Ad Soft Skills Precourse Reading Document

“Bridge” Upskilling Program: Pre-course
reading for Soft Skills
2022
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect
Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 112 (2014) 842 – 846
International Conference on Education & Educational Psychology 2013 (ICEEPSY 2013)
Soft Skills Development to Enhance Teachers’ Competencies

in Primary Schools
Somprach, Kanokorna,*, Popoonsak, Pongtorna, Sombatteera, Sujanyac
a
Department of Educational Administration, Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen 40002, Thailand
b
Department of Educational Research and Evaluation, Rajabhat Maha Sarakam University 44000, Thailand
c
School of Liberal Arts, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand
Abstract
Soft Skills were the important skill for teachers and administrators during the 21 st Century. Thailand is another country
entering into Asian Economic Community. The objective of this research was to develop the teachers’ Soft Skills during the
first 2 years of their work in Primary Schools in the North Eastern Region of Thailand.
These Soft Skills were: 1) Communication skills 2) thinking skills and problem solving skills 3) teamwork force 4) life-long
learning and information management 5) innovation development, 6) ethics and professionalism and 7) leadership skills. There
were 4 Phases of this study. Phase 1: Construction of the programme, the contextual study by surveying the need, model, and
technique in developing soft skills for teachers. Phase 2: Verifying the programme by experts. The external validity of
programme was investigated. The instruments for evaluation as well as materials for development were constructed. Phase 3:
the program was tried out in 3 schools under the Office of Khon Kaen Educational Service Area 1. Phase 4: the program was
implemented in 15 pilot schools in the North Eastern Region. Data were collected by action research. The improvement and
revision had been performed after assessment. After implement the programme found that the teachers improved and
modified the lesson plan for more than 80%. They had their own innovation, and more soft skills particularly, their
communication and presentation skill, innovation development, and teacher leadership respectively. For the students, they had
higher level of learning achievement and were happier with their teachers’ learning management.
© 2013
© 2013 The
TheAuthors.
Authors.Published
Publishedbyby Elsevier
Elsevier Ltd.
Ltd.
Selectionand
Selection andpeer-review
peer-reviewunder
underresponsibility
responsibility of Dr Zafer Bekirogullari.
of Cognitive-counselling, research and conference services (c-crcs).
Keywords: communication skills; life long learning and information management; innovation development; teacher competencies
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +668-8116-6995

E-mail address: kanoklin@kku.ac.th
1877-0428 © 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Selection and peer-review under responsibility of Cognitive-counselling, research and conference services (c-crcs).
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.1240
Somprach Kanokorn et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 112 (2014) 842 – 846 843
1. Introduction
The economic, political, social, cultural, and technology changes, had an impact on various countries around
the world including the developing countries had to provide educational reform inevitably. Thailand is a country
among many developing countries facing with problem of educational reform continuously. (Fly, 2002) The
National Education Act was a firmly intention and attempt to organize the great educational reform in Century
started from the establishment of Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand 1997 which was called the People’s
Constitution as the reform of national development in macro context. The major rationale of educational reform
included the teachers, school administrators, educational staffs, curriculum and learning management. (Ministry
of Education, 2009).
The National Commission proposed 5 issues for teacher development as follows: 1) the seriousness relating
to the standard in both of teachers and students, 2) the preparation of new readiness and development to be
professional for the teachers, 3) the focus on teachers to have various kinds of characteristics and quality in
classroom, 4) the stimulation and encouragement for teachers in learning management so that they would have
necessary knowledge and skill to enter the 21st century, 5) the creation for school with organizational
management system for success of students and teachers. (The Institute of Teacher and Educational Staff
Development, 2007)
The teacher was a major factor in learning process management for organizing the content material as well as
activity to be congruent with the students’ need, practicing their thinking skill, management and application of
knowledge in daily life. The teacher had to be transformational leader who had to explore the correct knowledge,
comprehension, belief, and attitude towards students, teachers’ learning process which was called the total
changes of paradigm on students. The important thing included: 1) the preparation for readiness in instructional
media, library, and learning source, 2) the measurement an evaluation skill as well as teachers’ understanding in
learning process focusing on student-centred.
Cheng (2009) conducted research in teacher management and development including 4 factors as: 1) to
attract the intelligent persons to be teachers, 2) to provide teacher developing in order to obtain necessary
knowledge and skill, 3) to empower the teachers, 4) to retain the teachers. This study led to revision in teacher
development. Specifically, Thailand was in the period of the preparation for population to enter ASEAN
Community which had to be prepared as well as adjust oneself regarding to the body of knowledge, and working
technique, lifelong learning, lifestyle, multicultural work practice to be more efficient and effective. The
necessary and important skill was not only body of knowledge but also the life skill and soft skills which were
both of integral, and indispensable for improving and enhancing the professional of teachers.
The important and necessary skills in the 21st century consisted of: 1) the Connection included the
information literacy skill digital literacy skill, and communication skill 2) the Creative included the analytical
skill, problem solving skill, and creativity & innovative skill 3) the Cooperation included interpersonal skill,
collaboration skill, and teamwork skill (Tinsiri Siribodh, 2002) Besides, Tang (2011) stated that Soft Skills were
important and necessary during the 21st century, concluded by Crosbie (2005) including: 1) the thinking and
problem solving skills, 2) the good attitude, right value, 3) the knowledge and comprehension in multi cultural
culture and race, 4) the appropriate leadership, 5) the communication and presentation skill, 6) the responsibility
for society as well as transparency and accountability, 7) the team work in multi cultural culture, and 8) the
management of information technology as well as life long learning.
The teachers’ competency development in Soft Skills became the crucial factor to improve the teachers’
competency in their profession into professional. (Crosbie, 2005) Since the teachers’ competencies in Soft Skills
consisted of the ethics, morality, different bodies of knowledge, interpersonal skill, and responsibility. Therefore,
if we could analyze the teachers’ competencies in Soft Skills of staff teachers practicing in the present : How
much they had their Soft Skills, we would be able to develop the needed and lacked skills for being perfect and
844 Somprach Kanokorn et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 112 (2014) 842 – 846
sustainable professional teachers, and Education Program producing them to be effective professional teachers
further.
2. Research Objectives
The main aims of this study were to develop the programme for soft skills development of the teacher and to
study the outcomes of the programme
3. Methodology
This research was a continuing development study. It was conducted through four phases in order to build a
programme to enhance essential soft skills of the teacher in primary schools in the northeast of Thailand. The
four phases included contextual study, model construction, verification of the model, and development of
performance and programme assessment tools, and implementation and evaluation of programme.
Phase 1 Contextual Study and Programme Construction
Starting from the survey of teachers who have worked less than 2 years, was performed by using the
questionnaire in 180 schools, found that there were 110 schools cannot past criterion of assessment by the Office
of Accreditation and Educational Standard and Quality Assessment, these were the target group of soft skills
development.
The findings from teacher survey in 110 schools, found that the teachers evaluated themselves regarding to
soft skills ranking in order from high to low as follows:
X
S.D.
1) Innovation development. 3.59 .80
2) Thinking skills and problem solving skills 3.62 .56
3) Communication skills 3.67 .55
4) Life-long learning, and information management 4.01 .61
5) Leadership skills 4.03 .65
6) Teamwork force 4.24 .49
7) Ethics and professionalism 4.26 .60
In addition, according to the survey of needs, found that the needs for developing soft skills in 110 schools,
ranking in order from high to low as follows:
1) Innovation development
2) Communication skills.
3) Life-long learning, and information management
4) Thinking skills and problem solving skills
5) Leadership skills
6) Ethics and professionalism
7) Teamwork force
Phase II Programme construction & developing assessment tools
The information from Phase 1, the policy of new teacher development, conceptual framework and theories, related
literature review as well as good practices obtaining from interview, were developed and outlined for soft skills
Somprach Kanokorn et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 112 (2014) 842 – 846 845
development programme. The programme assessment instruments as well as supplementary learning document
that dealt with the performance were prepared.
Phase III Verification of the programme
The external validity of the programme was investigated by connoisseurship.
x To identify the qualifications of experts and recruit 15 experts.

