REFRIGERATION

The natural transfer of heat energy is from hot body to a cold one. The
function of a Refrigeration plant is to act as a heat pump and reverse this
process.
Refrigeration process can be divided into two classes
 Those which requires supply of mechanical work and use vapor
compression
 Those which require heat supply and work on absorption
system.
Our scope is to study Vapor compression system.
Specific heat of a Substance: Quantity of the heat required to be transferred
to unit mass of that substance to raise its temperature by one degree

Specific heat in Constant pressure - Cp

Specific heat in constant volume - Cv
Enthalpy : The enthalpy (H) of any fluid ( Liquid, vapor, gas) in a system is the term given to
a total heat content of that system. ( Internal Energy (U) + heat transfer (PV) )

Expansion of a Gas in a close system

When a gas is expanded in a cylinder the pressure falls and volume increases
as the piston is pushed outwards by the energy in the gas
Fig 6.2
As of the Boyle’s law heat energy need to be transferred to the gas to keep the
temperature constant , This is ISOTHERMAL EXPANSION where PV = K
Gas would expand ADIABATICALLY if no heat energy transfer to or from the gas
occurs during the expansion. In this case pushing the piston forward is
achieved entirely by reducing stored up heat energy.
Cp
The law of Adiabatic expansion is pv ϒ = constant, where ϒ is Cv

However this is not practical, some heat energy is lost or gain during the
process. So the process is called POLYTROPIC.
Law of polytropic expansion is pv n = Constant.
Carnot Cycle
Fig 8.5

At A pressure and temperature are highest, value represented by T1 . While the piston is
expanding heat is supplied to the gas from a external source to maintain a constant
temperature. From B to C no heat is supplied or taken from the gas stored heat energy to
utilized to move the piston, temperature at the point of C is T2
From C to D isothermal compression heat is rejected from the gas and D to A Adiabatic
compression, no heat is supplied or rejected from the gas.
Ideal Thermal Efficiency = (T1 – T2) / T1.

Reverse Carnot Cycle

Carnot cycle is theoretically reversible, and if applied in a reverse manner would act as a
refrigerator
Fig 8.6

Four stages of reverse Carnot cycle

1. Work done by gas while it expands adiabatically from A to D and the temperature
falls from T2 to T1. No heat is given to or taken from the gas during this process.
2. Further work done by the gas as it expands isothermally from D to c a quantity of
heat is taken

Desirable properties of a refrigerant.

 Low boiling point. (otherwise operation of a high vacuum is necessary.)

 Low condensing pressure ( to avoid a heavy machine, plant scantling and to reduce
the leakage risk.)
 High specific Enthalpy of evaporation ( to reduce the quantity of refrigerant in
circulation lower machine speed, sizes)
 Low specific volume in vapor phase ( This reduce the size and increase the
efficiency.)
 High critical Temperature ( Temperature above which vapor cannot be condenced by
isothermal compression. )
  Non corrosive and non solvent.
 Stable under working conditions.
 Nob flammable and non explosive.
 No action with oil ( Removal of oil, pour point)
 Easy leak detection.
 Non toxic.
 Chaep, easily obtained and stored

Given the situation some refrigerants have on atmosphere work leaders have taken action
to restrict their use. Montreal Protocol Ozone depleting substances.
The coefficient of performance (C.O.P) is a measure of the refrigerating effect obtained for the work
input to the cycle and it is given by the ratio:

