The Human Body Orientation

The Human Body:
An Orientation
Let’s test your knowledge…=)
The following terms belong to either Anatomy or Physiology.

Group them accordingly.
Eyes Stomach Kidney

Digestion Respiration Umbilicus
Gluteus Maximus Reproduction Cells
Urinary Bladder Mitosis Excretion
Movement Gas Exchange Lungs
Brain Absorption Blood vessels
Blood Formation Support
Answer
Anatomy/Structure Physiology/Function
• Eyes • Digestion
• Stomach • Respiration
• Kidney • Reproduction
• Umbilicus • Mitosis
• Gluteus Maximus • Excretion
• Urinary Bladder • Movement
• Cells • Gas Exchange
• Lungs • Absorption
• Brain • Blood Formation
• Blood Vessels • Support
Learning objectives:
At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:
1. distinguish the levels of organization of the human body;

2. define homeostasis and explain its importance to survival;
3. discuss the requirements for the survival of an organism;
4. apply anatomical terms in actual specimen; and
5. show the relationship of the different organ systems.
Definitions
• Anatomy - The study of • Physiology - The study

the structure of body of the function of the
parts and their body; how the body
relationships to one parts work and carry
another. out their life-sustaining
activities.
• It is also called
morphology, the
• Anatomy and physiology are often
science of form taught together because the
disciplines are really inseparable
Topics of Anatomy
• Gross Anatomy
• Aka macroscopic anatomy
• The study of large body structures
visible to the naked eye (heart, lungs,
kidneys, etc)
• Can be approached in different ways:

• Regional Anatomy - all the structures
(bones, blood vessels, nerves, muscles, etc)
located in a particular region of the body
are examined at the same time
• Systemic Anatomy - The gross anatomy of

the body studied system by system
• Surface Anatomy - The study of internal

body structures as they relate to the
overlying skin surface
Topics of Anatomy
• Microscopic Anatomy
• The study of structures too small
to be seen with the naked eye
• The aid of a microscope is needed
• Subdivisions:
• Cytology – considers the cells of the
body
• Histology – the study of tissues
Topics of Anatomy
• Developmental Anatomy
• Traces structural changes that occur throughout the life span of the
individual
• Subdivision:
• Embryology – concerns developmental changes that occur before birth
Specialized Branches of Anatomy
• Pathological anatomy
• The study of structural changes in
cells, tissues, and organs caused by
disease
• Radiographic anatomy
• The study of internal body
structures by means of x-rays and
other imaging and scanning
techniques/procedures
Topics of Physiology
• Some examples:
• Renal Physiology – concerns kidney
function and urine production
• Neurophysiology – explains the
workings of the nervous system
• Cardiovascular Physiology – examines
the operation of the heart and blood
vessels
• And many more…
Complementarity of Structure and Function
• Structure and function are interrelated
• The function of a structure implies that function is
dependent upon structure
• Anatomy and physiology are truly inseparable sciences
• In architecture “form follows function”
• A description of anatomy is followed by an explanation of its
function, the structural characteristics contributing to that
physiologic function
• E.g. bones, heart valves, etc
Hierarchy of Structural Organization
• Chemical level
• Cellular level
• Tissue level
• Organ level
• Organ System level
• Organism level
Structural Organization
• Chemical Level
• At the chemical
level, atoms
combine to form
small molecules
(CO2 and H2O) and
larger macro
molecules
• Chemical Level
• Macromolecules of
four classes are
found in the body
• These
macromolecules
include
carbohydrates
(sugars), lipids
(fats), proteins and
nucleic acids (DNA,
RNA)
• Cellular Level
• The smallest units
of living tissue
• Cells and their
functional subunits
called cellular
organelles
• Tissue Level
• Consists of groups
of similar cells that
have a
characteristic
function
• epithelium
• muscle
• connective
• nervous
• Organ Level
• A structure
composed of at
least two tissue
types (with four
the most common)
that performs a
specific
physiological
process or function
• Organ System
Level
• Organs that
cooperate with one
another to perform
a common function
• Cardiovascular
system is illustrated
• Organism Level
• The highest level of
organization, the
living organism
• At this level life is
sustained by the
efforts of the
simpler levels
What does this highly organized human body do?
Necessary Life
Survival Needs
Functions
• Maintaining Boundaries • Nutrients
• Movement • Oxygen
• Responsiveness • Water
• Digestion • Normal Body Temperature
• Metabolism • Appropriate Atmospheric
• Excretion Pressure
• Reproduction
• Growth
Homeostasis
• The ability of the body to
maintain relatively stable
internal conditions even though
there is continuous change in
the outside world
• Control Mechanisms
• Negative feedback
• Positive feedback
• Homeostatic imbalances
Control Mechanisms
• Regardless of the factor or
event (variable) being
regulated, all homeostatic
control mechanisms have at
least three interdependent
components
• Receptor
• Control center
• Effector
• Regulation of homeostasis is
accomplished through the
nervous and endocrine
systems
Negative Feedback Mechanisms
• decreases the intensity of the

stimulus or eliminates it
Negative Feedback Mechanisms
Positive Feedback Mechanisms
• enhances or exaggerates the
original stimulus so that activity
is accelerated
• often referred to as “cascades”
• usually control infrequent
events such as blood clotting or
childbirth
Homeostatic Imbalances
• Homoeostasis is so important that most diseases (e.g. chills, fevers,
elevated white blood counts etc) can be regarded as a result of its
disturbance, a condition called homeostatic imbalance
• Aging reduces our ability to maintain homeostasis and our internal

environment becomes less and less stable
• These events increase our risk for illness and produce the changes
we associate with aging
The Language of Anatomy
• To describe body parts and position accurately, we need an initial
reference point, and we must indicate direction.
• Anatomical position
• Directional terms
• Regional terms
• Body planes and sections
• Body cavities and membranes
• Abdominopelvic regions and quadrants
Anatomical Position
• The standard body
position
• Anatomical position
• Body erect with feet slightly
apart
• Arms at side with palms
forward
• Thumbs point away from
the body
• The anatomical position is
the common visual
reference point
Anatomical Position
• Additionally, the terms
right and left always refer
to the person, cadaver, or
skeleton being viewed and
are not the viewers right
and left.
Directional Terms
• Directional terms allow us to explain
where one body structure is in
relation to another.
• e.g. relationship between ears and
nose
• Common language:
• “the ears are located on each side of the
head to the right and left of the nose”
• Using the language of anatomy:
• “the ears are lateral to the nose”
• Using anatomical terms saves words
and is less ambiguous
Directional Terms
Directional Terms
Directional Terms
Regional Terms
• 2 fundamental
divisions:
• Axial
• Appendicular part
Regional Terms
Body Planes and Sections
• In the study of
anatomy, the body is
often sectioned (cut)
along a flat surface
called a plane
• The most frequently
used body planes are
sagittal, frontal and
transverse which are at
right angles to each
other
• The sagittal (“arrow”) plane
lies vertically and divides
the body into right and left
parts
• median or midsagittal plane
• All other sagittal planes,
offset from the midline are
parasagittal planes
(para=near)
• The frontal plane
divides the body into
anterior and posterior
sections
• Also called a coronal
plane (“crown”) when
referencing the head
• A transverse or
horizontal plane runs
horizontally and divides
the body into superior
and inferior sections
• Transverse sections are
also called cross
sections
• In this midsagittal view
a magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) system
presents the internal
structures of the
abdominopelvic cavity
• This view is useful in
visualizing structures
from a superior/inferior
perspective
• In this frontal view an
MRI system presents
the internal structures
of the torso
• Here you can readily
see various organs with
the torso
• In this transverse view an
MRI system presents the
internal structures of the
torso
• This view is useful in
illustrating how organs
are distributed within the
cavity from
anterior/lateral or medial
lateral perspective
• Cuts made along any
plane that lies
diagonally between
horizontal and vertical
are called oblique
sections; rarely used
• Looking at the body or
a familiar object can
look odd when viewed
in section
• However, looking at
structures in section
often can add insight
into spatial relations
and understanding of
internal positioning
Body Cavities and Membranes
• Two sets of internal body cavities:
• Dorsal body cavity
• Ventral body cavity
• Dorsal body cavity – protects the fragile nervous system organs
• 2 subdivisions:
• Cranial cavity – in the skull, encases the brain
• Vertebral/spinal cavity – runs within the bony vertebral column, encloses
the delicate spinal cord
• Both the brain and spinal cord are covered by membranes called meninges
• Ventral body cavity – more anterior and larger; houses internal organs
collectively called the viscera or visceral organs
• 2 subdivisions:
• Thoracic cavity – surrounded by the ribs and muscles of the chest
• Pleural cavities – lateral, each enveloping a lung
• Mediastinum
• Pericardial cavity – encloses the heart, surrounds esophagus, trachea, etc.
• Abdominopelvic cavity – more inferior, separated from thoracic cavity by
the diaphragm; not physically separated by a muscular or membrane wall
• Abdominal cavity – superior portion; contains stomach, intestines,
spleen, liver, etc.
• Pelvic cavity – inferior portion; lies in the bony pelvis; contains urinary
bladder, reproductive organs, rectum
• Membranes in the Ventral Body Cavity
• Serosa or serous membrane – a thin, double-layered membrane which covers the
walls of the ventral body cavity and the outer surfaces of the organs it contains
• Parietal serosa – the part of the membrane lining the cavity walls
• Visceral serosa – covering the organs in the cavity
• Both are separated by serous fluid secreted by both membranes; it allows visceral organs to slide
with little friction during routine function (heart beating, stomach churning, etc.)
• When serous membranes are inflamed, their normally smooth surfaces
become roughened causing the membranes to stick together and drag across
one another
• Excruciating pain results
• Pleurisy – inflammation of the pleurae
• Peritonitis – inflammation of the peritoneum
• Other body cavities
- Several smaller body cavities
- Most are in the head and most are open to the body exterior
• Oral and digestive cavities