x To plan seminar, determine related issues, prepare document, set appropriate times and make appointment
to meet the experts.
x To establish a suitable program of development according to research plan.
x To improve components and activities of the program development according to the experts’ suggestions.
Based on the finding above, Figure below showed the framework of the programme.
Context
.
Input Teacher Development and Teacher Competencies

Training
x Soft Skills
x Self Efficacy
x Module 1 Development
x Adult Learning
x Module 2 x New lesson plan with
x Skills for 21st Soft skills
Century x Module 3
x Reflection & Assessment x Innovation in school
x Teaching Pedagogy - Structure
x Professional x Follow up
- Process
Development - Product
Phase IV Implementation and assessment of programme
The development programme was used for teacher development in schools. The first group consisted of 3
schools. The second one consisted of 15 schools.
4. Findings
According to the contextual study and needs for target group, 4 modules were constructed for target group
development including: 1) innovation development 2) communication and presentation skills 3) thinking and problem
solving skills 4) information management, and the technique training as reflection & assessment was also provided.
The findings of programme usage found that:
For more than 80% of teachers, they improved and modified their lesson plans. They had their own
instructional innovation for almost 60% of target group. According to the supervision and following up by
researcher team after the teachers went back to their work place, found that they met and share in their school as
well as between the school groups more. Many teachers volunteered to be leaders in collaborated working.
846 Somprach Kanokorn et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 112 (2014) 842 – 846
According to interviewing by questionnaire, found that they improved their problem solving skill very much, and
were able to communicate in both of verbal and written forms.
Besides, they had teacher leadership by suggesting how to work for their co-workers, organizing the
discussion for sharing knowledge as well as solving some problems together. As a result, they had morale in
collaborative action in order to solve the chronic problem, and try to find appropriate solution for both of parents,
and students very well.
There were changes in organization wing to the occurrence of teachers’ innovation, the school performance;
the location was peaceful for living or staying.
The students improved their learning achievement. They were happy with their teachers’ new styles of
learning management.
5. Discussion & Recommendations
According to this study, found that the new teachers would be able to apply their knowledge, competencies,
and potentiality for constructing the innovation. The major soft skills including communication skills were
necessary to be based on the important soft skills as both of verbal and written communication skills which were
lacked of by the teachers. In addition, the thinking skills & problem solving skills needed to be based on their
own and team work’s knowledge for being able to use in learning management for children. If the teachers
developed themselves in the issue of life-long learning & information management, they would be
knowledgeable persons, and know how to search for knowledge to be useful for their own profession efficiently
and effectively. However, the supportive environment of organization, and the administrators as another key to
be the successful factor which would help the teachers to develop the soft skills quickly and effectively so that
they would work for their profession efficiently in the 21st century.
6. Acknowledgements
This project was made possible with funding from Khon Kaen University, Thailand.
References
Cheng, Y.C. (2009). Teacher management and development: Reform Syndrome and paradigm shifts. Paper presented at International
Conference on Educational Research : ICER 2009. Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University, Thailand.
Crosbie, R. (2005). Learning the soft skills of leadership. Industrial and Commercial Training, 37(1), p.45-51.
Fly, G.W. (2002). The Evolution of Educational Reform in Thailand. Retrieved August 1, 2009 from http://www.wordedreform.com/
intercon2/fly.pdf.
Ministry of Education. (2009). The Training Package of Paradigm Modification and School Curriculum Development. (The Revised Issue)
Bangkok: Kurusapa Printing.
Siribodhi Tinsiri. (2012). Social Media : A Tool or Threat in Education in the 21 st Century. Paper presented at ICER 2012, Faculty of
Education,Khon Kaen University, Thailand.
Tang Keow Ngang. (2012). Sharp Focus on Soft Skills. Paper presented at ICER 2012, Faculty of Education,Khon Kaen University,
Thailand.
The Institute of Teacher and Educational Staff Development. (2007). Transformational Development Program for serving the
Decentralization. Bangkok: the Cabinet and Government Gazette.
Early Education and Development
ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/heed20
Introduction to the Special Issue on Early Care

and Education Professionals’ Social and Emotional
Well-being
Patricia A. Jennings, Lieny Jeon & Amy M. Roberts
To cite this article: Patricia A. Jennings, Lieny Jeon & Amy M. Roberts (2020) Introduction to the
Special Issue on Early Care and Education Professionals’ Social and Emotional Well-being, Early
Education and Development, 31:7, 933-939, DOI: 10.1080/10409289.2020.1809895
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2020.1809895
Published online: 02 Sep 2020.
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EARLY EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
2020, VOL. 31, NO. 7, 933–939
https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2020.1809895
INTRODUCTION
Early Care and Education Professionals’ Social and Emotional

Well-being
a
Patricia A. Jennings , Lieny Jeonb, and Amy M. Robertsc
a
Curry School of Education and Human Development, University of Virginia; bSchool of Education, John Hopkins
University; cButler Institute for Families, Graduate School of Social Work, University of Denver
ABSTRACT
Early care and education (ECE) professionals’ social and emotional well-being
has emerged as an area of focus for improving program quality. ECE profes
sionals are experiencing increasing levels of stress and burnout, which is
threatening the quality of early childhood education and care. This article
introduces the special issue devoted to understanding early childhood pro
fessionals’ social and emotional competence and well-being and their rela
tionship to program quality and child outcomes. The purposes of this special
issue are to (a) describe the nature of ECE professionals’ social and emotional
competence and well-being, (b) understand the factors that contribute to
ECE professionals’ social and emotional competence and well-being, (c)
understand to what extent and how ECE professionals’ social and emotional
competence and well-being impacts classroom quality as well as children’s
developmental outcomes, and (d) present evidence-based approaches that
support ECE professionals’ social and emotional competence and well-being.
For the purposes of this issue, ECE professionals include early childhood
educators (e.g., teachers or home-based child care providers), practitioners
(e.g., home visitors, mental health consultants, specialists, etc.) and early
childhood leaders (e.g., directors, principals, or administrators) who serve
children from birth to third grade. In this introductory article we conclude
with a discussion of implications of this research for future research, policy,
and practice.
Early care and education (ECE) professionals’ social and emotional well-being has recently emerged as
an area of focus for improving program quality. ECE professionals are experiencing increasing levels
of stress and burnout which is threatening the quality of early childhood education and care.
Furthermore, since the advent of the COVID-19 pandemic, educator well-being is now even more
salient, as schools, childcare centers, and other providers try to figure out how to safely provide much-
need care for working families while protecting their workforce from the novel coronavirus. Indeed,
we are on the verge of a childcare crisis. Providers, already operating with inadequate resources and
with no financial cushion, cannot survive long closures, leaving educators without jobs, and parents
without childcare (National Association for the Education of Young Children, 2020). Now, more than
ever, early care and education professionals’ well-being is paramount.
Jennings and Greenberg (2009) prosocial classroom model highlights the importance of teachers’
social and emotional competence and well-being in promoting healthy teacher-student relationships,
effective classroom management, and effective social and emotional learning programs. ECE profes
sionals’ psychological well-being, such as depression, stress, burnout, and emotional competence (e.g.,
mindfulness, emotion regulation, coping, etc.) have been shown to relate to their practices and
responsiveness in the ECE setting (Buettner et al., 2016; Hamre & Pianta, 2004; Jennings, 2015),
CONTACT Patricia A. Jennings paj9m@Virginia.EDU; tishjennings@Virginia.EDU Department of Curriculum, Instruction, and

