335
stress(MPa)
7# -10.496 0.485
(17#) 20050530 ～ 20050610 8# -11.862 0.656
9# -11.292 1.630
0.10
Data: Data2_H
Model: Gauss 10# -10.634 1.118
0.08 Equation: y=y0 + (A/(w*sqrt(PI/2)))*exp(-2*((x-xc)/w)^2)
Weighting: 11# -11.452 0.410
y No weighting
0.06
probability

Chi^2/DoF = 0.00003
12# -11.174 0.501
R^2 = 0.96797
0.04 13# -11.023 0.647
y0 0.00038 ¡ 0À.00262
0.02 xc -11.53153 ¡ À0.03631 14# -10.613 0.833
w 1.37903 ¡ À0.09535
0.00
A 0.13157 ¡ À0.01104 15# -10.474 0.778
-13 -12 -11 -10 -9
stress(MPa) 16# -9.734 0.516
17# -11.075 0.701 -1.013 0.549
(18#) 20050610 ～ 20050704
18# -11.537 0.806 -11.532 1.379
19# -12.955 0.929 -13.034 2.1098
Data: Data3_H
0.12 Model: Gauss
As the applied stresses and the concrete material
Equation: y=y0 + (A/(w*sqrt(PI/2)))*exp(-2*((x-xc)/w)^2)
Weighting:
strength are basically independent and the stress data is
y No weighting
probability

0.08 Chi^2/DoF = 0.00046

R^2 = 0.72405 basically obey normal distribution, so, we use Eq. (3)

y0 -0.00908 to calculate the reliability values by the monitored data.

¡ À0.06816
0.04 xc -13.03423 ¡ À0.13833
w
A
2.19866
0.30519
According
¡ À1.21022
¡ 0À.33735
Figure 8 and Figure 9, we find that the load
0.00 distribution function fsi(s) is close to the tensile strength
-15 -14 -13 -12 -11
stress(MPa)
distribution function fRti(r). Therefore, for the data collect-
ed from the sensors 4G1h-1and 4-5MID-2, we use fRti(r) to
(19#)20050704 ～ 20050920 compute the value βti. Reference to the method in Section
3, we can get the punctiform time-dependent reliability
Figure 9. Stress distribution statistics and Gaussian
around the sensor embedded position, which is illustrated
distribution fitting of the data collected from the sensor
4-5MID-2 in Figure 10.

14 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jaeser.v3i1.1779

 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 03 | Issue 01 | January 2020
40
32
4G1h-1
Reliability values
24
16
4-5MID-2
-- 0# 1# 2# 3# 4# 5# 6# 7# 8# 9# 10#11#12#13#14#15#16#17#18#19#
Construction sequence
Figure 10. The reliability βtiof each construction stage
changes over time which is calculated by fRti(r)
Seeing in Figure 10, the reliability increases gradu-
ally made by the subsequent construction stage, and the
reliability of the top plate near the bridge cantilever root
is more than 16, which is in line with the relevant design
requirements. However, the reliability of the bridge mid-
span base plate is about 8, which means that the reliability
value is relatively low.
5. The Optimal Internal Force Security Level
of the Bridge Closure Construction
Generally, the modern large-span continuous rigid frame
bridge construction is under monitoring, and so the fail-
ure probability of the components or the cross-section
in each construction stage can be obtained by the above
method. Frangopol [16] puts forward 5 kinds of bridge re-
liability status, and assumes that the bridge life could be
seen as a reliable state process from the intact (β ≥9.0)
to the unacceptable (β <4.6). According to the research
suggested by Frangopol, a key scientific problem is how
to make the reliability index of the bridge critical section
reaches to or more than 9 when the bridge construction
is finished.
According to the data form Table 4, the standard devia-
tion of the bridge load effects distribution takes the value
1.35 in this paper when the bridge closure construction
is finished. Therefore, in order to make the reliability
index βti ≥9, based on the method proposed on the above
and according to Eq. (3), that is |μsi-μti|>13.8MPa, scilicet
|μsi|>16.8MPa, of which the meaning is that the concrete
pressure safety reserve mean at the bottom plate in the
bridge mid-span should be at least maintained at above
16.8 MPa (Deduct the prestressed steel strand loss, creep
and shrinkage of concrete, and other factors leading to
concrete compressive stress loss).
6. Conclusions
In order to ensure the alignment and the internal force of
Distributed under creative commons license 4.0
the built bridge meet the design requirements, considering
many random factors existing in the construction of the
bridge, based on the monitored strain data from the bridge
monitoring system, a safety assessment method is sug-
gested for cantilever construction stage stress state of the
bridge. The main conclusions are:
(1) The monitored data show that the load effects of
this type bridge during construction basically obey Gauss
distribution, and so we can use Eq. (2) for reliability cal-
culation.
(2) The concrete optimal pressure safety reserve mean
at the bottom plate in the mid-span of this type bridge
should be at least maintained at above 16.8 MPa.
However, some important parameter values adopted
in this paper are theoretically estimated and should be
revised by field test data. The method is simple and prac-
tical, and very convenient for engineering applications,
which can provide guidance for internal force control of
the same type bridges in construction. So, the research
results have important significance for improving the con-
struction safety and science of the long-span continuous
rigid frame bridges.
Acknowledgements
This study gets supports from Guangdong Province
fund project. During the research, Dr Cai and He provide
help for the article. So, the first author is very grateful for
this.
References
[1] Ayyub BM. Structural Safety Analysis of Reinforced
Concrete Building during Construction. PhD Disser-
tation, Georgia Institute of Technology, 1983.
[2] Kaminetzky D, Stivaros PC. Early-Age Concrete:
Construction Loads, Behavior, and Failures. Con-
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[3] EI-Shahhat AM, Rosowsky DV, Chen WF. Construc-
tion Safety of Multistory Concrete Buildings. ACI
Structural Journal, 1993, 90(4): 335-341.
[4] EI-Shahhat AM, Rosowsky DV, Chen WF. Partial
Factor Design for Reinforced Concrete Buildings
during Construction. ACI Structural Journal, 1994,
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[5] Yuji N, Ryuji N, Kaji H. Gust response of a pre-
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[6] Juan RC. Reliability-based partial safety factors in
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Structural Engineering, 1997: 123(3).
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[7] Animesh D, Sankaran M. Reliability Estimation
with Time-Variant Loads and Resistances. Journal of
Structural Engineering, 2000: 612-620.
[8] JR. Zhang, HX Hao. The cantilever construction of
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liability analysis of prestressed concrete. South High-
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[9] Ko JM., Ni YQ. Technology developments in struc-
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[10] Degtyarev VV. Construction stage reliability of com-
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[11] Liu Y, Ding XH., Lu NW. Research on time-varying
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during construction period based on adaptive MC
method. Journal of Transport Science and Engineer-
ing, 2012, 28(4): 25-31.
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[12] DT Niu, QL Wang. The time-varying models of
concrete strength under general atmospheric environ-
ment. Industrial construction, 1995(6): 36-38.
[13] JR Zhang, HC Wang, WJ Yang. Experimental study
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[14] The transportation department specification of the
people’s Republic of the china. Code for Design of
Highway Reinforced Concrete and Prestressed Con-
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[15] Akthem AM, Lam PJ. Statistical evaluation of
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[16] Dan MF, Jung SK, Emhaidy SG. Reliability-based
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jaeser.v3i1.1779
 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 03 | Issue 01 | January 2020

Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research

https://ojs.bilpublishing.com/index.php/jaeser

ARTICLE
Impact of Autonomous Vehicles on Parking Spaces
Nikhil Sai Yekollu1*　Kasim A Korkmaz2
1. Construction Management, Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, MI, United States
2. School of Visual and Built Environment, Eastern Michigan University, United States

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history The United States has an enormous supply of parking and with the appro-
Received: 26 April 2019 priation of Autonomous vehicles, the interest for these spaces could change
drastically. Parking is among the most pervasive land utilizes involving up
Accepted: 29 April 2019 to 31% of urban territory. With completely automated vehicles expected
Published Online: 30 April 2020 on the customer advertise by 2020, the $30 billion leaving industry will
encounter gigantic changes as autos develop. The purpose of this paper is
Keywords: to analyse how the parking and garage spaces can be utilized after the im-
Structure plementation of automated vehicles in every household. Analysis has been
conducted about different households in Ypsilanti Township using Zillow
Garage application which includes the address, area of the house, parking area and
Household year in which it is built. Results are based on the analysis conducted on the
Transit houses and the impact of the autonomous vehicles on their parking space.

　
1. Introduction The question of how rapidly Autonomous vehicles will

A
set up advertise strength is troublesome, and a scope of
utonomous vehicles have for quite some time feelings have been advertised. Various vehicle organizations
been in the domain, of sci-fi, anyway recent prog- have anticipated the completely automated vehicles will be
ress implies that these driver-less autos will be on
available inside the following 5-10 years. How rapidly the
our avenues in the generally not so distant future. There
market will take up these vehicles is obscure, and most pro-
is solid challenge between more current innovation orga-
jections are finished by taking a glance at the development
nizations, (for example, Google, Uber and Tesla) and set
pace of past advances. In 2012, a board of IEEE individuals
up vehicle organizations, (for example, Mercedes Benz,
anticipated that 75% of the fleet would be autonomous by
General Motors, Nissan and numerous others). Some have
2040 [1]. The Victoria Transport Policy Institute predicts a
been taking a shot at automated vehicles for quite a long
slower take-up - with the 75% market being accomplished
time, and there are many working models and preliminary
by 2060 [2]. This depended on correlations with other vehi-
projects. Clearly there are still parts of the driver-less ve-
cle advancements, for example, programmed transmission,
hicle that still should be refined, and there are numerous
on-board route and hybrid vehicles, all of which took a very
lawful, obligation, specialized and social issues that must
long while to arrive at huge market catch.
be survived. However, as far as transport arranging into
the future, automated vehicles ought to be considered, as 2. Literature Review
they are probably going to have significant impacts which
affect travel conduct and road network operations. The first vehicle was an impetus for a significant part of

*Corresponding Author:
Nikhil Sai Yekollu,
Construction Management, Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, MI, United States;
Email: nyekollu@emich.edu

Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jaeser.v3i1.1834 17

 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 03 | Issue 01 | January 2020
the monetary development and the appropriation of indi-
viduals in the US over the twentieth century [3]. It changed
the state of urban communities as managers and family
units were progressively prepared as they continued look-
ing for lower leases and moved further from the middle.
Area didn’t overwhelm urban improvement similarly
when one could travel further, quicker and for less cash.
Area turned out to be less about the prompt physical sur-
roundings estimated in miles and progressively about the
portability estimated in minutes. We started to adjust the
structure and size of our streets, homes, and organizations
to help our reliance on the vehicle. Streets got straighter
and more extensive; homes increased with two-vehicle
carports; and least leaving benchmarks expanded the ad-
vancement of land in our urban communities. The change
of undeveloped to created land expanded at a rate 40%
quicker than the populace development since 1950 [4].
Expanded requirement for space is because of our craving
for the vehicle.
2.1 History of Parking
The most punctual parking spots were initially curb side.
The increase in individual vehicle ownership, implied
a decrease in direct space crosswise over avenues. In
1923, Columbus Ohio turned into the first American city
to arrange parking guideline as a major aspect of a zon-
ing mandate for multi-family [5]. In 1926, an across the
nation overview of downtown vendors recorded traffic
blockage as their most significant issue [6,7]. Urban com-
munities started to require and classify off-road parking
standards and point of confinement on-road parking. The
main parking meter for on-road parking was introduced in
Oklahoma City in 1935. This pushed private landowners
to start to create reason-manufactured parking structures
as remain solitary structures or as a major aspect of big-
ger business advancements. By 1946 a review of 76 US
urban areas found that solitary 17 percent of regions had
parking ordinances. Within 5 years, 71 percent had or
were receiving them [7]. By 1949, 185 urban communities
had embraced least stopping guidelines. By the 1970s,
95% of urban areas within excess of 25,000 occupants
had received stopping necessities [8]. Minimum parking
necessities joined with escalating car ownership has seen
an enormous designation of fabricated space to parking.
2.2 Parking Estimates
In 2010, San Francisco turned into the first American city
to endeavour an enumeration of its parking yet restrict-
ed the examination to on-road spaces as it were. Urban
communities require various quantities of parking spots
18 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0
per every grouping of land use, yet few have a definite in-
formation on the total parking supply [9]. Normal parking
proportions fall between 3 to 4 spaces for every 1,000 sf
of building floor zone [10]. The proportion may appear to
be low from the start, however least parking prerequisites
frequently require all the area of (surface) parking than
building territory that it applies to. The fundamental park-
ing measurements of 9’x18’ stall and a 24’ width drive
path imply that 1000 sf of building requires more than
1,080 sf of parking area.
Parking proportions are frequently set as essentials and
scale with the size of the structure [10]. It is presently eval-
uated between 3.3 parking spots per vehicle [11]. This gauge
fluctuates broadly as it is hard to discover the parking in
private regions like single family home carports, in garag-
es, or even along roads that are not appropriately stamped
or estimated. Chester et al. (2015) gauges the quantity of
parking spots in the US is between 800 million to 2 billion
in temporal and spatial examination of Los Angeles. At a
normal of 350 square feet for each parking space, that is
generally the size of Connecticut as a traditionalist gauge,
or the province of West Virginia on the upper end.
2.3 Impact of Autonomous vehicles on Mobility
Autonomous vehicles will turn out to be exceptionally ap-
pealing contrasted with built up movement modes at some
point in time and are regarded as a disruptive force in the
transport market [12]. On one hand, this will be pushed
by profoundly aggressive costs [11] and on the other hand
through increased comfort and the possibility to pursue
useful activities while voyaging [13]. It is normal that dif-
ferent types of self-sufficient voyaging will join towards
an all-inclusive travel method of on-request independent
vehicle services [14], which can be viewed as a totally new
method of transport [15].
An expansion in trafic limit is required to happen con-
sidering two or three different factors:
Associated AV’s will make it feasible for vehicles
to convey and along these lines decline the important
separation for safe driving [16]. In like manner, having in-
formation about other vehicles intentions, accelerations
and braking makes it possible to avoid the emergence of
trafic-jams and suggest a much better trafic flow than is
present today. One example being the intelligent control
of intersections [17].
Crashes today reduce the road capacity. Assuming AV’s
are much more-safe and reduce the number of crashes
significantly, this will also allow for a higher average ca-
pacity in the trafic network. Bertoncello and Wee (2015)
expects a reduction of trafic crashes by 90% [18]. Also,
Fagnant and Kockelman (2015) suggest that a penetration
DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jaeser.v3i1.1834
 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 03 | Issue 01 | January 2020

level of 10% AV’s would lead to half the number of crash- ship. Comparison is carried out on the different houses and
es today, while a level of 90% they would remove 90% of their parking structures. Exhibit 1 illustrates the application
mishaps [19]. which is used to get the information about the households
Are developed infrastructure, aimed at supporting a and Exhibit 2 describes the details of the households.
trafic system mainly consisting of AV’s will have the po-
tential to create huge gains in capacity by making use of
several AV advantages, such as the ability to autonomous-
ly drive to parking spaces or the possibility to optimally
dispatch vehicles according to the current demand at a
certain time of the day. Those infrastructure changes will
be described in a later chapter.