• Nasal cavity
• Orbital cavities
• Middle ear cavities
• Synovial cavities
Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants
• Simpler scheme – a
transverse and a median
plane pass through the
umbilicus at right angles
• The 4 quadrants are
named according to their
positions from the
subject’s point of view
• Another division method used primarily by anatomists uses 2
transverse and 2 parasagittal planes; like a tic-tac-toe grid on
the abdomen; divide the cavity into 9 regions
• umbilical region
• epigastric
• hypogastric (pubic) region
• right and left iliac, or inguinal, regions
• right and left lumbar regions
• right and left hypochondriac regions
Advanced Imaging Systems
• Medical personnel now employ a variety of advanced imaging
systems that allow for study of internal structures without
disrupting tissue
• These systems are frequently utilized in clinical applications to
examine for evidence of disease
X-ray
Computerized Tomography
Digital Subtraction Angiography
Sonography
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
The
Chemistry
of Life
UNIT II
 States of Matter
The  Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonds
Chemistry of  Organic, Inorganic Compounds and

Biomolecules
Life  Types of Mixtures

 Chemical Reactions
States of Matter
What is matter?
 All living and non-living things

are composed of matter.
 Matter: anything that occupies
space & has Mass
 Mass: the amount of matter in
an object
 International units for mass is
kilograms (kg)
 Matter is made up of tiny
particles called atoms!
Kinetic Theory of
Matter
 Matter is made up of
particles which are in
continual random motion.
Chemical Changes Physical Changes
can undergo
Solid
Mass
Liquid states MATTER all matter has
Volume
Gas
identified by
Plasma
Chemical Properties Physical Properties
Melting Point
flammability reactivity Density
Solubility Freezing Point

toxicity oxidation Volume
States of Matter
 One of the forms that matter takes

 Based upon particle arrangement
 Based upon energy of particles
 Based upon distance between particles
 3 Properties to look for to figure out which state of matter an object is:
 SHAPE … does it have a definite shape or form?
 MASS … does it have a definite amount of matter?
 VOLUME … does it take up a definite amount of space?
How many
states of
matter are
there?
3? 4? 5?
1. SOLID
➢ Particles of solids are

tightly packed,
vibrating about a
fixed position.
➢ Solids have a definite

shape and a definite
volume.
Heat
2. LIQUID
➢ Particles of liquids are

tightly packed but are
far enough apart to
slide over one another.
➢ Liquids have an
indefinite shape and a
definite volume.
Heat
3. GAS
➢ Particles of gases are

very far apart and
move freely.
➢ Gases have an
indefinite shape and
an indefinite volume.
Heat
But what happens if you raise the
temperature to super-high levels…
between 1000°C and 1,000,000,000°C?
Will everything
just be a gas?
4. PLASMA
➢ A plasma is an ionized
gas.
➢ A plasma is a very good
conductor of electricity
and is affected by
magnetic fields.
➢ Plasmas, like gases
have an indefinite shape
and an indefinite
volume.
➢ Gas to plasma is called
ionization.
PHASE CHANGES
Description of Phase Heat Movement During
Term for Phase Change
Change Phase Change
Solid to Heat goes into the

Melting
liquid solid as it melts.
Liquid to Heat leaves the

Freezing
solid liquid as it freezes.
Vaporization,
Heat goes into the
which includes
Liquid to gas liquid as it
boiling and
vaporizes.
evaporation
PHASE CHANGES
Description of Phase Heat Movement During
Term for Phase Change
Change Phase Change
Heat leaves the gas

Gas to liquid Condensation
as it condenses.
Heat goes into the
Solid to gas Sublimation
solid as it sublimates.
Heat goes into the gas

Gas to plasma Ionization
as it ionizes.
Deposition/ Heat leaves the gas

Gas to solid
Desublimation as it desublimates.
STATES OF MATTER
SOLID LIQUID GAS PLASMA
Tightly packed, Close together Well separated Has no definite

in a regular with no regular with no regular volume or shape
pattern arrangement. arrangement. and is
Vibrate, but do Vibrate, move Vibrate and composed of
not move from about, and slide move freely at electricaly
place to place past each other high speeds charged
particles
Some places where plasmas are found…
Flames
Lightning
Auroras (Northern Lights)
The Sun is an example of a star in its
plasma state
But wait…there’s more!
5. Bose-Einstein Condensates (BEC)
 Made by scientists (Eric Cornell and
Carl Weiman) in 1995, with the use of
lasers and magnets
 Cooled Rubidium at almost absolute
zero, molecular motion almost comes
to a stop
 Since there is almost no kinetic energy
being transferred from one atom to
another, the atoms begin to clump
together. There are no longer
thousands of separate atoms, just one
"super atom."
 Used in quantum mechanics studies at
a macroscopic level
 Superfluid (no friction)
 Can simulate black holes
Changes in Matter
Matter can go through two different

types of changes.
Types of Changes:
1. Physical
2. Chemical
Physical Changes in Matter
A physical change in matter is when matter

changes its property but not it’s chemical
nature.
Physical changes:
Although some properties (like shape,

phase, etc.) of the material change, the
material itself is the same before and after
the change.
The change can be “undone.”

Examples: Changes in
1. Shape
2. Texture
3. Size
4. Dissolves
5. Breaks Apart
EXAMPLES:
Aluminum foil is cut in half
Clay is molded into a new shape
Butter melts on warm toast
Water evaporates from the surface of
the ocean
Juice freezes
Rubbing alcohol evaporates on your
hand
Chemical Changes in Matter
A chemical change in matter is when matter

becomes something completely new. New
matter is formed.
Chemical change:
The substances present at the beginning of

the change are not present at the end;
new substances are formed.
The change cannot be “undone."

CHEMICAL CHANGES DESCRIPTION
the particles of the substances are

the matter is different
broken apart
the old matter is no longer present atoms are rearranged into new
particles
the original matter cannot be

a new substance is formed
removed from the new matter
EXAMPLES:
Milk goes sour
Jewelry becomes tarnished
Bread becomes toast
Rust forms on a nail
Gasoline is ignited
Hydrogen peroxide bubbles in a cut
A match is lit
Your body digests food
Fruit decomposes and rots
Atomic Structure and
Chemical Bonds
Elements and Atoms
 Atom: smallest particle of an element that still has the chemical
characteristics of that element.
 Element : the simplest type of matter w/ unique chemical properties

(multiple atoms of the same kind)
 Most common in the human body:
 Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen (CHON)
 Usually represented by a “symbol” (letter)
 Oxygen = O
 Sodium = Na???? B/c in Latin it is called natrium
Atomic Structure
 Characteristics of matter result from structure,
organization & behavior of atoms.
 Subatomic Particles:
A. Neutron (No) THE ELECTRON
➢ No electrical Charge CLOUD MODEL
OF THE ATOM
➢ w/in the nucleus
-------------
B. Proton (P+) currently the most
➢ 1 positive charge
sophisticated and
widely accepted
➢ w/in the nucleus model of the
C. Electron (E-) atom.
➢ 1 negative charge
➢ In the e- cloud
➢ 1-trillionth the volume of No or P+
➢ Most of the atom’s vol is occupied by the E- cloud
Atomic Number and Mass
Atomic Number Symbol
 Number of P+ in each atom.
 This is literally the identity of the
Atom.
 Every different atom has a
characteristic number of protons in
the nucleus.
Atomic Mass/Weight
Mass Number  Weighted average mass of an atom because
of isotopes (variation of an element)
 P+ + No inside of each atom.  **This changes because the numbers of No can
vary**
 Number of P+ = E-
Isotopes and Atomic Mass
Isotope #1
1-P, 0-N Isotope #3➔
Isotope #2➔
1-P, 2-N
1-P, 1-N
 Isotope: a variant of an element.