Special Education, Curry School of Education and Human Development, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904
© 2020 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
934 P. A. JENNINGS ET AL.
their relationships with children (Whitaker et al., 2015), and children’s social-emotional development
(Jeon et al., 2014; Roberts et al., 2016).
Despite the importance of ECE professionals’ social and emotional competence and well-being for
quality ECE programming, these professionals report high levels of depression, stress, and burnout.
For example, 24% of Head Start teachers in the Pennsylvania Head Start Staff Wellness Survey were
identified as depressed (Whitaker et al., 2015). In addition, ECE professionals are often exposed to
chaotic and stressful work environments lacking adequate support to address their own well-being
(Jeon et al., 2016). Indeed, the current debate about school and child care opening during the
pandemic has focused on children’s health and risk of infection, while offering little advice to mitigate
the potential threat of the virus on professionals’ health.
Previous research has shown that contextual factors at personal, classroom, and/or program
levels, such as composition of student demographics, children’s challenging behavior, school
climate, and compensations and benefits, may contribute to ECE professionals’ well-being (e.g.,
Hall-Kenyon, Bullough, MacKay & Marshall, 2014; Friedman-Krauss et al., 2014). Although
research on early childhood workforce is growing, more research is needed to provide a more
comprehensive and holistic understanding of ECE professionals’ social and emotional competence
and well-being in the classroom context, and to identify effective and systematic approaches that
support ECE professionals.
The aim of this EE&D Special Issue is to fill these gaps by integrating evidence around ECE
professionals’ social and emotional competence and well-being. In this special issue we aim to (a)
describe the nature of ECE professionals’ social and emotional competence and well-being, (b)
understand the factors that are associated with ECE professionals’ social and emotional competence
and well-being, (c) understand to what extent and how ECE professionals’ social and emotional
competence and well-being impacts classroom quality and children’s developmental outcomes, and
(d) present evidence-based approaches that support ECE professionals’ social and emotional compe
tence and well-being. For the purposes of this issue, ECE professionals include early childhood
educators (e.g., teachers or home-based child care providers), practitioners (e.g., home visitors, mental
health consultants, specialists, etc.) and early childhood leaders (e.g., directors, principals, or admin
istrators) who serve children from birth to third grade.
The articles in this issue cross a diverse range of topics. Several articles report on the results of
descriptive studies of ECE professional stress and well-being (Berlin et al., 2020; Jeon & Ardeleanu,
2020; Johnson et al., 2020; Penttinen et al., 2020; Schaack et al., 2020;; Silver & Zinsser, 2020),
including one that presents a theoretical framework supported by qualitative data (Rodriguez et al.,
2020). Six articles report on the results of intervention studies involving in-service professional
learning (Berlin et al., 2020; Lang et al., 2020; Sandilos et al., 2020; Silver & Zinsser, 2020; Susman-
Stillman et al., 2020; Tanaka et al., 2020), and one study focuses on pre-service learning (Virmani et al.,
2020). The purpose of this introductory article is to summarize the special issue articles by topics and
to present implications for future research, policy and practice.
Descriptive Studies of Stress and Well-being

Rodriguez et al. (2020) report the results of a qualitative study presenting support for the Five
Awareness of Teaching, a framework based upon the Jennings and Greenberg (2009) Prosocial
Classroom Model, which is applied to understand teachers’ social and emotional competence through
a developmental lens. The Five Awarenesses of Teaching framework categorizes teachers’ awareness
of 1) Self as Teacher, 2) Teaching Process, 3) Learner, 4) Interaction, and 5) Context. Cognitive
interviews grounded in Dynamic Skill Theory were conducted with eighteen ECE teachers and data
were analyzed using deductive thematic analysis of the Framework. The analyses resulted in three
themes: 1) the Framework described cognitive capacities relevant to ECE teacher social and emotional
competence; 2) a conflict was found between teachers’ awareness of student social and emotional
EARLY EDUCATION & DEVELOPMENT 935
learning and an active suppression of their own emotional well-being; 3) race, ethnicity, and family
engagement were found to be important and impactful to teachers’ well-being.
Several papers within this special issue seek to unpack the complexity of early educator stress and
well-being by describing ECE professionals’ experiences and identifying associations to pertinent
outcomes. Several studies describe high levels of stress, including physical and mental health problems
as well as economic insecurity. For instance, Johnson et al. (2020) found that a staggering 37% of
teachers in their sample had clinically significant depressive symptoms. Both Berlin et al. (2020) and
Johnson et al. (2020) documented poverty-level wages and economic challenges experienced by many
educators. Collectively, findings from this issue provide insight into aspects of the work of early care
and education that may serve as stressors (e.g., low pay, responding to children’s challenging
behaviors) and buffers (e.g., supportive relationships with coworkers and supervisors; intervention
supports).
Generally, results from this issue indicated consistent positive associations among teacher well-
being and desired teacher-level outcomes (e.g., intent to stay, teacher-child interactions, and expulsion
decisions), but mixed results for child-level outcomes. Specifically, Penttinen et al. (2020) found that
teaching-related stress negatively predicted the quality of emotional support and classroom organiza
tion, and teacher’s work engagement was positively associated with the quality of instructional
support. Schaack et al. (2020) found that teachers who earned lower wages, held a postsecondary
degree, reported greater emotional exhaustion, and who expressed less of a shared vision with their
organization were more likely to indicate turnover intentions. Additionally, teachers who reported
higher levels of collegiality also reported lower levels of emotional exhaustion; emotional exhaustion,
in turn, was a significant predictor of turnover intentions (Schaack et al., 2020). Silver and Zinsser
(2020) found that teachers with greater levels of depression were more likely to request that a child be
expelled from their care. In contrast, associations between teachers’ personal and economic stressors
and child outcomes, namely child academic, self-regulatory, and social outcomes, were often weak and
inconsistent (Johnson et al., 2020).
One possible reason for the inconsistent findings related to child outcomes is the nuanced
differences in how teachers handle stress. Jeon and Ardeleanu (2020) sought to understand
teachers’ coping strategies; they found that when teachers reported better work climate and
support from families, they demonstrated a higher degree of reappraisal emotion regulation
(e.g., revisiting the meaning of the stressors and attempting to change their perception). When
teachers had more children with challenging behaviors, they utilized more suppression emotion
regulation (e.g., inhibiting emotional expression in response to stress). Results suggest that
teachers benefit from being equipped with positive coping skills to maintain their psychological
well-being.
There is limited understanding of how best to prepare ECE professionals for the social and
emotional demands of their future work. To address this gap in the literature, Virmani et al.
(2020) examined associations between students’ social-emotional competence, individual charac
teristics, and endorsements of developmentally supportive practices to promote infant and toddler
social and emotional development among a sample of preservice early childhood professionals.
They found that preservice ECE professionals reporting more stressful life events also reported
more adverse childhood experiences and higher depressive symptoms. Secure attachment style
was positively correlated with mindfulness and reflective practice beliefs but not stressful life
events and adverse childhood events. After accounting for individual characteristics, individuals
with greater reflective practice beliefs endorsed more developmentally supportive responses.
These results suggest that secure attachment style may be associated with mindfulness and
reflective practice beliefs. However, while mindfulness was not associated with developmentally
supportive responses, it was significantly and negatively correlated with depression, and may be
a protective factor, or an important resource for preservice professionals. Individuals with greater
reflective practice beliefs endorsed more developmentally appropriate responses among infants
and toddlers.
Intervention Studies of Stress and Well-being