2.4 Impact of Autonomous Vehicles on Infrastruc-

ture
Particularly in profoundly blocked zones, parking spots
are relied upon to disappear, either to make space for ad-
ditional roads or to be converted to a completely different
use. This is conceivable since AV’s don’t have to remain
at the client goal. It is possible that they can come back to Exhibit 1. Zillow application illustrating the households
deliberately situated versatility hubs or wander through selected
the city. All things considered, Zhang etal. (2015) esti-
AREA OF THE PARKING AREA BUILT IN
mate a decrease of 90% in parking spots for AV clients at HOUSE ADDRESS
HOUSE (SQ. FT) (SQ. FT) YEAR
low all out offers in the urban zone. Since this decrease 3315 oak Drive, Ypsi-
2205 13068 (2 spaces) 1976
lanti
incites an expansion in vehicle kilometres voyaged every 3731 Hillside Drive,
1232 13068 (4 spaces) 1972
day (VKT), it is contended that this decrease can be in- Ypsilanti
3855 Palisades boule-
completely sacrificed against giving a lot of parking spot. vard, Ypsilanti
1985 11325.6 (2 spaces) 1995
Despite that, extended spaces for getting and dropping 3999 Palisades boule-
vard, Ypsilanti
1968 13939.2 (2 spaces) 1994
off clients are required. This is particularly valid for enor-
3848 Golf-side road,
mous occasion venues, where high quantities of explorers Ypsilanti
1222 11761.2 (2 spaces) 1971
are normal at specific times. 2454 Midvale street,
2070 14374.8 (2 spaces) 1963
Ypsilanti
The associated city will rise, overseeing trafic information 2420 Merrill street,
on the fly and disseminating data to consider the most ideal Ypsilanti
1399 14374.8 (2 spaces) 1964

flow. This incorporates the usage of keen trafic lights, which 2333 Draper Avenue,
1803 11325.6 (4 spaces) 1976
Ypsilanti
respond to the present interest on the streets. Moreover, ro- 4110 Silverleaf Drive,
2620 13068 (4spaces) 1995
botized intersections are discussed where no trafic lights are Ypsilanti
2525 Eastlawn street,
required by any stretch of the imagination, since AV’s can Ypsilanti
1555 10454 (4spaces) 1984
consult on their own, who will cross first [17]. Then, however,
it is necessary to give pedestrians safe ways of interacting Exhibit 2. Illustrating the details of the households
with such new trafic management openings. This leads to in- House 1: 3315 Oak Drive, Ypsilanti: The total area of
quire about towards requesting a human-centric advancement the house is 2205 square feet and a parking lot of 13068
of cities, offering equivalent open doors for each participant; square feet which is utilized by 2 parking spaces. As per
Late viewpoints on the effect of self-sufficient vehicles [20]. the fundamentals, an area of 350 square feet is enough for
The changes required in the parking area and the analysis a single parking space. So, an area of 700 square feet is
will be discussed in later sections. enough for 2 parking spaces. For convenient mobilization
the total can be sum up to approximately 1000 square
3. Methodology feet. However, there will be no change in the structure
Information about few houses in Ypsilanti Township has of autonomous vehicles, they can utilize the same space
been collected using Zillow application. The application for their parking. Autonomous vehicles prefer separate
describes everything about the houses including the minor parking spaces other than the regular garage space, but it
details. For the purpose of the paper, only some of the hous- depends on the location. Exhibit 3 illustrates the parking
es for sale are selected among all the houses in the town- space for the mentioned house.

Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jaeser.v3i1.1834 19

 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 03 | Issue 01 | January 2020
Exhibit 3. Images of 3315 Oak Drive, Ypsilanti
Note: (URL1, 2020, https://images.app.goo.gl/cNnzWTsDkx8P6Jty8 )
House 2: 3731 Hillside Drive, Ypsilanti: The total
area of the house is 1232 square feet and a parking lot of
13068 square feet which is utilized by 4 parking spaces.
Dimensions of 9’*18’ and 24’ width are the standards of
parking which imply that 1000 square feet of building
requires a minimum of 1080 square feet for parking area.
By calculation, an area of 1500 square feet is enough for 4
parking spaces and the rest of the area can be utilized for
other purposes. Exhibit 4 illustrates the parking space for
the mentioned house.
Exhibit 4. Images of 3731 Hillside Drive, Ypsilanti
Note: (URL2, 2020, https://images.app.goo.gl/dF4LoiakDafPHGAr8)
House 3: 3855 Palisades Boulevard, Ypsilanti: The total
area of the house is 1985 square feet and a parking lot of
11324.6 square feet which is utilized by 2 parking space.
A garage must have a minimum height of 8’2” and park-
ing space width between 8’6” and 9’0” wide. So, as per
the calculation Approximately 1000 square feet is enough
for 2 parking spaces and rest of the area can be utilized
for other purposes. Autonomous vehicles can use the same
parking space, or they can prefer separate parking struc-
tures, it depends on the owner of the vehicle. Exhibit 5
illustrates the parking space for mentioned space.
Exhibit 5. Images of 3855 Palisades Boulevard, Ypsilanti
Note: (URL3, 2020, https://images.app.goo.gl/PyaMU4ouR82Cfgto7)
House 4: 3999 Palisades Boulevard, Ypsilanti: The
20 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0
total area of the house is 1968 square feet and a parking
lot of 13939.2 square feet which is utilized by 2 parking
spaces. As per the fundamentals, an area of 350 square
feet is enough for a single parking space. So, an area of
700 square feet is enough for 2 parking spaces. For conve-
nient mobilization the total can be sum up to approximate-
ly 1000 square feet. However, there will be no change in
the structure of autonomous vehicles, they can utilize the
same space for their parking. Autonomous vehicles pre-
fer separate parking spaces other than the regular garage
space, but it depends on the location. Exhibit 6 illustrates
the parking space for the mentioned house.
Exhibit 6. Images of 3999 Palisades Boulevard, Ypsilanti
Note: (URL4, 2020, https://images.app.goo.gl/7LWB6PaLKGr6y7hs5)
House 5: 3848 Golf-side road, Ypsilanti: The total area
of the house is 1222 square feet and a parking lot of 11761.2
square feet which is utilized by 2 parking spaces. Dimensions
of 9’*18’ and 24’ width are the standards of parking which
imply that 1000 square feet of building requires a minimum
of 1080 square feet for parking area. By calculation, an area
of 1200 square feet is enough for 2 parking spaces and the
rest of the area can be utilized for other purposes. Exhibit 7
illustrates the parking space for the mentioned house.
Exhibit 7. Images of 3848 Golf-Side Road, Ypsilanti
Note: (URL5, 2020, https://images.app.goo.gl/hqZEYU2M6JoehwwU8)
House 6: 2454 Midvale Street, Ypsilanti: The total
area of the house is 2070 square feet and a parking lot of
14374.8 square feet which is utilized by 2 parking space.
A garage must have a minimum height of 8’2” and park-
ing space width between 8’6” and 9’0” wide. So, as per
the calculation Approximately 1200 square feet is enough
for 2 parking spaces and rest of the area can be utilized
for other purposes. Autonomous vehicles can use the same
parking space, or they can prefer separate parking struc-
tures, it depends on the owner of the vehicle. Exhibit 8
illustrates the parking space for mentioned space.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jaeser.v3i1.1834
 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 03 | Issue 01 | January 2020

House 9: 4110 Silverleaf Drive, Ypsilanti: The total

area of the house is 2620 square feet and a parking lot of
13068 square feet which is utilized by 4 parking space. A
garage must have a minimum height of 8’2” and parking
space width between 8’6” and 9’0” wide. So, as per the
calculation Approximately 1600 square feet is enough for
4 parking spaces and rest of the area can be utilized for
Exhibit 8. Images of 2454 Midvale street, Ypsilanti other purposes. Autonomous vehicles can use the same
Note: (URL6, 2020, https://images.app.goo.gl/CD88vbUxtzUeXuM37)
parking space, or they can prefer separate parking struc-
tures, it depends on the owner of the vehicle. Exhibit 11
House 7: 2420 Merrill Street, Ypsilanti: The total
illustrates the parking space for mentioned space.
area of the house is 1399 square feet and a parking lot of
14374.8square feet which is utilized by 2 parking spac-
es. As per the fundamentals, an area of 350 square feet
is enough for a single parking space. So, an area of 700
square feet is enough for 2 parking spaces. For convenient
mobilization the total can be sum up to approximately
1200 square feet. However, there will be no change in
the structure of autonomous vehicles, they can utilize the Exhibit 11. Images of 4110 Silverleaf Drive, Ypsilanti
same space for their parking. Autonomous vehicles pre-
Note: (URL9, 2020, https://images.app.goo.gl/XXHUty78jusuPaBV8 )
fer separate parking spaces other than the regular garage
House 10: 2525 Eastlawn street, Ypsilanti: The total
space, but it depends on the location. Exhibit 9 illustrates
area of the house is 1555 square feet and a parking lot of
the parking space for the mentioned house.
10454 square feet which is utilized by 4 parking spaces.
Dimensions of 9’*18’ and 24’ width are the standards of
parking which imply that 1000 square feet of building
requires a minimum of 1080 square feet for parking area.
By calculation, an area of 1600 square feet is enough for
4 parking spaces and the rest of the area can be utilized
for other purposes. Exhibit 12 illustrates the parking space
for the mentioned house and Exhibit 13 illustrates the area
Exhibit 9. Images of 2420 Merrill Street, Ypsilanti
distribution of the mentioned houses.
Note: (URL7, 2020, https://images.app.goo.gl/BNCiM8SoRwjq5ywu9)
House 8: 2333 Draper Avenue, Ypsilanti: The total
area of the house is 1803 square feet and a parking lot of
11325.6 square feet which is utilized by 4 parking spaces.
Dimensions of 9’*18’ and 24’ width are the standards of
parking which imply that 1000 square feet of building
requires a minimum of 1080 square feet for parking area.
By calculation, an area of 1600 square feet is enough for 4
Exhibit 12. Images of 2525 Eastlawn Street, Ypsilanti
parking spaces and the rest of the area can be utilized for
other purposes. Exhibit 10 illustrates the parking space for Note: (URL10, 2020, https://images.app.goo.gl/5xJRmcHaBuEtu6bs6)
the mentioned house.
RESIDENTIAL HOUSES AREA DISTRIBUTION