 It has the same # of P+ but different # of No
 Therefore:
 Isotopes have the same Atomic # but different Atomic Mass
 Periodic Table:
 The atomic mass listed is an average of the elements naturally
occurring isotopes
Rules for Atoms
 Niels Bohr (1913):  Rules:
 the electrons are in orbits, like  1st shell
planets orbiting the sun. With  Must have 2 electrons to be full
each orbit, only able to contain
a set number of electrons.  2nd & 3rd Shell
 Valence shell  Octet Rule: Must each have 8

electrons in each shell to be full
 The outermost shell (orbit) of
any atom
 Valence electron
 Electron/s occupying the
valence shell
 Can be transferred or shared to
others (chemical bonding)
 Responsible for the chemical
properties of the atom
Chemical Bonding
 Outermost electron/s of an atom

determine/s its chemical behavior.
 If these are transferred or shared
between atoms it is called: Chemical
Bonding
 2 major types:
A. Ionic
B. Covalent
Chemical Bonding: Ionic bond
 Normally atoms are electrically neutral b/c P+=E-
 If an atom loses or gains an E- then P+≠E- thus the particle becomes charged
 An Ion is a Charged Particle.
 Positively-charged = Cation (+)
 Negatively-charged = Anion (-)
 Ionic Bonding: when ions of opposite charges attract each other and remain
close together
Chemical Bonding: Covalent bond
 Covalent Bonding: when atoms share
1 or more pairs of E-
 Molecules = pairing of atoms
 These bonds can be
 Single➔ 1 pair shared
 Double➔ 2 pairs shared
 Triple➔ 3 pairs shared
 Quadruple➔ 4 pairs shared
 These Bonds can also be
 Polar
 Non-polar
Chemical Bonding: Covalent bond
Polar Bonding vs. Non-polar Bonding
Polar Non-Polar
An unequal sharing of electrons An equal sharing of electrons
because bound atoms have because bound atoms have the
different numbers of protons same numbers of protons
This leads to partial charge within This means that there is no charge in
the same molecule the particle
-
Oxygen
P+=8 Oxygen Oxygen
P+=8 P+=8
Hydrogen Hydrogen
P+ = 1 P+ = 1
+ +
Chemical Bonding: Hydrogen bond
results from weak electrostatic attractions between oppositely
charged parts of molecules or between ions and molecules
**These are much weaker than chemical bonds**
 Molecules w/ polar covalent bonds have +
and – ends
 This results in the attraction of the + and –
ends to each other.
 Such as the H2O example in the picture ➔
 These play an important role in

determining the 3-D shape of complex
molecules because H-bonds between
different polar parts hold the molecule in its
shape.
Organic, Inorganic
Compounds and
Biomolecules
Inorganic Compounds
A. WATER (H2O)
B. ACIDS AND BASES
C. O2
D. CO2
Inorganic Chemistry
Inorganic Chemistry Organic Chemistry

 Generally deals with those  Study of carbon containing
substances that do not contain substances
Carbon
 Substances whose carbon is
 Lacks carbon-hydrogen bonds attached to hydrogen
Exceptions to the rule:

CO ➔ Carbon Monoxide
CO2 ➔ Carbon Dioxide
HCO3- ➔ Bicarbonate Ion
Water (H2O)
Characteristics of H2O
1. Polar molecule:
 b/c it is polar it forms H+ bonds with other
H2O molecules forming a lattice structure
w/in the H2O
2. % in body’s weight
 50% in ♀ (> body fat than ♂)

 60% in ♂
3. % in blood plasma
 92% H2O
Water (H2O): Fxns in living organisms
1. Stabilizing Body Temp. 3. Chemical Rxns
 H2O has a high specific heat  Reacting molecules must be
(meaning it takes a large amount of dissolved in H2O for many of the
energy to raise its temperature) bodies chemical rxns
 Thus it is resistant to temperature  **Hydrolysis
changes. H2O also evaporates
 **Dehydration Synthesis
(thus it can be sweat used to cool
the body when it evaporates and 4. Mixing Medium
takes the “heat” with it)
 Mixture: combination of 2 or more
2. Protection substances blended together but not
chemically combined
 Acts as a lubricant to prevent
damage from friction a. Solution
 It also forms a “fluid cushion” b. Suspension
around the organs (ex. CSF)
c. Colloid
Acids and Bases
Acid Base
 A proton (H+) donor  A proton (H+) acceptor
 A substance that increases the H+  OH- is what is usually found in solution
concentration in a sol’n that will bind to free H+s
 A substance that reduces the H+
concentration in a sol’n
Strong Acid/Base Weak Acid/Base

• Either will completely dissociate • Partially dissociates into its ions
when put into H2O, releasing all when put into H2O
of the H+ or OH- in their make- • Rxn is reversible
up • Ex.
• The rxn is not freely reversible • H3COOH ↔ H3COO- + H+
• Ex. (Formic acid)
• Strong acid: HCl ➔ H+ + Cl-

• Strong base: NaOH ➔ Na+
+ OH-
Acids and Bases
pH Scale
 Way to refer to the H+ concentration in
a sol’n
 H2O is considered neutral
 pH of H2O = 7
 pH < 7 ➔ Acidic
 pH > 7 ➔ Basic
 Change of 1 pH “unit” is
exponential
 10X D in [H+]
 pH 6 = 10X> [H+] than 7
 pH 7 = 10X> [H+] than 8
Acids and Bases
Buffers
 is a solution that can resist pH change upon the addition of an acidic or basic
components.
 It is able to neutralize small amounts of added acid or base, thus maintaining the pH of the
solution relatively stable.
 Chemical behavior of a molecule can D as pH does (enzymes work in narrow range)
 Thus: an organism's survival depends on its ability to regulate its pH
Acids and Bases
 Examples of buffers used by living
systems include:
 Bicarbonate, Phosphates, Amino
Acids, Proteins as Components
 The greater the buffer

concentration the more resistant to
D, but pH may still D just not as
drastically as seen w/o the buffer
Acids and Bases
Salts
 Compounds made of the
combination of a cation and an
anion
 Except for H+ and OH-
 Formed by the interaction of an
acid and a base
 HCl + NaOH ➔ H2O + NaCl
(acid) (base) (water) (salt)
Oxygen (O2)and Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Oxygen Carbon Dioxide
 21% of earth’s atmosphere is  By-product of organic