Several of the articles in this special issue reported on the results of interventions to promote teacher
social and emotional competence and well-being, such as professional development programs, mind
fulness-based caregiving interventions, early childhood mental health consultation, and reflective
supervision/consultation. For example, Berlin et al. (2020) found that early educators were receptive
to a mindfulness-based caregiving intervention, suggesting opportunity for a two-pronged mind
fulness-based caregiving intervention designed to reduce stress and support caregiving capacities.
Importantly, findings suggest that mindfulness-based caregiving interventions should be tailored to
the context, delivered in a culturally sensitive manner, and accommodate providers’ schedules and
educational requirements.
Tanaka et al. (2020) developed an intensive, adaptive professional development program (40 hours
over 10 weeks) that was guided by a needs assessment of Native Hawaiian ECE professionals. This
program addresses participants’ existing strengths and challenges, well-being, and self-care strategies
with a strong emphasis on classroom management (e.g., addressing children’s challenging behaviors).
Given that many ECE professionals report children’s challenging behavior as one of their top stressors
(Friedman-Krauss et al., 2014), this study provides a new approach on how to integrate ECE
professionals’ well-being into classroom management training. The authors found that ECE profes
sionals’ participation in the program improved their perceptions of teaching self-efficacy and well-
being.
Lang et al. (2020) developed a brief, online intervention (five 30-minute sessions) that supports
ECE professionals’ stress management and resiliency practices. The initial findings from this pilot
study were promising. The ECE professionals who participated in this low-cost and low-dosage
intervention demonstrated greater knowledge of stress and stress-reduction strategies and reported
greater use of positive emotion regulation strategies and positive responsiveness toward children.
Teachers also reported that the course was useful and applicable to their work. They indicated that the
course content positively affected their work with children. Because ECE professionals often lack
resources and time to participate in an intensive intervention, this brief, online intervention can be an
alternative way to support their well-being.
Another way to support ECE professionals is through consultation, such as early childhood mental
health consultation and reflective supervision/consultation, respectively. Silver and Zinsser (2020)
focused on early childhood mental health consultation, which typically involves an external consultant
developing a relationship with ECE professionals to help meet the social-emotional and behavioral
needs of children. They found that teachers with greater levels of depression were more likely to
request that a child be expelled from their care. However, this association was attenuated by their
utilization of early childhood mental health consultation services, suggesting that attending to the
mental health of teachers and children may be important in preventing preschool expulsion, especially
for teachers with depressive symptoms.
Susman-Stillman et al. (2020) examined reflective supervision/consultation (RS/C), an opportunity
for ECE professionals to reflect on their own challenges and practices and to increase self-awareness.
To better understand the benefits of RS/C, the authors examined reflective supervisors’ perceptions of
their role in supporting ECE professionals’ social and emotional well-being using qualitative data. The
findings suggest that reflective supervisors perceived themselves as helping ECE professionals to
cultivate self-awareness and self-efficacy. In addition, RS/C honored the process of reflection exploring
emotional challenges ECE professionals encounter. Trustful relationship building was a key to the
success of RS/C. RS/C may be an effective tool to be used along with other interventions as well.
Sandilos et al. (2020) examined three existing interventions (PATHS, Incredible Years, Tools of the
Mind – Play) that focus on children’s social and emotional learning (SEL) in an innovative way to look
at teacher burnout and its associations with teacher-child interactions, measured by the Classroom
Assessment Scoring System – Pre-Kindergarten (CLASS Pre-K; Pianta et al., 2008). In a randomized
controlled trial, Head Start teachers were assigned to the PATHS, Incredible Years, Tools of the
Mind – Play, or a control group. The authors found that although a negative association between
teacher burnout and instructional support was observed in the control group, the negative association
did not appear in the intervention groups. In addition, participation in the PATHS and Incredible
Years buffered the negative effects of burnout on teacher-child interactions. This provides new
information that existing interventions to promote children’s SEL may serve as a buffer for teachers’
burnout as well.
Implications for Future Research

Although the articles in this special issue begin to fill the gaps in the literature to understand ECE
professionals’ social and emotional competence and well-being and how these factors impact chil
dren’s development, they also illuminate areas that need further examination. One critical limitation
has been a lack of clarity regarding the nature of the specific social and emotional competencies and
well-being required for effective professional performance. This field of research has been limited by
existing valid and reliable measures that primarily focus on the lack of such competencies (e.g.,
depression, burnout) rather than the competencies themselves. An exception has been the use of
mindfulness and emotion regulation measures. However, there may be value in refining such measures
to more closely align with how these constructs actually appear in the ECE context. Further research
may build upon the Rodriguez et al. (2020) study to develop and refine quantitative measurement
strategies that can be applied at scale to better understand a broader range of these competencies.
In the United States, ECE programs have been under-supported for decades. With this in mind,
much of the research reported here was conducted in contexts with inadequate resources. When
programs are so under-resourced, it becomes difficult to know how to prioritize the specific needs in
such settings. This field of research requires an influx of funding that will allow researchers to
systematically examine these needs in isolation and how best to address them. For example, when
ECE professionals are underpaid, they experience numerous stressors in their personal lives that
impact their professional performance. When performance is impacted by stress, it is unclear if an
increase in salary alone will improve performance, or if ECE professionals also need specific profes
sional learning to promote the social and emotional competencies required to be high performing
professionals. Furthermore, how can ECE professionals’ salaries be sustainably increased without
placing undue burden on families who are already paying a lot for early care and education?
There is scant research examining the long-term impacts of stress reduction interventions and
future research needs to examine teacher characteristics over much longer periods of time. Indeed, we
know very little about ECE professional development over time and how ECE professionals develop
critical social and emotional competences that support their well-being over their careers. Most of the
intervention studies in this special issue were small scale exploratory studies. To this end, the field
needs support to conduct longitudinal research on large samples of ECE professionals to help us
understand this developmental process and how best to support it.
Implications for Policy and Practice

The results of the research reported in this special issue have important implications for policy and
practice. It is clear that without greater financial support, ECE providers will quickly burn-out,
especially given the overwhelming impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. When these professionals
work without adequate resources and training, the quality of their work suffers, which has a negative
impact on children’s developmental outcomes.
These challenges are not new. For far too long, ECE professionals have been making do with the
status quo. Instead, systems and policies need to be transformed to truly support ECE professionals
and provide the high-quality care our children need. The field must elevate the professionalization of
those who support the development of young children. Professional development must be provided,
ECE work environments must support professionals’ social and emotional well-being, and
professionals must be fairly compensated. A comprehensive approach to this process of transforma