AREA OF HOUSES
12%

PARKING AREA
88%

Exhibit 10. Images of 2333 Draper Avenue, Ypsilanti AREA OF HOUSES PARKING AREA

Note: (URL8, 2020, https://images.app.goo.gl/sd2hjEhpaaexwLu69) Exhibit 13. Illustration of Area distribution

Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jaeser.v3i1.1834 21

 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 03 | Issue 01 | January 2020
However, the parking area of the houses mentioned
in exhibit 2 includes the garage space and the remaining
lot. The above mentioned, houses have the garage spac-
es, so the autonomous vehicles can park in those spaces
as there is not much change in that. In contrast, there are
many houses in the Ypsilanti region without garage spac-
es or lots and therefore they must park their vehicles on
the streets. If this is the scenario, then there is a need or
separate parking structures for the autonomous vehicles
to park. Exhibit 14 illustrates the houses without garage
spaces.
Exhibit 14. Images of houses without garages in Ypsilanti
Note: (URL11, 2020, https://images.app.goo.gl/HQ5CmYvqaEaCm-
Koy8)
4. Discussion
The present vehicles are either determined legitimately
from home to the work, or the user needs to walk to the
location of the vehicle toward the beginning of the jour-
ney and again from the leaving to the last destination. One
effect of autonomous driving, in any case, will be that
these distances before and after the journey will be made
by the vehicle, not the driver. The driving robot will work
the vehicle from its unique parking spot to the area of the
proprietor/user and, subsequent to showing up at the des-
tination, to an assigned parking spot.
In general, the normal changes in the zone required
for home parking are small, although they vary as per
kind of settlement structure. In private neighbourhoods
of single-family houses, where parking spots are on a
similar plot as the home, no progressions are expected.
The accessible parking spot will just be occupied by an
autonomous vehicle. In regions of higher density, for ex-
ample, downtown areas, it might be expected that local
22 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0
parking zones or collective garages will show up or be
created, as just right now autonomous vehicles be en-
sured to find a space in the neighbourhood-defined catch-
ment zone. It is additionally expected here that sufficient
parking limit will be given to permit vehicles to find a
space securely and dependably. Exhibit 15 shows the
autonomous parking system that is expected to have in
future.
Exhibit 15. A model of Autonomous parking structure
The efficient utilization of space for parking is particu-
larly appealing as far as expenses. Parking spots required
for building advancements devour a great deal of space
and represent a significant portion of the expenses of the
entire venture, especially when the garage to be fabricated
isn’t at ground level. There have just been a few ventures
testing parking in garages with autonomous vehicles. The
driver hands the vehicle over at the garage entrance. The
parking capacity is activated with a cell phone applica-
tion. The vehicle gets the course information to the closest
accessible space from a central garage computer by means
of Wireless local area network (WLAN) and drives to it
automatically. A programmed parking system as of now in
presence may fill in for instance. All essential vehicle de-
velopments, aside from passage and exit into a handover
corner, are completed naturally (by means of transports
and moving hardware) or with an extraordinarily evolved
parking robot, as is already in use.
Based on the meta- analysis for the reduction in re-
quired parking spots by 2033 there will be a requirement
for 41% less parking spots. Despite these weights that
expands opening rates, the parking structure has a few
favourable circumstances over road and surface spaces
that must be represented. Garage spaces can easily access
electric charging stations, vehicle services, and different
services that will be significant with shared, electric, au-
tonomous vehicles. Moreover, vacancy may decrease as
curb-side spaces are re purposed for other open uses, and
parking garages are handily redeveloped into other land
employments.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jaeser.v3i1.1834
 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 03 | Issue 01 | January 2020
5. Conclusion
The rebuilding and conceivable convergence of parking
zones probably won’t happen all over. It will essentially
be confined to territories which are particularly appealing
goals, and where costs for building the necessary parking
areas, and along these lines additionally the engaging
quality of space saving arrangements, are especially high
(the significant expense and shortage of land coming
about in multi-level arrangements). The extent to which
the expenses of parking may change over the span of
autonomous driving can’t be evaluated. By building the
special parking structures for autonomous vehicles, park-
ing the vehicles on the streets and the parking costs in the
streets of business districts can be avoided.
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ald-shoup/free-parking-or-ree-markets
[10] Ferguson, E.. Zoning for parking as policy process:
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[15] Skinner, R., N. Bidwell. Making Better Places: Au-
tonomous vehicles and future opportunities, WSP,
Parsons Brinckerho, 2016.
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jaeser.v3i1.1834 23
 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 03 | Issue 01 | January 2020

Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research

https://ojs.bilpublishing.com/index.php/jaeser

REVIEW
Quality Problems and Countermeasures in Construction Process
Chao Xu*　Guoping Chen　Honghui Hua
Ningbo College Of Health Sciences, Ningbo, Zhejiang, 315100, China