O2 molecule metabolism
(respiration)
 Essential to lives of most
animals  A small % is eliminated via
exhalation
 Humans use it in the final step
in a series of rxns in which  Accumulation of high
energy is extracted from food amounts is toxic to cells
molecules
Organic Compounds
and Biomolecules
A. CARBOHYDRATES
B. LIPIDS
C. PROTEINS
D. NUCLEIC ACIDS: DNA & RNA
E. ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE
Organic Chemistry
 Carbon:
 Unique in that it can form covalent
bonds w/ up to 4 other atoms.
 2 mechanisms that allow the formation
of a wide variety of molecules are:
 Variation in length of the carbon
chains
 Combination of atoms involved
 Carbon containing molecules essential to
living organisms are:
 Carbohydrates
 Lipids
 Proteins
 Nucleic Acids
 Adenosine triphosphate
Carbohydrates
 Carbo: Carbon atom
 Hydrates: Hydrated
 Range from small to large sizes
 Monosaccharide – Mono ➔ 1
Simple Sugar
 Disaccharide – Di ➔ 2
 Polysaccharide – Complex
Sugar
 Made up of C, H, O in a 1:2:1 ratio
 Glucose: C6H12O6
Carbohydrates: Fxns
A. Structural: ribose and deoxyribose are component of
DNA, RNA, ATP
B. Energy: simple sugars (monosaccharides) can be
used as an immediate e+ source, complex sugars
must be processed before use
 Glycogen (polysaccharide) important e+ storage
molecule
C. Bulk: cellulose (polysaccharide) forms the bulk of
feces
Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides
Mono = 1 Saccharide = Sugar
 MSs usually have from 3 to 6 Cs in their
make-up.
 Those w/ 6 are the most essential to
humans
 These include:
 Glucose, fructose & galactose
 These are isomers of each other
 2 important 5-carbon
monosaccharides include:
 Ribose & deoxyribose
 Structural components of DNA
Carbohydrates: Disaccharides
Di➔ 2
Saccharide ➔ Sugar
 2 MS’s bound together
1. Sucrose ➔ Glucose + Fructose
2. Lactose ➔ Glucose + Galactose
3. Maltose ➔ 2 Glucose
Carbohydrates: Polysaccharides
Poly➔ many
Saccharide ➔ Sugar
 Many MS’s bound together to form long
chains (can be straight or branched)
 3 Fxns/major types:
 In animals you find 1 type in plants 2
types
a) Glycogen: “animal starch”; used as an
e+ storage molecule. When quickly
metabolized it results in e+ for cells
b) Starch: long chains of glucose used for
e+ storage in plants
 Humans can break it down & use it for
e+
c) Cellulose
 Long chains of glucose that fxn as a
structural molecule in plants
 Humans can’t break it down & use it for
e+, thus it becomes bulk of feces
Lipids (fats)
 Major components: C, H, & O
 Minor components: P & N
 Compared to carbs, lipids have a
lower ratio of O to C, this makes
them less polar thus they can be
dissolved in non-polar organic
solvents (acetone, alcohol)
 4 major groups:
 Triglycerides
 Phospholipids
 Steroids
 “Others”
Lipids (fats): Fxns
A. Protection: surrounds and protects organs
B. Insulation: fat under the skin prevents heat loss; myelin sheaths electrically
insulate axons of neurons
C. Regulation: steroids→ regulates physiological processes
prostaglandins→ regulate inflammation
A. Vitamins: “fat soluble” vitamins do many things
 Vit A➔ forms retinol req’d for night vision
 Vit D➔ Promotes Ca2+ uptake in bone tissue
 Vit E➔ Promotes healing
 Vit K➔ necessary to form clotting factors
B. Structure - form the phospholipids and cholesterol in the cell’s membrane
C. Energy: can be broken down to yield more e+ than either carb’s or proteins
Lipids (fats): Triglycerides
 Make-up 95% of fats in the human body
 1- glycerol + 3 Fatty Acids (FA’s)
 FA’s differ from each other by # of Cs and degree of Fatty Acid
saturation
 2 types:
Glycerol
1. Saturated
 Only single covalent bond between Cs in the carbon
backbone (ex. Pork, dairy products, coconut & palm oils)
Fatty Acid
2. Unsaturated
 1 or more double covalent bond between Cs in the
carbon backbone
a) Monounsaturated (olive oil, peanut oil, avocados, etc.)
b) Polyunsaturated (fatty fish, oysters, soybeans, etc.)
 Trans fats: chemically altered UF, that is more of a risk of

cardiovascular disease development than even the SF
Fatty Acid
 ex. Fried foods, processed foods, baked goods, etc.
Lipids (fats):
Phospholipids
 Glycerol + 2 FA’s +
phosphate containing
molecule
 Notice structurally
similar to TG’s
 Polar Molecule:
 Hydrophilic Head (Polar)
 Hydrophobic Tails (Non-
polar)
 Essential in the cell
membrane’s structure
Lipids (fats): Steroids
 Structurally they are a unique lipid,
but their solubility characteristics are
similar
 All composed of C’s bound together
in a 4-ring-like structure
 Important examples:
 Cholesterol (building blocks for other
steroids)
 Ingest too much ➔ heart disease, but it
is still essential to diet
 Bile Salts
 Estrogen
 Progesterone
 Testosterone
Lipids (fats): others
 Eicosanoids  Fat Soluble Vitamins
 Group of important molecules  Structurally not similar to one
derived from FA’s another but they are non-polar
molecules essential to normal
 Made in most cells
body fxn
 Important regulatory molecules
 Examples:
 Prostaglandins: implicated in
regulation of hormones for blood
clotting, some reproductive fxns,
and more
 Thromboxanes
 Leukotrienes
Proteins
 Major components: C, H, O, & N
 Minor components: S, P, Fe, and
I
 Protein’s molecular mass can be
huge:
 NaCl = 58
 Glucose = 108
 Proteins ➔ 1000 to several
million
Proteins: Fxns
1. Regulation
 Enzymes control chem rxns and hormones regulate many physiological
processes
2. Transport
 Can help to transport things in the watery environment of the blood & can
control mvmt in & out of cell
3. Protection
 Antibodies and complement system proteins protect against foreign invaders
4. Contraction
 Actin and Myosin and proteins involved in muscle movement
5. Structure
 Collagen fibers give structural framework
 Keratin lends strength to hair, skin, nails
6. Energy
 Can be broken down to produce e+ equals the same yield as carb’s
Proteins: Structure
 The building blocks of proteins
are amino acids(AA):
 These are made up of a
central C with an Amine group
at one end and a carboxyl
group at the other
 The R-Group varies from AA to
AA
 Peptide Bonds
 between each AA the Amine
and Carboxyl groups bind to
each other and form Peptide
Bonds. Thus the reason proteins
are often referred to as
polypeptides.
All 20
Amino
Acid
Structures
4 Levels of Protein Structure
Proteins: Enzymes
 Acts as a catalyst
 a substance that initiates or
accelerates a chemical reaction
without itself being affected
 An enzymes 3-demisional shape is
essential to its function
 Induced fit model
 The enzyme can change its shape
significantly to fit its reactants.
 Enzymes lower activation e+ b/c
they orient the reactant in such a
way that chemical reaction is more
likely to occur
Proteins: Enzymes
1. Enzymes bind reactants
2. Combines reactants
3. Releases reactant so that it can do
the same process all over again
4. It is capable of catalyzing multiple
reactions
 Some enzymes require co-factors
and co-enzymes to function
 Co-factors: ions
 Usually finalize the shape of the active
site
 Co-enzymes: organic molecules

 -ase
 this suffix means enzyme
Nucleic Acids
 Made-up of C, H, O, N,
&P
 DNA: carry genes
 RNA – encode amino
acid sequences of
proteins
 building blocks are
called nucleotides
Nucleic Acids
2 types
DNA RNA
Deoxyribonucleic Acid Ribonucleic Acid
Double Helix Single stranded
Basic Nucleotide
Nucleic Acids
Nucleotide: Sugars
DNA RNA
Deoxyribonucleic Acid Ribonucleic Acid
Double Helix Single stranded
Nucleic Acids
RNA (single stranded) DNA (Double Stranded)
Nucleic Acids: Nitrogenous bases
2 types
Pyrimidines Purines
 Cytosine  Guanine
 Thymine  Adenine
 Uracil
DNA’s bases RNA’s bases

• Adenine • Uracil
• Guanine • Guanine
• Cytosine • Cytosine
• Thymine • Adenine
Nucleic Acids: DNA
 DNA is a double helix
 “twisted ladder”
 Vertically nucleotides are held together via a
covalent bond between
 The phosphate group of 1 nucleotide and the
next
 Horizontally nucleotides are held together via a
H bond between
 Nitrogenous bases next to each other
 **NB’s must have correct partner to bind to** this
is called complementary base pairing
 DNA :T=A G=C
 RNA: U=A G=C
Nucleic Acids: DNA
 The two opposing strands of DNA also run
antiparallel to each other.
 Meaning the sugar phosphate backbone of 1
strand runs the opposite direction of it’s partner
 5’ ➔ 3’
 3’ ➔ 5’
 Within DNA the sequence of bases is a