tion will take time, cost money, and require public and political will. However, this transformation is
critical to the quality of ECE and the healthy development of our children now and in the future.
ORCID
Patricia A. Jennings http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1026-1362
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2014.08.008
Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice
ISSN: 1354-0602 (Print) 1470-1278 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ctat20
Presence in teaching
Carol R. Rodgers & Miriam B. Raider‐Roth
To cite this article: Carol R. Rodgers & Miriam B. Raider‐Roth (2006) Presence in teaching,
Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice, 12:3, 265-287, DOI: 10.1080/13450600500467548
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Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice,
Vol. 12, No. 3, June 2006, pp. 265–287
Presence in teaching
Carol R. Rodgers* and Miriam B. Raider-Roth
University at Albany, State University of New York
Teachers
10.1080/13450600500467548
CTAT_A_146737.sgm
1354-0602
Original
Taylor
302006
12
rodgerca@sover.net
CarolRodgers
00000June
and
&Article
and
Francis
(print)/1470-1278
Francis
2006
Teaching:
Ltd theory(online)
and practice
This article articulates a theory of ‘presence’ in teaching and seeks to establish a theoretical founda-
tion for presence that can serve as a platform for further research. It seeks to address the current
educational climate that sees teaching as a check list of behaviors, dispositions, measures, and stan-
dards, and to articulate the essential but elusive aspect of teaching we call presence. Presence is
defined as a state of alert awareness, receptivity, and connectedness to the mental, emotional, and
physical workings of both the individual and the group in the context of their learning enviroments,
and the ability to respond with a considered and compassionate best next step. The article is divided
into four sections and explores existing conceptions of presence: presence as self-awareness, pres-
ence as connection to students, and presence as connection to subject matter and pedagogical
knowledge. Within each section the role that context plays in a teacher’s ability to be present is also
explored. The authors draw upon papers and stories from student teachers, interview data from
children and experienced teachers, and stories from a study group of experienced educators that
explored the notion of presence on three different occasions. They conclude by connecting presence
to the essential purpose of teaching and learning, the creation of a democratic society.
Keywords: Presence; Relational theory/relationship; Self-awareness; Reflection
Introduction
The present … the real filled present, exists only in so far as actual presentness, meeting,
and relation exist. The present arises only in virtue of the fact that the Thou becomes
present. (Buber, 1970, p. 12)
Today’s imperatives for standardized achievement take us further and further from a
complex and nuanced notion of what it means to teach. Teaching and learning have
come to be described in simple terms: good teaching causes good learning, which is
equated with high test results. Bad teaching causes bad learning, which is evident in low
test results. As less time, money, space and value are given to a more complex notion
of teaching, the voices of both teachers and students are being squeezed out and we are
losing sight of what it means to teach. This article suggests an alternative paradigm and
views teaching as engaging in an authentic relationship with students where teachers
*Corresponding author: 5 Jones Road, Pelham, MA 01002, USA. Email: rodgerca@sover.net
ISSN 1354-0602 (print)/ISSN 1470-1278 (online)/06/030265–23

© 2006 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/13450600500467548
266 C. R. Rodgers and M. B. Raider-Roth
know and respond with intelligence and compassion to students and their learning. We
define this engagement as ‘presence’—a state of alert awareness, receptivity and
connectedness to the mental, emotional and physical workings of both the individual
and the group in the context of their learning environments and the ability to respond
with a considered and compassionate best next step. We hold that reflective teaching
cannot be reduced to a series of behaviors or skills, but is a practice that demands
presence. As such, it involves self-knowledge, trust, relationship and compassion. This
article seeks to bring the idea of presence in teaching to the foreground, to begin to
define it and to advocate an explicit acknowledgement of its importance in students’
learning and teachers’ education and to claim its centrality in the experience of both.
We aim here to explore and define presence in teaching, establishing a theoretical
foundation for presence that might later serve as a platform from which to explore the
implications for teacher education and professional development.
Why presence? Why now? Given the current climate of education, one that is recep-
tive to and indeed enamored with positivism, standardization and quantification, what
is the place of a discussion that centers on the subjective, qualitative experience of the
human beings who inhabit schools? It is precisely in such a climate that this discussion
is essential. Paying attention to the fundamentals of classroom life—the relationships,
the affective and cognitive interactions between students and teachers, the construc-
tion of genuine learning experiences and a hospitable school climate—is essential
because these are the very elements of classroom practice that are threatened by the
current educational trends. Past research suggests that the relationship between
teacher and student is a keystone in student achievement, motivation and engagement
and in their capacity to trust what they know (Midgley et al., 1989; Pianta, 1999; Roeser
et al., 2000; Rodgers, in press; Raider-Roth, 2005a,b). This research has demonstrated
that the quality of these relationships is not a frill or ‘feel-good’ aspect of schooling,
it is an essential feature of learning. What allows this relationship to flourish is complex
and calls upon the mental, physical, emotional and relational resources of the teacher.
As vital as presence seems to be in the mutual acts of learning and teaching, and as
widely acknowledged as it is in various literature, it is not often explicitly taught in
teacher education programs, mentioned on lists of qualities for certification nor talked
about by pre- and in-service supervisors (Garrison & Rud, 1995; Liston, 1995). It is
difficult to study (How is presence visible? What counts as evidence of presence? How
does teacher presence affect student learning?) and little empirical research exists.1
In this article we will attempt to put words to this elusive but vital quality. The
paper we have written is conceptual in nature. The concepts articulated here grow
organically out of our collective experiences with teachers and learners. These include
experiences with students, student teachers, experienced teachers and non-teaching
professionals whose practices also demand presence. The data we draw upon include:
papers and stories from student teachers in our courses and under our supervision at
a large state university in the northeastern USA; interview data from a small group of
students whose discussions of relationship and self-assessment practices directly
address the notion of presence;2 data from a group of 12 experienced teachers
interested in exploring the notion of presence.3
Presence in teaching 267
We frame our discussion in an interdisciplinary theoretical context, drawing on