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history Quality is the life of architecture. Without quality there is nothing. En-
Received: 13 October 2019 gineering projects have the characteristics of large investment and long
construction period, so the quality of construction projects must be strictly
Accepted: 6 January 2020 controlled. The control of construction quality of engineering projects is the
Published Online: 31 January 2020 quality control of the whole process and the participation of all employees.
It is the implementation of construction engineering quality regulations and
Keywords: mandatory standards, the correct configuration of construction production
Construction engineering management elements and the use of scientific management methods to
achieve the expected use function of engineering projects And quality stan-
Quality management dards, deliver the owner a satisfactory quality project. Most of the quality
Problems problems of construction projects appear in the construction stage. There-
Countermeasures fore, we must strictly control the quality in project construction, strengthen
the whole process management from the organization and management,
find a project quality management system suitable for China’s national con-
ditions, and be able to eliminate the hidden quality hazards in the project
in time to ensure the project The construction project can meet the target
requirements, and the project quality can be effectively controlled.This arti-
cle mainly analyzes the current problems affecting the construction quality,
combined with the actual analysis, and then find some countermeasures to
solve the problem.

　
1. Introduction cult to check the quality again [1]. In recent years, there

T
he quality of the construction products completed
by the construction unit will seriously affect the
reputation and development of the enterprise, and
more importantly, it will lay a lot of hidden safety haz-
ards for the owners who use the project. Different from
other products, construction products have the character-
istics of one-off and irreversibility. If quality problems
are found during the completion of construction, huge
economic losses will result. In the construction process,
many of the structural safety impacts are hidden works.
Once the construction is completed, it becomes diffi-
have been frequent quality accidents in the engineering
industry, ranging from structural cracks to tilting and
collapsing buildings, which has brought many negative
effects. The construction industry is life-threatening, so
construction quality issues need to be strictly controlled.
In view of the importance of construction quality to the
entire building, this paper studies the quality problems in
the construction process of the construction project, ana-
lyzes the causes of them, and proposes targeted counter-
measures, aimed at improving the quality control during
the construction process [2].

*Corresponding Author:
Chao Xu,
Ningbo College Of Health Sciences, Ningbo, Zhejiang, 315100, China;
Email: 476044192@qq.com