“code” that stores information used to
determine the structure and fxn of cells
 Gene: sequence of DNA that directs the
synthesis of an RNA molecule that will
become a protein
Adenosine
Triphosphate (ATP)
 There is potential e+ stored in the 3rd (last)
phosphate group that is essential to living
organisms because it provides the e+ used in
nearly all of the chemical rxns within the cells of
the body
 Catabolism of glucose, fat, or protein releases
e+ and that is transferred via a series of
Oxidation-reduction rxns.
 ADP + Pi + Energy ➔ ATP
 ATP is used to provide e+ for other chemical rxns
(anabolism) or to drive cell processes.
 Ex/ muscle contraction
 ATP is called the “Energy Currency” because
it is both capable of giving or taking e+
Types of Mixtures
Lemonade Ingredients:
Lemon juice
Water
Sugar or Honey
Ice
Mint leaves (if you’re
feeling a little extra)
What is a Mixture?
 a combination of two or more
substances in any proportion
 The substances in a mixture do not
combine chemically to form a new
substance
 Instead, they just intermingle and keep
their original properties
 Can be separated by physical means
Why isn’t it a good idea to classify matter
by its phases?
Because one kind of substance can exist in more

than one phase – such as H20. And matter
changes phases rather easily.
Mixtures can be classified into:
 Homogeneous mixture
 Greek: “homos” same, “genos” kind
 has the same composition, looks the same throughout
 It is “well mixed.”
 Particles that make up the mixture are very small and not easily recognizable.
 Ex. salt water, milk, toothpaste, lemonade
 Heterogeneous mixture
 Greek: “hetero” other, “genos” kind
 varies in its composition, does not appear to be the same throughout
 the “least mixed.”
 Particles are large enough to be seen and to be separated from the mixture.
 Ex. Granite rock, sand and pebbles, oil and water, powdered iron, powdered sulfur
Types of Mixtures:
Solution
Colloid
Suspension
Types of Mixtures: Solution
 A solution is a homogeneous mixture with tiny particles.
 The particles are too small to see and also too small to settle or be filtered out of the
mixture.
 Solute - the substance that is dissolved (Ex. Salt)
 Solvent - the substance that does the dissolving (Ex. Water)
 When the salt is thoroughly mixed into water in a glass, it will form a solution. The salt
will no longer be visible in the water, and it won’t settle to the bottom of the glass.
Types of Mixtures: Solution
Solute Solvent Example
Gas Gas Air (oxygen in nitrogen)

Gas Liquid Soda water (carbon dioxide in water)
Solid Liquid Ocean water (salt in water)

Solid Solid Gold jewelry (copper in gold)
Metals dissolved in metals are called alloys.

Iron + Chromium = Stainless steel
Copper + Zinc = Brass
Types of Mixtures: Colloid
 A colloid is a homogeneous mixture with medium-sized particles.
 The particles are large enough to see but not large enough to settle or be filtered
out of the mixture.
 Have the ability to scatter light (Tyndall Effect)
 The gelatin is a colloid. It looks red because you can see the red gelatin particles in
the mixture. However, the particles are too small to settle to the bottom of the dish.
Tyndall Effect
Tyndall Effect
Types of Mixtures: Suspension
 A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture with large particles.

 The particles are large enough to see and also to settle or be filtered out of the
mixture.
 The salad dressing in is a suspension. It contains oil, vinegar, herbs, and spices. If
the bottle sits undisturbed for very long, the mixture will separate into its component
parts. That’s why you should shake it before you use it.
Chemical Reactions
Chemical Reactions
A. SYNTHESIS RXNS
B. DECOMPOSITION RXNS
C. REVERSIBLE RXNS
D. OXIDATION-REDUCTION RXNS
Chemical Rxns
 Atoms, ions, molecules, or
compounds interact to form or
break chemical bonds
 2 players:
A. Reactants: substances that enter
a rxn
B. Products: substances that result
from a rxn
Chemical Rxns: 3 impt. points
1. Less complex reactants are combined to form more complex
products
 Amino Acids ➔ Proteins
2. Reactants can be broken-down (decomposed) into simpler, less
complex products
 Food ➔ basic building blocks for the body to use
3. Atoms are generally associated w/ other atoms through chemical
bonding or intermolecular forces. Thus to synthesize or breakdown
products it is required to change relationships between atoms
Chemical Rxns:
Synthesis Rxn
 When 2 or more reactants chemically
combine to form a new and larger
molecule.
 Dehydration: called “dehydration”
when a H2O molecule is the removed
by-product of the rxn.
 Old chemical bonds are broken & new
bonds are formed as atoms rearrange
 Anabolism - to build something
 Synthesis rxns that occur w/in the
body
 Growth, maintenance, & repair
couldn’t take place w/o anabolic
rxns
Chemical Rxns:
Decomposition
Rxn
 Reverse of a synthesis rxn
 Large reactant is chemically broken
down into 2 or more smaller products
 Hydrolysis- is called a hydrolysis rxn
when water is used to break apart the
components.
 Hydro – water Lysis – to break
down
 Catabolism - to break something down
 Metabolism ➔ (Catabolism +
Anabolism)- defined as both anabolic
and catabolic rxns in the body
Chemical Rxns:
Reversible Rxn
 A chemical rxn in which the rxn
can go forward or backward
 Equilibrium:
 Rate of product formation is
equal to rate of product
breakdown
 Ex. Body
 H2CO3↔H++HCO3-
carbonic acid <-> water + bicarbonate
Chemical Rxns:
Redox Rxn
 Aka Oxidation-Reduction
Reactions
 results from the exchange of E-
between reactants
 Oxidation: loss of an E-
 Reduction: Gain of an E-
 Ionic: complete loss or gain of E-
 Covalent: partial loss or gain of
E-
 Synthesis/Decomposition rxns
can be redox rxns
Cells
Learning objectives
1. Correlate the structure and function of a typical animal cell;
2. Explain the role of the cell membrane in the control of molecular
transport;
3. Explain how cellular respiration occurs;
4. Demonstrate how a cell divides; and
5. Describe the structure and function of the primary types of human
tissues.
Cells
• Like bricks and timber…cells are the building blocks of
life…
Cells
• 1600s – English Scientist Robert
Hooke
• Observed plant cells using crude
microscope
• 1830s – German Scientists
Matthias Schleiden and Theodor
Schwann
• Proposed that all living things are
composed of cells
• German pathologist Rudolf
Virchow
• “cells arise only from other cells”
• Since the late 1800s, cell research
has been exceptionally fruitful and
provided us with the 3 concepts
a.k.a. the cell theory
Cells
The Cell Theory
➢ All living organisms are composed of one or more

cells.
➢ The cell is the basic unit of structure and
organization in organisms.
➢ Cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Cells
• As we go on with our discussion, remember:
• The cell is the smallest living unit.
• Whatever its form, however it behaves, the cell is the

microscopic package that contains all the parts necessary to
survive in an ever-changing world.
• Thus, loss of cellular homeostasis underlies virtually every

disease.
Cells
Cells
• A human cell has 3 main parts:
• Plasma membrane
• Outer boundary; a selectively permeable barrier
• Cytoplasm
• Intracellular fluid packed with organelles with specific functions
• Nucleus
• Organelle that controls cellular activities; typically lies near or at the
center
Cells
• Extracellular Materials
• are substances contributing to body mass that are found
outside the cells
• 3 classes:
• Body fluids (extracellular fluids)
• Cellular secretions
• Extracellular matrix
Plasma Membrane
• a.k.a. cell membrane
• Flexible; separates intracellular fluid from the extracellular fluid
• Plays a dynamic role in cellular activities
• Glycocalyx (a glycoprotein) bordering the cell that provides highly specific
biological markers by which cells recognize one another
Plasma Membrane
• The fluid mosaic model of
plasma membrane
• 7-10nm bilayer
• Made up of lipid
molecules
• with protein molecules
“plugged into” or
dispersed in it.
• The proteins that float in
the fluid lipid bilayer form
a constantly changing
mosaic pattern, thus the
name of the model.
Plasma Membrane
• The Glycocalyx
• Consists of glycoproteins
and glycolipids
• form a fuzzy, sticky,
carbohydrate-rich area at
the cell surface
• provides highly specific
biological markers by which
approaching cells recognize
each other (e.g. a sperm
recognizes an ovum by the
ovum’s unique glycocalyx)
Plasma Membrane
• Cell Junctions
• Most important factor
securing cells together
• 3 types
• Tight Junctions –
impermeable junction
• Desmosomes (“binding
bodies”) – serve as
anchoring junctions
• Plaque
• Cadherins
• Keratin filaments
• Gap Junctions –
communicating
junctions
Plasma Membrane
• Membrane Transport
• Passive transport
• Diffusion - tendency of molecules or ions to move from an area where they are in
higher concentration to an area where they are in lower concentration
• down or along their concentration gradient
• influenced by molecular size (the smaller, the faster) and temperature (the warmer, the
faster)
• In order for molecules to pass, they should be:
• Lipid soluble
• Small enough to pass through membrane channels, or assisted by a carrier molecule
Plasma Membrane
• Diffusion
• Simple – unassisted diffusion of
lipid-soluble or very small
particles
• Facilitated - assisted diffusion
• Carrier-mediated
• Channel-mediated
• Osmosis – diffusion of a solvent
(usually water) through a
membrane
Plasma Membrane
• Diffusion
• Osmosis – diffusion of a solvent (usually water) through a membrane
• Osmolarity – total concentration of all solute particles in a solution
• Osmotic pressure – the tendency of water to move into the cell by
osmosis
• Hydrostatic pressure – the back pressure exerted by water against
the membrane
• Tonicity – refers to the ability of a solution to change the shape or
tone of cells by altering the cells’ internal water volume
(tono=tension)
• Isotonic solutions
• Hypertonic solutions
• Hypotonic solutions
Assignment:
• What are the two major means of active
membrane transport? Discuss each type and their
subtypes (if any).
• 1 whole sheet of yellow paper. Submit next