literatures from philosophy, psychology and pedagogy. We have divided the paper
into four sections: existing conceptions of presence; presence as self-awareness or
connection to the self; presence as connection to students; presence as connection to
subject matter and pedagogical knowledge. Within each section we address the role
that context plays in a teacher’s ability to be present and the force it exerts in shaping
the dimensions of presence. We address context more broadly at the end of the article.
Existing conceptions
The experience of presence is one most will recognize, particularly from their
experiences as learners. Many of us have come across a teacher who, with the
metaphorical touch of a finger, could give us exactly what we needed, neither more
nor less, exactly when we needed it. A teacher who was present to, who could
apprehend, make sense of and respond skillfully to, our needs, strengths and
experiences as learners. From the learner’s point of view the moment is one of
recognition, of feeling seen and understood, not just emotionally but cognitively,
physically and even spiritually. It is a feeling of being safe, where one is drawn to risk
because of the discoveries it might reveal; it is the excitement of discovering one’s self
in the context of the larger world, rather than the worry of losing one’s self, in the
process. As one learner, in describing her experience in a pottery-making class, put it:
So what [the teacher] did was to acknowledge [my] strength and [my] way of being, and
[my] way of making meaning [with words]. She let me know there was another way [of
making the pots] that we were just going to try. And that we were going to do it together,
and that it was going to be hard for me. But she wanted me to extend myself and just see.
She didn’t say ‘We can make this work another way’ or ‘Do it my way’. She let me put [my
other] way of being aside and gave me a door into understanding that maybe there were
other ways in me that weren’t as accessible that were going to be helpful sometimes and
that I could begin to know them.
Presence from the teacher’s point of view is the experience of bringing one’s whole
self to full attention so as to perceive what is happening in the moment. Returning to
the Latin roots of ‘attend’ and ‘perceive’ we find the kernel of the essence of presence.
The Latin root of attend, attendere, is ‘to stretch toward’. Definitions include: ‘to
listen or pay close attention to; to accompany; to remain ready to serve’. The Latin
root of perceive, percipere, is ‘to seize wholly, to see all the way through’, and
definitions include: ‘to become aware of directly through the senses, especially to see
or hear; to take notice of; observe, detect’; ‘to become aware of in one’s mind; achieve
understanding of’. The image of an alert mind, ready to ‘seize wholly’, in concert with
a compassionate heart that stretches toward, ready to serve, captures much of what
we mean by presence.
We are aware, in attempting to define a word that touches upon awareness,
perception and consciousness itself, that we are in the vast territory of the history of
philosophy (e.g. Arendt, Descartes, Dewey, Noddings and Sartres), psychology (e.g.
Freud, William James and Jung), religion (e.g. Buddha and Lao Tse) and art (e.g.
Rudolf Arnheim and Henry James). While the scope of this article makes it impossible
to explore these ideas in depth, we think it important to cite the fundamental ideas
that have fed directly into our own thinking about presence, beginning with John
Dewey.
John Dewey (1933), in How we think used the adjective ‘alive’. The teacher, he
wrote, must ‘give full time and attention to observation and interpretation of the
pupils’ intellectual reactions. [She] must be alive to all forms of bodily expression of
mental condition…as well as sensitive to the meaning of all expression in words’
(p. 275, emphasis added). By including attention, observation and interpretation, he
addressed both attending and perceiving as described above. In Art as experience
(Dewey, 1934) he further alluded to aliveness as ‘an active and alert commerce with
the world’, in short, an aesthetic experience:
Experience in the degree that it is experience is heightened vitality. Instead of signifying
being shut up within one’s own private feelings and sensations, it signifies complete
interpenetration of self and the world of objects and events. … it contains the promise of
that delightful perception which is aesthetic experience. (p. 19)
Such aliveness comes when one is fully in the moment, in the present: ‘only when the
past ceases to trouble and anticipations of the future are not perturbing is a being
wholly united with his environment and therefore fully alive’ (p. 18).
The realm of art and the artist further deepens our understanding of presence,
calling as it does upon a certain sensibility. American novelist Henry James (1884)
wrote of the capacity to attend to reality with an ‘immense sensibility’. One must write
from experience, he declared and equated experience itself with that sensibility.
Experience is never limited and it is never complete; it is an immense sensibility, a kind of
huge spider-web, of the finest silken threads, suspended in the chamber of consciousness
and catching every air-borne particle in its tissue. It is the very atmosphere of the mind;
and when the mind is imaginative … it takes to itself the faintest hints of life, it converts
the very pulses of the air into revelations. (p. 5)
Dewey (1934) wrote similarly of the power of the artist and art to transform the
‘faintest hints of life’ into perceived but unarticulated ‘wholes’ that are ‘expansions of
ourselves’: ‘…the work of art’, he wrote, ‘operates to deepen and to raise to great clarity
that sense of the enveloping undefined whole that accompanies every normal experi-
ence. This whole is then felt as an expansion of ourselves’ (p. 195). Taken together,
James and Dewey described a heightened sensibility that apprehends and perceives the
world in such a way that the self is expanded and its connections to the world increased.
Echoing James and Dewey, contemporary poet and teacher educator Anne
McCrary Sullivan (2000) drew connections between the artist, the teacher and the
researcher, citing their mutual need to ‘bring their whole organism’ to their tasks.
Quoting Stenhouse she wrote ‘It is by virtue of being an artist that the teacher is a
researcher’. She then continued:
The artist is a researcher with his or her whole organism, inquiring, testing with the body
as well as the mind, sensing and seeing, responding and retesting—a multitude of
functions performed simultaneously—registering complexity, then sorting, finding
pattern, making meaning. (p. 226)
Maxine Greene (1973), borrowing the language of Merleau-Ponty, wrote of

‘wide-awakeness’. Through the act of reflection the human being confronts and
becomes aware of ‘his relation to his surroundings, his manner of conducting himself
with respect to things and other human beings, the changing perspectives through
which the world presents itself to him’. Such awareness requires that a person
‘achieve a state of wide-awakeness … a plane of consciousness of highest tension
originating in an attitude of full attention to life and its requirements’ (p. 162). She
also evoked Henry David Thoreau (1863), whose conception of awakeness and
aliveness pushes towards something like enlightenment, when someone sees things
fully as they are: ‘To be awake is to be alive’, he wrote. ‘I have never yet met a man
who was quite awake. How could I have looked him in the face’ (p. 163)?
Other contemporary writers have turned to philosophies of religion in an attempt
to grasp the elusive nature of presence. Robert Tremmel (1993) turned to the Buddhist
idea of ‘mindfulness’. ‘Mindfulness, in its simplest terms’, he wrote, ‘means to pay
attention to “right here, right now” and to invest the present moment with full
awareness and concentration’. The notion of being ‘right there’ is echoed in many of
the stories of presence we have heard, including one related by Ellen, a teacher and
singer in a community chorus. In describing the director’s ability to be present she said:
At 6:00 she’s ready to go. She’s right there, right there, right there. [She punctuates each
word with her right index finger hitting the palm of her left hand.] She isn’t at all imposing.
She’s just right there with the music and with us as a group.
Tremmel also drew a parallel between mindfulness and Donald Schön’s notion of
reflection-in-action. Tremmel pointed out that the mind of the reflective practitioner
is, according to Schön,
the mind of the athlete, the jazz musician, or the poet (1983, pp. 53, 54), which is flexible
and pliable. It is a mind that can attend to what is happening in the moment and respond
directly, not by means of ‘research based theory,’ but rather with its ‘repertoire of themes
and examples,’ ‘transforming moves,’ or ‘exploratory probes’ (1987, pp. 78, 79). It is,
moreover, the mind that has the capacity to reach into the center of confusing situations,
to see itself, and to shift the base of its operations or pull up stakes altogether and follow
the flow of the action. (Tremmel, 1993, p. 438)
Mindfulness, like reflection, Tremmel said, is a ‘smooth, free thinking way of

observation’ that demands that the practitioner ‘pay attention’ not only to what is
going on with students, but inside the self.
Leonard Waks (1995) also referred to Buddhist philosophies when he wrote about
‘emptiness’ and the mind’s ability to stay open to what is. The mind of the teacher is
empty in that it is attached to nothing but is free to seeing everything ‘as it is, here
and now, without clinging or distortion. … [teachers] have no need to reject, deny,
dissociate, or project any aspect of themselves’. He also described this openness as a
necessary condition for compassionate interaction. ‘And because of this radical self-
openness, they can also face and accept others. … Thus, emptiness is the standpoint
not merely for profound intellectual penetration of reality, but also for compassion
and unconditional love’ (pp. 94–95). Anthony Rud (1995), in the same volume,
studied what monastic practices might offer schools and teaching. Drawing upon the
teaching of Henri Nouwen (1975), he explored the notion of ‘hospitality’.
Hospitality … means primarily the creation of a free space where the stranger can enter
and become a friend instead of an enemy. … Teaching therefore, asks first of all the
creation of a space where students and teachers can enter into a fearless communication
with each other … . (Rud, 1995, p. 123)
A prerequisite state is ‘the achievement of a hospitality toward and knowledge of