(h 1−h 4)
Refrigerating effect / Work done by the compressor =
(h 2−h 1)
= COP
The main parts of a refrigeration system are shown diagrammatically in the figure below. The
six primary components of the system include the thermostatic expansion valve, evaporator,
capacity control system, compressor, condenser, and receiver. All refrigeration systems must
also be fitted with a relief valve.
The basic components of any refrigeration system working on the vapor compression cycle
are the compressor, condenser, expansion valve, evaporator and the refrigerant fluid which is
alternately vaporized and liquefied during the refrigeration cycle. The temperature at which a
fluid boils or condenses, is known as the saturation temperature and varies with pressure. The
compressor in a refrigeration system in raising the pressure of the vaporized refrigerant,
causes its saturation temperature to rise, so that it is higher than that of the sea water or air,
cooling the condenser. The compressor also promotes circulation of the refrigerant by
pumping it around the system. In the condenser, the refrigerant is liquefied by being sub
cooled to below the saturation temperature relating to the compressor delivery pressure, by
the circulating sea water (or air for domestic refrigerators).
Latent heat, originally obtained from the evaporator, is thus transferred to the cooling
medium at the condenser. The liquid refrigerant, still at the pressure produced by the
compressor, passes to the receiver and then to the expansion valve. The expansion valve is
the regulator through which the refrigerant flows from the high-pressure side of the system to
the low-pressure side. Its throttling effect dictates the compressor delivery pressure which
must be sufficient to give the refrigerant a saturation temperature which is higher than the
temperature of the cooling medium. The pressure drop through the regulator causes the
saturation temperature of the refrigerant to fall, so that it will boil at the low temperature of
the evaporator. In fact, as the liquid passes through the expansion valve, the pressure drop
makes its saturation temperature fall below its actual temperature, some of the liquid boils off
at the expansion valve, taking latent heat from the remainder and causing its temperature to
drop. The expansion valve throttles the liquid refrigerant and maintains the pressure
difference between the condenser and evaporator, while supplying refrigerant to the
evaporator at the correct rate. It is thermostatically controlled in modern systems.
The refrigerant entering the evaporator coil, at a temperature lower than that of the
surrounding secondary coolant (air or brine) receives latent heat and evaporates. Later the
heat is given up in the condenser, when the refrigerant is again compressed and liquefied. For
a small refrigerator, the evaporator cools without forced circulation of a secondary coolant. In
larger installation, the evaporator cools air or bine which are circulated as secondary
refrigerants.

System components

Compressors
The compressor in a refrigeration system is essentially a pump. It is used to pump heat uphill
from the cold side to the hot side of the system. The heat absorbed by the refrigerant in the
evaporator must be removed before the refrigerant can again absorb latent heat. The only way
the vaporized refrigerant can be made to give up the latent heat of vaporization that it
absorbed in the evaporator is by cooling and condensing it. Because of the relatively high
temperature of the available cooling medium, the only way to make the vapor condense is to
compress it.
When we raise the
pressure, we also raise
the temperature. Therefore,
we have raised its
condensing temperature,
which allows us to use
seawater as a cooling
medium in the
condenser.
In addition to this primary function, the compressor also keeps the refrigerant circulating and
maintains the required pressure difference between the high-pressure and low-pressure sides
of the system. Many different types of compressors are used in refrigeration systems. The
designs of compressors vary depending on the application of the refrigerants used in the
system.
Compressors may be either reciprocating, centrifugal or screw. The reciprocating type is still
the most commonly used, most modern reciprocating compressors have their cylinders
arranged in number of cylinders. Provision is made for unloading cylinders during starting
and for subsequent load control, by holding the suction valves off their seats. With this type
of control the compressors can be run at constant speed.
A bellows device actuated by suction pressure can serve to cut out one or more cylinders.
Thus a falling suction pressure, indicating a reduced load on the system, can be used to
reduce automatically the number of working cylinders to that required to deal with the 3
existing load. Nearly all compressors of this type are fitted with plate type suction and
delivery, whose large diameter and very small lifts often the least resistance to the flow
refrigerant gas.
Lubrication
The first essential for such an oil is that it should
have a low pour point and with Freon a wax-free is
necessary to avoid precipitation of wax at low
temperatures. Must remain fluid with good
lubrication properties at low temperatures. If oil and
refrigerant are miscible the oil tends to return via the
circuit to the crankcase. When the refrigerant is not
miscible with the oil it can be carried round the
circuit and could deposit on the evaporator coils and
reducing heat transfer rates. The oil should be free
from moisture under all conditions to prevent plant
corrosion and ice forming at the expansion valve.
The viscosity should not be affected at low
temperature. Oil is supplied to the bearings and
crankshaft seal by means of a gear pump driven from
the crankshaft.