meeting
Plasma Membrane
• Active transport – when a cell uses ATP to move substances
across the membrane
• Substances moved actively are unable to pass through diffusion
because:
• Too large
• membrane may lack special protein carriers
• may not be able to dissolve in the fat core
• may have to move “uphill”
• Requires carrier proteins
• a.k.a. solute pumps
Plasma Membrane
• Active transport – distinguished according to source of
energy:
• Primary active transport – the energy to do work comes directly from
hydrolysis of ATP
• e.g. sodium-potassium pump, with carrier or pump called Na+-K+ ATPase
• Secondary active transport - transport is driven indirectly by energy
stored in concentration gradients of ions created by primary active
transport pumps
• i.e. as sodium moves back into the cell with the help of a carrier protein,
other substances are “dragged along” or cotransported by the same
carrier protein.
• Coupled systems – they move more than one substance at a time
• Symport system – same direction
• Antiport system – opposite direction
Plasma Membrane
• Vesicular transport – fluids containing large macromolecules
are transported across cellular membranes inside bubble-like
membranous sacs called vesicles.
• Exocytosis (“out of the cell”) – is the mechanism that cells use to
actively secrete hormones, mucus, and other products or to eject
certain cellular wastes.
• Endocytosis (“into the cell”) – cells take up or engulf extracellular
substances by enclosing them in a vesicle
• Phagocytosis (“cell-eating”)
• Pinocytosis (“cell-drinking”)
• Receptor-mediated endocytosis
The Cytoplasm
• The cellular material between the plasma membrane
and the nucleus
• Site of most cellular activities
• Composed of 3 major elements:
• Cytosol
• Inclusions
• Organelles
The Nucleus
• Averaging 5μm in diameter, is larger than
any of the cytoplasmic organelles
• Its shape usually conforms to the shape of
the cell
• Has 3 recognizable regions/structures:
• Nuclear envelope/membrane
• Nucleoli
• Chromatin
• 30% DNA
• 60% globular histone proteins
• 10% RNA chains
Cell Division
• the process by which a parent
cell divides into two or more
daughter cells
• Part of the cell cycle
• Cell cycle – the series of
changes a cell goes through
from one time it is formed
until it divides
• 2 major periods:
• Interphase –metabolic phase or
growth phase
• G1 (gap 1)
• S (synthesis)
• G2 (gap 2)
• Cell division – cell reproduces itself
• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase
DNA Replication
• DNA needs to be replicated before a
cell divides
• Happens during S phase
• In humans, replication starts at
several origins of replication along
the DNA’s length
• Involves a sequence of events:
• Uncoiling
• Separation
• Assembly
• Restoration
DNA Replication
Cell Division
• Mitosis – division in somatic
cells
• Meiosis – division in sex cells
• Occurs in the M phase of the
cell cycle
• Essential for body growth and
tissue repair; in producing egg
and sperm
• More rapid in cells that easily
wear away
• More slow in liver cells to
maintain the size of the organ
• Nervous tissue, skeletal
muscle, and heart muscle lose
this ability when they mature
Mitosis
Meiosis
Protein
Synthesis
• Transcription –
when
complementary
mRNA (the
messenger) is made
using information in
the DNA gene
• Translation – when
the information
carried in mRNA
molecules is
“decoded” and
translated from
nucleic acids to
proteins
Protein Synthesis
Cells
Prepare for a long exam
Tissues
We were once single-celled organisms…
The millions of cells that result from cell division become
specialized for particular functions…
Specialized indispensable cells when damaged, can make
the whole body suffer or die…
Tissues
• Group of cells that are similar in structure and function
and represent the next level of structural organization
• Four primary tissue types:
• Epithelial (covering)
• Connective (support)
• Nervous (control)
• Muscle (movement)
• These tissues interweave to form the fabric of the body
Epithelial Tissue
• or epithelium (epithe = laid on, covering; plural
epithelia), is the lining, covering, and glandular tissue of
the body
• Covering and lining epithelium covers all free body
surfaces in and out, and contains versatile cells
• Fxns:
• protection (skin)
• absorption (stomach and small intestine)
• filtration (kidneys)
• secretion (glands)
Hallmarks of Epithelium
• Unique characteristics:
• fit closely together to form continuous sheets (except for
glandular epithelium); bound by desmosomes and tight
junctions
• Has unattached or free surface/edge called the apical surface
• The anchored (basal) surface rests on a basement membrane
• Have no blood supply (avascular) and depends on diffusion
from the capillaries in the underlying connective tissue for
food and oxygen
• If well nourished, regenerates easily
Classification of Epithelia
• Each epithelium is given 2 names:
• 1st: number of cell layers
• Simple (1 layer)
• Stratified (more than 1 layer)
• 2nd: shape of its cells
• Squamous (flattened; squam=scale)
• Cuboidal (cube/dice-shaped)
• Columnar (column-shaped)
• Simple Epithelia
• Very thin; fxn: absorption, secretion, and filtration
• Subtypes:
• Simple Squamous Epithelium
• single layer resting on basement membrane; fit closely like floor tiles;
forms membranes where filtration or exchange of substances by rapid
diffusion occurs
• e.g. in alveoli (air sacs in lungs), walls of capillaries, forms serous
membranes (serosae)
• Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
• Single layer resting on basement membrane; common in glands and
their associated small tubes (ducts)
• e.g. salivary glands, pancreas, forms the walls of kidney tubules,
covers surface of ovaries
• Simple Epithelia
• Subtypes:
• Simple Columnar Epithelium
• Single layer of tall cells that fit closely together
• Goblet cells (which produce mucus) are often seen in this type of
epithelium
• Lines the entire length of the digestive tract from stomach to anus
• Mucous membranes (mucosae) – epithelial membranes that line body
cavities open to the exterior
• Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
• All cells rest on a basement membrane; other cells are shorter making
their nuclei appear at different heights; pseudo=false
• Fxn: absorption and secretion
• Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium lines most of
respiratory tract
• Mucus produced by goblet cells serve as “sticky trap” to catch dust
and debris, cilia propel mucus upward away from the lungs
• Stratified Epithelia
• 2 or more cell layers; more durable; fxn: protection
• Subtypes:
• Stratified Squamous Epithelium
• Most common in the body
• Cells at the free edge are squamous cells while those close to the
membrane are cuboidal or columnar
• Found in sites that receive good deal of abuse or friction (e.g. skin,
mouth, esophagus)
• 2 or more cell layers; more durable; fxn: protection
• Subtypes:
• Stratified Cuboidal and Stratified Columnar Epithelium
• Cuboidal: Typically has just 2 cell layers with (at least) the surface cells being
cuboidal in shape
• Columnar: Surface cells are columnar cells, basal cells vary in size and shape
• Both are fairly rare
• found mainly in ducts or large glands
• Subtypes:
• Transitional Epithelium
• Highly modified, stratified squamous epithelium that forms the lining
of only a few organs—urinary bladder, ureters, part of the urethra
• Subject to considerable stretching
• Basal layer cells are cuboidal or columnar; those at the free surface
vary in appearance
• Glandular Epithelium
• Gland – consists of one or more cells that make and secrete a
particular product (secretion) containing protein molecules in
an aqueous (water-based) fluid.
• 2 major types:
• Endocrine glands – lose their ducts (ductless glands); their hormone
secretions diffuse directly into the blood vessels that weave through
the glands (e.g. thyroid, adrenals, pituitary)
• Exocrine glands – retain their ducts; secretions exit through the ducts
to the epithelia surface (e.g. sweat and oil glands, liver and pancreas)
Connective Tissue
• Connects body parts
• Found everywhere in the body
• Most abundant and widely distributed of the tissue
types
• Fxns: protection, support, binding together other body
tissues
• Distinguishing characteristics:
• Variations in blood supply
• Extracellular matrix
Extracellular Matrix
• It is what makes connective tissue so different from
other tissue types
• Produced by connective tissue cells and secreted to the
exterior
• 2 main elements:
• Ground substance – water + some cell adhesion proteins and
large charged polysaccharide molecules
• Fibers – amount and type varies depending on type of
connective tissue
• Collagen (white) fibers – high tensile strength
• Elastic (yellow) fibers – stretch and recoil
• Reticular fibers – form the “skeleton” of soft organs e.g. spleen
Types of Connective Tissue
• All connective tissues consist of living cells surrounded
by EM
• Major differences reflect specific cell types, fiber types,
and the number of fibers in the matrix
• Types: (from most rigid to softest or most fluid)
• Bone
• Cartilage
• Dense Connective Tissue
• Loose Connective Tissue
• Blood
Bone
• a.k.a osseous tissue, is
composed of osteocytes (bone
cells) sitting in cavities called
lacunae (“pits”)
• Has exceptional ability to
protect and support other
body organs because of its
hardness (e.g. skull protects
the brain)
Cartilage
• Less hard and more flexible than
bone
• Chondrocytes (cartilage cells)
• Found only in few places in the
body
• hyaline (“glass”) cartilage –
most widespread; has abundant
collagen fibers
• Forms trachea (wind pipe),
attaches ribs to the breastbone,
covers bone ends at joints
Cartilage
• Fibrocartilage – forms the
cushionlike disks between
the vertebrae of the spinal
column
• Elastic cartilage – found in
structures requiring
elasticity such as the
external ear
Dense Connective Tissue
• a.k.a. dense fibrous tissue
• Collagen fibers are the main matrix
element
• Fibroblasts (fiber-forming cells) –
crowded between collagen fibers that
manufacture the building blocks of the
fibers
• Forms strong ropelike structures
• Tendons – attach skeletal muscles to bones
• Ligaments – attach bones to bones at joints;
more stretchy, contain more elastic fibers
• Makes up the lower layers of the skin
(dermis) where it is arranged in sheets
Loose Connective Tissue
• Softer and have more cells and
fewer fibers than any other
connective tissue type except
blood
• 3 main types:
• Areolar
• Adipose
• Reticular
• Areolar Connective Tissue
• Areola = small open space
• Most widely distributed; soft, pliable,
“cobwebby” tissue that cushions and
protects the body organs it wraps
• Fxns: universal packing tissue and
connective tissue “glue” holding
internal organs together and in their
proper positions
• Lamina propria – soft layer which
underlies all mucous membranes
• Adipose Connective Tissue
• A.k.a fat
• Basically an areolar tissue in which
adipose (fat) cells predominate
• Oil droplet occupies most of cell’s
volume
• Forms the subcutaneous tissue
beneath the skin
• Protects organs individually (kidney,
eyeballs)
• Fat “depots” – hips, breasts, belly,
• Available for fuel if needed
• Reticular Connective Tissue
• Consists of a delicate network of
interwoven reticular fibers associated
with reticular cells which resemble
fibroblasts
• Limited to certain sites
• Forms the stroma (“bed” or
“mattress”) or internal framework of
an organ
• “cellular bleachers” where other cells
can observe their surroundings
Blood
• a.k.a. vascular tissue
• Considered a connective tissue since
it contains blood cells surrounded by
a nonliving matrix called blood
plasma
• The “fibers” of blood are soluble
proteins that become visible only
during blood clotting
• The transport vehicle for the
cardiovascular system, carrying
nutrients, wastes, respiratory gases,
WBCs, etc.
Muscle Tissue
• Highly specialized to contract or shorten which
generates the force required to produce movement
• 3 types:
• Skeletal
• Cardiac
• Smooth
Skeletal Muscle
• Is packaged by connective tissue sheets
into organs called skeletal muscles which
are attached to the skeleton
• Can be controlled voluntarily
• Form the flesh of the body (muscular
system)
• When they contract, they pull on bones
or skin producing movements
• Cells are long, cylindrical, and
multinucleate
• Have obvious striations (stripes)
• Skeletal muscle cells are often called
muscle fibers
Cardiac Muscle
• Is found only in the heart wall
• involuntary
• When it contracts, the heart acts as a
pump to propel blood to the blood
vessels
• Has striations, only one nucleus,
• short, branching cells fit tightly (like
clasped fingers) at junctions called
intercalated discs which contain gap
junctions that allow ions to pass
freely from cell to cell
Smooth (Visceral) Muscle
• So called because there are no striations
• Cells have one nucleus, tapered at both ends
• Involuntary; contracts more slowly and lasts
longer
• Found in the walls of hollow organs (stomach,
uterus, blood vessels)
• During contraction, the organ cavity
alternately constricts or enlarges (relaxed) so
that substances are mixed and/or propelled
through the organ along a specific pathway
• Peristalsis – a wavelike motion that keeps
food moving through the small intestine
Nervous Tissue
• Nervous tissue cells are called neurons
which receive and conduct
electrochemical impulses from one part of
the body to another
• Fxns: irritability and conductivity
• Cytoplasm of neurons is drawn out into
long processes (extensions) as long as 3 ft
(leg) allowing a single neuron to conduct
an impulse to distant body locations
• Neuroglia – supporting cells which
insulate, support, and protect the delicate
neurons in the brain, spinal cord, and
nerves
The Integumentary System
• What does integument
mean?
covering
• Components:
– skin
– appendages
• hair
• nails
• sweat glands
• oil glands
Temperature Regulation
• Body temp. should be 98.6oF or
37oC
• Rate of chemical reactions
(metabolism) is altered by
changes in temp.
• To cool body:
blood vessels in dermis dilate and
heat is transferred from deep in
tissues to skin and sweat is
produced
• To heat body:
blood vessels constrict to reduce
blood flow to skin and heat is
retained
Structure of the Skin
● The external surface of