oneself’ so that one can listen fully to the other.
Max van Manen (1994) came at the concept of presence from a more integrative
perspective, one clearly grounded in teaching. Borrowing from the Dutch (and, more
broadly, European) notion of ‘pedagogy’, van Manen wrote about the particularly
relational quality of being a teacher:
Pedagogy as a form of inquiry implies that one has a relational knowledge of children, that
one ‘understands’ children and youths: how young people experience things, what they
think about, how they look at the world, what they do, and, most importantly, how each
child is a unique person. A teacher who does not understand the inner life of a child does
not know who it is that he or she is teaching. Moreover the concept of pedagogy not only
refers to this special knowledge it also includes an animating ethos. A pedagogue is an
educator (teacher, counselor, administrator, etc.) who feels addressed by children, who
understands children in a caring way, and who has a personal commitment and interest in
children’s education and their growth toward mature adulthood. (p. 5)
Like van Manen (1994), several other writers have emphasized the relational
nature of what we are calling presence. Nel Noddings (2003) is one. Noddings viewed
presence as a fundamental feature of ‘care’, which she argued is an essential stance in
teaching. In describing the relationship between a caring teacher and her students she
chose the word ‘presence’, distinguishing it from the kind of connection found in
more personal relationships: ‘I do not need to establish a lasting, time-consuming
personal relationship with every student’, she wrote. ‘What I must do is to be totally
and non-selectively present to the student—to each student—as he addresses me.
The time interval may be brief but the encounter is total’ (p. 180).
Teacher educators Katherine Shultz (2003) and Lous Heshusius (1995) described
a similar stance when they spoke of the power of listening. Schultz, who placed
listening at the heart of what it means to teach, defined listening as ‘an active,
relational, and interpretive process that is focused on making meaning’. As with other
thinkers and practitioners mentioned here, she saw the teacher’s job as one of closely
attending. Attending to students in this way, she wrote, ‘implies becoming deeply
engaged in understanding what a person has to say through words, gesture, and
action. Listening is fundamentally about being in relationship to an other and through
this relationship supporting change or transformation’ (pp. 8–9). When writing about
her own experience of listening, Heshusius (1995) captured much of what each of the
aforementioned writers had described:
I feel quiet but very alive; completely attentive to the other. There is a sense of opening up.
The self is forgotten; there is no ‘I’ with whom I am preoccupied or who is judging. I become
something larger than myself – something that is, for that moment, undefined. (p. 118)
In our own experiences of presence we have noted a slow motion awareness and
wide open acceptance of the learner that is free of judgment and filled with awe of his
capacity to learn. There is also a feeling of passion, not just for the subject matter, but
for the human endeavor of learning itself. There is energy and curiosity associated
with this passion that keeps teachers alert and engaged with the learner and the learn-
ing, accompanied by a feeling of longing to connect with the learner and the learning
in the sphere of questions that matter, not just to us personally but in the world; to
connect with what is essentially human in us. Our attention is not only on the learner
but also simultaneously on the group, the environment(s) in which they all work, the
directions in which the individual and group might go next, the variegated terrain of
the subject matter(s) at hand and the place and value of that subject matter in and to
the larger society. Presence is no small thing.
Presence as connection to self

As suggested by Greene (1973), Tremmel (1993) and Rud (1995), a key aspect of
presence is being present to oneself. Teaching demands connecting with students and
their learning, and the health of that connection is nurtured or jeopardized by the
teacher’s relationship to herself. For the purposes of this discussion we understand
self as an evolving entity, continuously constructed and reconstructed in relationship
to the contexts, experiences and people with which the self lives and functions (see
Miller & Stiver, 1997; Damasio, 1999; Moore & Lemmon, 2001; Gilligan, 2003; Zaff
& Hair, 2003; Cook-Sather, in press).4 The process of knowing oneself is, of course,
a never-ending process, especially as these aspects of self are ‘re-storied’ (Holstein &
Gubruim, 2000; Cook-Sather, in press), shift and evolve over time. Kegan (1982,
1994) noted that evolution of the self is a process of moving from ‘embeddedness’ (in
our beliefs, prejudices, values, history, culture and feelings and the various contexts
that give rise to these) to ‘differentiation’, where we can observe these beliefs, preju-
dices and so forth as objects, rather than being subject to them. A critical self-aware-
ness is key to such growth (Dewey, 1938; Palmer, 1998; Agne, 1999; Hamachek,
1999; Lipka & Brinthaupt, 1999; Zembylas, 2003). When we as teachers allow
ourselves to be present both with and to students, such awareness can be accelerated,
as students’ responses to us are so often the windows to our own self-knowledge.
Risks of a divided self

In our work as teacher educators we often encounter among new teachers a perceived
split between themselves as ‘teachers’ and themselves as ‘persons’. There is a
perceived (and perhaps real) prohibition against the presence of one’s personal self in
the classroom (Nias, 1996). The ‘emotional rules’ (Zembylas, 2002) of school tell
teachers who they are allowed and ought to be, and this often stands in tension with
the personal self. Pre-tenured teachers in our programs, for example, often hold their
‘real’ selves in reserve until tenure is granted. They construct a teacher self, the image
of whom, in their minds, their institutions expect them to be or society at large
expects a teacher ‘should’ be (Goodson & Cole, 1994). Fearful that their personal
selves are not acceptable or appropriate, they try to be who they ‘should’ be and often
lapse into a state of anxiety about this unfamiliar teacher self making a misstep at any
moment. As Beijaard et al. (2004) noted:
What is found relevant to the profession, especially in light of the many education changes
currently taking place, may conflict with what teachers personally desire and experience as
good. Such a conflict can lead to friction in teachers’ professional identity in cases in which
the ‘personal’ and the ‘professional’ are too far removed from each other. (p. 109)
This distance between personal and professional selves can cause a tentativeness,
beyond the tentativeness that naturally exists for new teachers, that undermines both
their trust in themselves and, thereby, their students’ trust in them. The existing
values of the institution in which teachers must survive tend to have ‘greater prag-
matic value’ than their own set of values, the values that comprise their moral and
spiritual selves (Hargreaves, 1994; Moore et al., 2002; Noddings, 2003). The prag-
matics of acceptance by their institutions becomes paramount, as Smagorinsky et al.
(2004) observed, and the teachers’ goal becomes one of being ‘judged proficient in
terms of the values that govern the school’ (p. 10), rather than bringing the depth and
richness of their selves to the classroom.
When a teacher acts solely from an artificially constructed notion of who she should
be, she becomes remote from herself and presence becomes difficult. There is a
disconnection, a disintegration of self, that precludes bringing focused attention to
bear. With this disintegration, there is a subsequent lack of what Parker Palmer
(1998) called integrity. By integrity he means an integration of the self and the subse-
quent strength that results. A building has integrity when its elements fit together in
a way that each part of the structure supports and reinforces the other parts, such that
the building is sound, safe and can be trusted to sustain itself and those within it. Inte-
gration, wholeness, reliability and groundedness in a person all speak to what is
required for a teacher to be able to trust herself and the actions which are an extension
of that self (Nias, 1996; Palmer, 1998; Goldstein, 1999; Zembylas, 2003).
John Dewey (1938), in Experience and education, also referred to a divided self.
When there is continuity and wholeness in one’s life and learning, he argued, an indi-
vidual passes from one situation to the next and ‘does not find himself living in
another world but in a different part or aspect of one and the same world’ (p. 44). In
contrast, ‘[a] divided world, a world whose parts and aspects do not hang together, is
at once a sign and a cause of a divided personality. When the splitting-up reaches a
certain point we call the person insane’ (p. 44). When there is a lack of continuity
between a teacher’s professional life and personal self such that a teacher refers to
herself in opposing terms—‘me as a teacher and me as a person’—the apparent lack
of continuity between her worlds can become worrisome and her ability to be present
is compromised.
One small example comes from one of our student teachers who was told by her
cooperating teacher never to sit down. She needed, she was told, to ‘loom’ over her
students in order to establish her authority. Not being a looming sort of person, the
student teacher felt split between her obligations to an expert’s notion of teaching and
her obligations to herself and what she believed was her obligation to her students.
When teachers’ knowledge of themselves, their students and their professional
skills do not align with the contexts in which they work, there is little energy or psychic
space left for being present to the learner and his learning. Both teacher and students
are then deprived of creative exchange and connection between themselves, subject
matter and context. Talbert et al. (1993) pointed out that as teachers are called upon
to align their instruction to state and national policies (No Child Left Behind and
state and nationally mandated tests come to mind) ‘classrooms [become] emotionally
flat and teaching and learning processes are characterized by the routine presentation
and consumption of facts’ (p. 53), what Dewey referred to as routine versus intelli-
gent activity.
The moral imperative of self