Oil separator
Oil separators or traps, if supplied are located between the compressor discharge and the
condenser. Oil separators serve to return oil entrained in refrigerant vapor back to the
compressor crankcase. These oil separators are generally of impingement type as shown in
the figure. The separator’s arrangement comprises of an enclosed vessel that has a series of
baffle plates, also known as knitted wire mesh. The reduction in velocity of the vapor as it
enters the larger area of the separator allows the oil particles, which have greater momentum,
to impinge on the baffles, the oil then drains by gravity to the bottom of the vessel where a
float valve controls flow to the compressor crankcase.

Condenser
The compressor discharges the high-pressure, superheated refrigerant vapor to the condenser,
where it flows around the tubes through which water is being pumped. As the vapor gives up
its superheat (sensible heat) to the seawater, the temperature of the vapor drops to the
condensing point. The refrigerant, now in liquid form, is sub-cooled slightly below its
condensing point. This is done at the existing pressure to ensure that it will not flash into
vapor.
Receiver
The receiver acts as a temporary storage space and surge tank for the liquid refrigerant. The
receiver also serves as a vapor seal to keep vapor out of the liquid line to the expansion valve.
A pressure drop in the liquid line of a refrigeration system may cause the liquid refrigerant to
flash to gas. Receivers are constructed for either horizontal or vertical installation.

Dryer
Dryer containing silica gel or activated alumina, is placed in the liquid refrigerant line
between the receiver and the TXV.A refrigeration system contaminated with moisture can be
affected by, acid formation, sludge formation, ice in the expansion valve, and corrosion.

Liquid indicators
These can be either cylindrical or circular glasses installed in the liquid line, providing a
means of ascertaining whether or not the system is fully charged with refrigerant. If
undercharged or air in the system vapor bubbles will appear in the sight glass. To be most
effective indicators should be installed in the liquid line as close to the liquid receiver as
possible.

Evaporator
The liquid enters the tubing at a reduced pressure and, therefore, with a lower boiling point.
As the refrigerant passes through the evaporator, the heat flowing to the coil from the
surrounding air causes the rest of the liquid refrigerant to boil and vaporize. Refrigerant
temperature in an evaporator is directly related to refrigerant pressure. After the refrigerant
has absorbed its latent heat of vaporization (that is, after it is entirely vaporized), the
refrigerant continues to absorb heat until it becomes superheated by approximately the
amount of superheat is determined by the amount of liquid refrigerant admitted to the
evaporator. This, in turn, is controlled by the spring adjustment of the TXV. It increases the
efficiency of the plant and evaporates all of the liquid. This prevents liquid carry-over into the
compressor (flooding)
In the large refrigeration and air conditioning plants the evaporator is used for chilling the
water. In such cases shell and tube type of heat exchangers are used as the evaporators. In
such plants the evaporators or the chillers are classified as:

 Dry expansion type of evaporators

 Flooded type of the evaporators

Safety cutouts
HP Cut out, LP Controller, Condenser Relief v/v, Low oil level cut out, Safety head,
Unloader.
A high-pressure cutout switch is connected to the compressor discharge line to protect the
high-pressure side of the system against excessive pressures. The design of this switch is
essentially the same as that of the low-pressure cutout switch. However, the low-pressure
cutout switch is made to CLOSE when the suction pressure reaches its upper normal limit,
while the high-pressure cutout switch is made to OPEN when the discharge pressure is too
high. As you already have learned, the low-pressure cutout switch is the compressor control
for the normal operation of the plant. On the other hand, the high-pressure cutout switch is a
safety device only. It does not have control of the compressor under normal conditions.