the body.
● Also referred to as the

cutaneous membrane.
● About 16% of an adult’s

total body weight. (So if
you weigh 100 lbs that
means your skin weighs
16 lbs)
Skin
● Two main parts:

○ Epidermis
■ superficial
■ thinner
■ epithelial tissue
○ Dermis
■ deeper
■ thicker
■ connective tissue
*The two layers are attached by the basement membrane.

Skin
● Subcutaneous layer (subQ)

○ a.k.a. hypodermis.
○ Deep to the dermis, but not part of
the skin.
○ consists of areolar and adipose ct
○ Attaches skin to underlying tissues
and organs.
Epidermis
• 1st major skin region (outside)
• avascular
• Keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium
• Thin skin – 4 layers
• Thick skin – 5 layers
• Has 4 key cells
– Keratinocytes
– Melanocytes
– Langerhans cells
– Merkel cells
Keratinocytes
• They make keratin (a tough,
protective protein) through
keratinization
• The most numerous cell type, about
90% of the epidermal cells.
Melanocytes
• About 8% of the epidermal cells.
• Make the protein pigment melanin.
• contributes to skin color
• absorbs damaging UV light.
• Responsible for freckles and moles
Langerhans cells
• epidermal dendritic immune cells
• alerts the immune system
Merkel cells
• associated with sensory nerve
endings responsible for touch
reception
Strata of Epidermis
• Stratum corneum
• Stratum lucidum (only in
thick, hairless skin)
• Stratum granulosum
• Stratum spinosum
• Stratum
basale/germinativum
1. stratum basale/germinativum
● The deepest layer
● rests on the basement
membrane
● is a single layer of
cuboidal or columnar
keratinocytes
● mitotically active layer
2. stratum spinosum
● Just above the s. basale

● Several layers (8-10) of
spiny shaped cells
3. stratum granulosum
● just above s. spinosum
● 3-5 layers of flattened
keratinocytes.
● Nuclei are fragmented
(cells are dying).
4. stratum lucidum
● Only present in thick skin
● 3-5 layers of clear dead
keratinocytes
● contain large amounts of
keratin
5. stratum corneum
● outermost layer
● 25-30 layers of squamous
dead keratinocytes
● 75% of epidermal thickness
● continually being shed and
replaced by cells from the
deeper strata
● Callus – due to friction
● Dandruff – flaking off from
scalp
Dermis
• 2nd major skin
region
• Dense connective
tissue (elastic and
collagen fibers)
• Highly vascular
• 2 layers:
– Papillary layer
– Reticular layer
• Other components:
– fibroblasts, nerve
endings, smooth
muscle, glands,
blood vessels, and
hair follicles
Layers of Dermis
• Papillary layer
- top layer, thin connective tissue
(areolar) layer w/ blood vessels
- Dermal papillae
- fingerlike projections that extend up
into epidermis
- ridges on hands and feet
(fingerprints)
- pattern is genetically determined
• Reticular layer
- deepest layer of dermis
- contains dense connective tissue
(collagen and elastic fibers)
- accounts for 80% of dermis
- with blood vessels, sweat and oil
glands
- attaches to subcutaneous layer
(hypodermis)
Hypodermis
• Below dermis
• a.k.a.
subcutaneous
layer
• Attaches skin to
underlying muscle
and bone
• w/ loose and
adipose tissue
• Contains ½ of
body’s fat
• Body fat for
females 20-23%,
males 13-25%
Skin Color and Variations
Why do we find different skin color in

people from different parts of the globe?
Skin Color and Variations
• Determined by:
- pigments
- genetics
- blood circulation
- thickness of stratum corneum
• Melanocytes of darker skinned people produce more and

darker melanin than fairer skinned people
• All races have same number of melanocytes