24 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jaeser.v3i1.1878

 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 03 | Issue 01 | January 2020
2. Quality Management Problems in the Con-
struction Process of Construction Projects
At present, there are many construction units who are
blindly pursuing benefits and rushing to the construction
period, while ignoring the impact of the quality of the
construction process on the later use and the problems that
arise. Not paying attention to cultivating a good reputation
of the enterprise will lead to the survival of the enterprise
in the construction industry. Lack of perfect project man-
agement system, and the level of project site management
personnel is uneven [3]. In the actual construction, there
are construction units that violate the design specifications
and do not carry out the construction according to the con-
struction drawings. The acceptance of concealed works is
not standardized, and the most stringent standards are not
followed.
2.1 Weak Awareness of Quality Management
At present, there are many construction units who are
blindly pursuing benefits and rushing to the construction
period, while ignoring the impact of the quality of the
construction process on the later use and the problems that
arise. Not paying attention to cultivating a good reputation
of the enterprise will lead to the survival of the enterprise
in the construction industry. Lack of perfect project man-
agement system, and the level of project site management
personnel is uneven. In the actual construction, there are
construction units that violate the design specifications
and do not carry out the construction according to the con-
struction drawings. The acceptance of concealed works is
not standardized, and the most stringent standards are not
followed.
2.2 Incomplete Construction Technology Disclo-
sure
Before the project starts, the project technical management
personnel and on-site construction personnel must have a
full understanding of the project design specifications and
specific technical requirements, and master the construc-
tion process requirements, construction difficulties and key
points. However, this is often the easiest thing for the con-
struction unit to ignore, which leads to blind start without
being familiar with the entire construction requirements,
which leads to the quality problems caused by the construc-
tion process during the construction process [4].
2.3 The Quality of Building Materials is Unquali-
fied
Building materials are the key substances that constitute
Distributed under creative commons license 4.0
building products. The quality of materials will directly
affect the quality of building products. Now due to the
complexity of the building materials market, various qual-
ity building materials will appear. Now there are many
quality accidents due to the problem of building materials,
which requires that when choosing building materials,
materials that meet the design specifications and qualified
quality must be selected [5].
2.4 Imperfect Construction Technology
The construction technology used in the construction proj-
ect is backward, the process level cannot meet the quality
requirements, the on-site management level is low, and
an effective quality assurance system and quality man-
agement system have not been formed. For a long time,
construction enterprises, especially construction enterpris-
es, have been treated as labor-intensive enterprises and
considered to be industries with low technical content and
low comprehensive manpower [6]. The current situation is
also the same. In order to save costs, most companies ne-
glect the cultivation of technical talents, and often a large
number of migrant workers act as operational workers on
the front line. Many companies spare no effort to reduce
on-site technical personnel, and even cut corners in re-
sponse to the profit pressure of winning bids at low prices.
This has seriously affected the development of the enter-
prise itself, and there are hidden dangers in construction
quality and construction safety.
3. Countermeasures for Problems in Quality
Management of Construction Projects
Architectural engineering construction is a process that
turns the blueprint of design into an actual existence. The
construction phase is the key to the quality of the project.
Therefore, the quality control of the construction project
during the construction phase is the key to control the
quality of the entire construction project. However, in
actual operation, how can we control the quality of con-
struction projects?
3.1 Establish and Improve the Quality Manage-
ment System
To do a good job of quality control of construction proj-
ects, we must first establish a quality management system,
such as how to report and deal with construction quality
accidents, and also to implement these systems specifi-
cally, not to make the system useless. Observe from top
to bottom. The construction quality is not qualified due to
incorrect construction methods or even accidents. Only by
guaranteeing the quality of the construction process can
DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jaeser.v3i1.1878 25
 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 03 | Issue 01 | January 2020
the quality of the final construction product be ensured.
Adhere to “quality is life”, we must adhere to “quality is
life” in the whole process, strictly control every link, and
not let go of any hidden danger; adhere to “people-ori-
ented”, many high-quality construction projects in reality
are created by people Therefore, in quality control, people
should be the primary control; adhere to the “preven-
tion-oriented”, from the inspection of product quality to
the inspection of the quality of the working process, the
inspection of the quality of the process, and the inspection
of hidden projects [7].
3.2 Establish Standardized Technical Disclosure
Procedures
Before the construction of each sub-project, the profes-
sionals of the project department shall, in accordance with
the requirements of technical disclosure, complete the
disclosure of construction specifications, operating proce-
dures, and precautions to the directly operated teams and
groups, and make technical disclosure records as required.
The activities of the whole process of project implemen-
tation include the key processes and special processes of
the project, as well as the parts prone to common quality
problems, which should be technically explained. The
technical disclosure of construction should be based on
the characteristics of the project, strictly implement the
engineering construction procedures, and adhere to the
reasonable construction procedures, construction sequence
and construction technology.
3.3 The Contractor Should Do a Good Job of
Quality Control of the Materials
If the materials used in the project are unqualified, even if
the construction process is high and the equipment is re-
fined, the products produced are still unqualified. In order
to ensure the safety, economy, beauty and durability of the
project, our project management personnel must ensure
that Materials with corresponding basic properties are
used in engineering. Therefore, strengthening the control
of material quality is an important guarantee for improv-
ing the quality of the project. First, the contractor selects
material samples (at least three or more) that meet the
project quality requirements according to the construction
contract agreement and construction design drawings re-
quirements, and submits to the project management agen-
cy for on-site signature confirmation, and develops a strict
material sampling and delivery inspection system [8]. The
raw materials, products, structural parts, equipment, etc.
that enter the site are checked and accepted by the con-
struction unit, professional engineers, and project supervi-
26 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0
sors, and the opinions of the on-site acceptance are signed.
In summary, if the raw materials of the project can pass
the strict four levels above, the quality of the construction
project has a basis for protection, and then the other four
factors that affect the quality of the building are “people,
machinery, methods and environment”. After doing well,
we will be able to provide qualified construction products
to the society.
3.4 Select the Appropriate Construction Process
In the construction process of the project, the construction
plan is the key that directly affects the construction qual-
ity. In other words, in the construction process, scientific
and reasonable deployment of human and material resourc-
es, main body and auxiliary, supply and consumption,
production and storage, professional and collaboration,
use and maintenance, space layout and time arrangement,
etc., as Guidelines for construction quality management
of construction projects. In the preparation stage of each
project construction, its project manager department
organizes and manages the members to design the con-
struction plan according to the established construction
organization. Highlight the key points, organize practical
methods and effective measures in a specific and detailed
manner, implement quality control management, perform
post responsibility system, and other various rules and
regulations, scientifically and reasonably organize and im-
plement the procedures and steps of project construction.
4. Conclusion
The management of project quality is a whole process
management, the most important of which is the man-
agement during the construction process. Quality man-
agement is a commonly used management method in
production, which is the self-requirement of construction
enterprises. It emphasizes the high standards and high
requirements as well as the management of the entire pro-
cess and projects. It is to improve the quality of employees
and ensure the quality of the project through the quality of
work. Quality management focuses on comprehensively
improving the overall quality of the enterprise. Its core
is people-oriented. The quality of work is improved by
improving the quality of people to achieve the expected
quality results, while creating better economic and so-
cial benefits. Effectively grasping the quality control of
the whole process of the project is the key to achieving
the final quality goal. Strengthening the quality control
management at all construction stages can ensure that
the quality of the construction project meets the expected
goals and meets the needs of people’s lives and work.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jaeser.v3i1.1878
 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 03 | Issue 01 | January 2020
References
[1] Zhiming Chen. Study on technical management mea-
sures of construction site construction[J].Value Engi-
neering, 2020, 39(09): 102-104.
[2] Meng Guo. Research on Construction Engineering
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[3] Weisong Guo, Lei Zhao, Shuting Gu, Qinglu Zhang.
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jaeser.v3i1.1878 27
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