Skin Pigments
• Melanin:
- produced by melanocytes in epidermis
- yellow to reddish-brown to black
- responsible for hair and eye color
- provides protection against UV radiation
- amt. produced determined by genetics, UV light,
hormones
- freckles are accumulation of melanin
- albinism is absence of melanin
• Carotene:
- yellow-orange pigment
found in plants
- accumulates in stratum
corneum and fatty areas of
dermis and hypodermis
• Hemoglobin:
- gives pinkish-red color
- oxygen-carrying protein
found in red blood cells
Tanning and Sunburns
• Exposure to UV light stimulates
melanocytes to increase
production of melanin
• Melanin builds up to help protect
skin against UV radiation (tan)
• A sunburn is the skin reacting to
UV exposure
• UV light causes elastic fibers to
clump and become leathery
• UV light can alter DNA in cells
causing them to mutate (cancer)
Skin Color and Disease
• Redness/erythema:
- fever, hypertension, inflammation, allergies
• Pallor/blanching:
- anemia or low blood pressure, impaired blood
flow
• Jaundice / yellow cast:
- liver disorder (yellow)
• Bronzing:
- Addison's disease (kidney disease)
• Bruising:
- broken blood vessels, hematoma
Accessory Skin Structures
(Appendages)
• Hair
• Glands
• Nails
Glands
• all are exocrine glands
• formed by cells in s.
basale, pushed into
dermis
– Sebaceous (oil)
glands:
- ducts empty into
hair follicle; some in
skin surface
- Sebum: oily
substance; lubricates
hair and skin to
prevent drying; oil +
fragmented cells +
antibacterial
chemicals
- very active during
adolescence
Glands
• all are exocrine glands
• formed by cells in s.
basale, pushed into
dermis
– Sudoriferous (sweat)
glands:
- all over body and
open into sweat pores
Sweat – water + salts
+ metabolic wastes +
vit C + lactic acid; pH is
4-6
- 2 types:
eccrine
apocrine
Hair
Fxns:
➢ guarding the head against
bumps
➢ shielding the eyes (via
eyelashes)
➢ helping to keep foreign
particles out of the
respiratory tract (via nose
hairs)
➢ can make you attractive
Hair
components
• Hair/shaft:
flexible strands of
keratinized cells
• Root:
enclosed below skin
(scalp)
• Hair Bulb:
- base of root
- where hair is produced
• Hair Follicle:
- group of cells that
surround root and bulb
- gives hair different
shapes
• Arrector pili – connects
hair follicle to dermal
tissue
- goose bumps
Nails
• What are they?
thin plate with
layers of dead
stratum corneum
cells with hard
keratin
Nail Structure
• Nail body:
visible attached portion
• Nail root:
covered by skin
• Nail folds:
folds of skin in the borders
• Cuticle:
edge of thick proximal nail fold
• Nail bed:
stratum basale of epidermis
• Nail matrix:
thickened proximal area of nail bed,
responsible for nail growth
• Lunule:
white crescent-shaped area
Homeostatic Imbalances of the
➢ Pathogens
Skin
➢ Allergies
➢ Burns
➢ Skin cancers
Infections and Allergies
• Athlete’s foot
– Itchy, red, peeling condition between the toes; caused by Tinea pedis
• Boils/furuncles
– Inflammation of hair follicles and surrounding tissues
– Carbuncles – clusters of boils
– Caused by Staphylococcus aureus
• Cold sores (fever blisters)
– Itchy and stingy fluid-filled blisters
– Caused by human herpesvirus 1, remains dormant in cutaneous nerve
but gets activated by fever, UV radiation, if emotionally upset
• Contact dermatitis
– Itchy, red, swollen skin, can blister
– Caused by chemicals that provoke allergic responses
• Impetigo
– Pink, fluid-filled, raised lesions, develop yellow crust and ruptures
– Caused by Staphylococcus and streptococcus
– Common in children
• Psoriasis
– Red lesions with dry silvery scales that itch, burn, crack and often bleed
– Chronic condition, autoimmune disorder
– Triggered by trauma, infection, hormonal changes, stress
Burns
Burn – tissue damage and cell death caused by
intense heat, electricity, UV radiation, or certain
chemicals
2 problems:
➢ Loss of intact skin, fluid loss→dehydration and
electrolyte imbalance→kidney shutdown,
circulatory shock
- body fluid can be replenished by
assessing the body using rule of nines
➢ Infection – leading cause of death in burn
victims, suppressed immune system after 2
days
Classification of burns according to severity:

1st degree (superficial)
2nd degree (superficial partial thickness burns)
3rd degree (full thickness burns)
4th degree (full thickness burns w/ deep tissue
involvement)
Burns
In general, burns are considered critical if any of the following
conditions exists:
• Over 30 percent of the body has second degree burns.

• Over 10 percent of the body has third- or fourth-degree burns.
• There are third- or fourth-degree burns of the face, hands,
feet, or genitals.
• Burns affect the airway.
• Circumferential (around the body or limb) burns have
occurred.
Skin Cancers
Neoplasms – tumors that arise in the skin; most are benign and do not spread
(metastasize) e.g. warts
malignant tumors – cancerous and spread to other body parts
Skin cancer – single most common type of cancer in humans
risk factor: exposure to UV radiation, infections, exposure to
chemicals, physical trauma
• Basal cell carcinoma:

- least malignant, most common
- cells in stratum basale affected, cannot form keratin
- cancer removed by surgery, 99% cases survive
• Squamous cell carcinoma:
- grows rapidly, metastasizes to adjacent lymph nodes
- cells in stratum spinosum affected
- if detected early can be cured
- can cause death
• Malignant melanoma:
- metastasizes rapidly
- arises from melanocytes in a mole
- rare type
- 50% chance of survival, can cause death
Aging and the Integument
• Blood flow decreases and skin becomes
thinner due to decreased amounts of
collagen
• Decreased activity of sebaceous and sweat

glands make temperature regulation more
difficult
• Loss of elastic fibers cause skin to sag and

wrinkle

The Human Body Orientation

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The Human Body Orientation

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The Human Body:

The following terms belong to either Anatomy or Physiology.

Eyes Stomach Kidney

At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:

1. distinguish the levels of organization of the human body;

• Anatomy - The study of • Physiology - The study

• Can be approached in different ways:

• Systemic Anatomy - The gross anatomy of

• Surface Anatomy - The study of internal

• decreases the intensity of the

• Aging reduces our ability to maintain homeostasis and our internal

• Oral and digestive cavities

Chemistry of  Organic, Inorganic Compounds and

Life  Types of Mixtures

 All living and non-living things

Chemical Properties Physical Properties

Solubility Freezing Point

 One of the forms that matter takes

➢ Particles of solids are

➢ Solids have a definite

➢ Particles of liquids are

➢ Particles of gases are

Solid to Heat goes into the

Liquid to Heat leaves the

Heat leaves the gas

Heat goes into the gas

Deposition/ Heat leaves the gas

SOLID LIQUID GAS PLASMA

Tightly packed, Close together Well separated Has no definite

Matter can go through two different

A physical change in matter is when matter

Although some properties (like shape,

The change can be “undone.”

A chemical change in matter is when matter

The substances present at the beginning of

The change cannot be “undone."

CHEMICAL CHANGES DESCRIPTION

the particles of the substances are

the original matter cannot be

 Element : the simplest type of matter w/ unique chemical properties

 Isotope: a variant of an element.

 Valence shell  Octet Rule: Must each have 8

 Outermost electron/s of an atom

 These play an important role in

Inorganic Chemistry Organic Chemistry

Exceptions to the rule:

 50% in ♀ (> body fat than ♂)

Strong Acid/Base Weak Acid/Base

• Strong acid: HCl ➔ H+ + Cl-

 The greater the buffer

Oxygen Carbon Dioxide

 21% of earth’s atmosphere is  By-product of organic

b) Polyunsaturated (fatty fish, oysters, soybeans, etc.)

 Trans fats: chemically altered UF, that is more of a risk of

 Co-enzymes: organic molecules

DNA’s bases RNA’s bases

 Within DNA the sequence of bases is a

Because one kind of substance can exist in more

Solute Solvent Example

Gas Gas Air (oxygen in nitrogen)

Solid Liquid Ocean water (salt in water)

Metals dissolved in metals are called alloys.

 A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture with large particles.