While we focus here on connection to the internal sense of self, there is also a larger
moral dimension to presence, which necessarily points to the self as connected to the
larger society to which it is responsible. Andy Hargreaves (1994) noted the impor-
tance of rooting self-knowledge in ‘conceptions of the good and the welfare of others’:
When the search for the authentic self avoids becoming insular and self-enclosed, when it
remains rooted in and connected to conceptions of the good, and the welfare of others,
important moral benefits can be gained. In particular, the search for authenticity can
enhance the development of personal integrity and fidelity when people want to pursue
and clarify their social and moral ideals. In teaching, taking just such an interior turn
towards self-development and greater authenticity can have extremely positive educational
consequences when teachers are able to connect the personal and interpersonal
satisfaction they have with their students and their colleagues to social and moral purposes
of a broader nature and to the micropolitical realities of the organizations in which they
operate. (p. 72)
Teaching must have an ‘end-in-view’ that is moral (Dewey, 1933, 1938), not only in
terms of the immediate lessons being learned and taught but the ends to which
education itself aspires. In Dewey’s (1916) view, these ends are realized in a demo-
cratic society. Presence, in the end, is not neutral, nor is it bounded by the persons of
teacher and student, but reaches toward and is grounded in such a moral imperative.
Ultimately, however, a teacher’s effectiveness and authority are embedded in those
relationships that she builds with her students. David Hawkins (2002) theorized the
connection between authority and relationship as residing in the human experience
of trust: ‘…the teacher is one who acquires authority through a compact of trust, in
which the teacher seeks to extend the powers of the learner and promises only to
abridge them transiently and to the end of extending them’ (p. 9), to the good, we
would add, of the child and the society in which he resides. As a teacher sustains his
connection to self, he is able to bring his whole self to attend to the learning processes
of his students by seeking to ‘extend’ their powers, helping them to construct their
knowledge. In this pursuit he builds trust with his students, which forms the
foundation for his authority as a teacher, learner and human being committed to the
development of compassionate hearts and critical minds in his students. In short, he
becomes present to his students. In examining the teacher–student connection we
reach the relational dimension of presence.
The relational dimension of presence

José, a 12-year-old boy, passionate about acting and worried about mathematics,
described his teacher, Samuel.
Samuel was a big actor, too. He, he totally like, he took time to rewrite the script of last
year’s play. … We were always talking about acting and stuff. … I wrote [to him] that I
wanted, … to work on drama and he said, ‘If you do a good audition I promise you I’ll give
you a good part and I will work with you and you’ll become a great actor’. And he didn’t
only focus on that, he focused on my math and he gave me all those tips and he wrote down
the formulas on the sheet and he said you cut these out and you put ‘em in your folder and
tape them there, and just leave them there for whenever you need them, you can go look.
And … he helped and he … stopped the problem [of math]. He stopped where I was and
fixed it.
José’s description of Samuel holds the image of a teacher ‘seeking to extend’ a
student’s learning. We see a teacher who taps a student’s passion, understands the
student’s challenges and creates a relational context in which learning can occur. In
turn, José felt safe, protected and guided. In José’s description we can vividly see an
I–Thou–It (teacher–student–subject matter)5 relationship and an image of what it
means for a teacher to be present to a student’s experience of learning.
In this section we fill in this image by describing the qualities inherent in a teacher’s
capacity to be fully present in a relationship with her students. In essence, we describe
a relational stance. Fundamentally, this relational stance can best be described as
being psychologically ‘connected’.
Dimensions of connection
Over the past two decades relational psychologists have closely examined the concept
of connectedness. A key aspect of connection is what Janet Surrey (1991) described
as mutual empathy: ‘“Being with” means “being seen” and “feeling seen” by the
other and “seeing the other” and sensing the other “feeling seen,” which is the
experience of mutual empathy’ (p. 55). Surrey’s understanding of mutual empathy
suggests that to be connected to another human being each person must be visible or
‘seen’ by the other and receive some sense that the other can see her. Hand in hand
with mutual empathy is ‘relationship authenticity’, which she explained as ‘the need
to be seen and recognized for who one is and the need to see and understand the other
with ongoing authenticity’ (p. 61). In these interwoven concepts is the notion of
vision or seeing. To be in connection with another human being a person needs to see
and be seen by the other. The person needs to both recognize the other in all her
complexity as well as sense that her self is also seen and accepted (Jordan, 1995;
Miller & Stiver, 1997).
When bringing this notion of connectedness to the world of the classroom we begin
to understand the qualities that contribute to a teacher’s capacity to connect to her
students. In studying the ways that connectedness shapes classroom life, Belenky
et al. (1986) contributed to this understanding. They identified ‘connected teaching’
as a primary way that teachers come into relationship with students. They argued that
‘connected teaching’ means ‘to enter into each student’s perspective’ (p. 227). In
assuming a student’s perspective the teacher is able to see the world as the student
sees it. It is a state of inter-subjectivity, i.e. a state of ‘attunement to, and
responsiveness to the subjective inner experience of the other at both a cognitive and
affective level’ (Jordan, 1991, p. 82). In assuming such a stance, teachers assist
students in making connections to their own lives, in order to construct their own
knowledge. Belenky and colleagues likened teaching to midwifery, defining
connected teaching as assisting ‘students in giving birth to their own ideas, in making
their own tacit knowledge explicit and elaborating upon it’ (p. 217).6 Within this
connected stance students are able to make meaning of their own experience.
Finally, Belenky et al. (1986) suggested that trust is at the heart of connected
teaching. ‘Connected teachers are believers. They trust their students’ thinking and
encourage them to expand on it’ (p. 227). Indeed, contrary to the prevailing notion
of this era that teachers should help students ‘get it right’, this kind of trust asks
teachers to support, scaffold and help students build their own ideas.
Just as trust in self is central to a teacher’s capacity to be present to herself, trust
between teacher and student is fundamental to a teacher’s capacity to be present to a
student’s experience. McDermott (1977) saw trust in the teacher–student
relationship as ‘a quality of the relations among people, as a product of the work they
do to achieve a shared focus. Trust is achieved and managed through interaction’
(p. 199). For McDermott, in order to create trust in a relationship, teachers and
students need to engage in work together and create a common focus of interest, just
as acting and mathematics became a shared focus for Samuel and José. This shared
type of work shifts the teacher role from a ‘giver’ of knowledge that is received by the
student to a ‘collaborator’ who works side by side with the student in the learning
process. This kind of interpersonal trust engenders confidence in the student’s capac-
ity to trust herself as a learner, thinker and creator.7
Just as trust, empathy, authenticity and intersubjectivity are central to the state of
connectedness, so is mutuality. To explain mutuality the parent–infant literature
offers a useful paradigm. This research argues that the strength of the parent–infant
relationship stems from the ‘mutuality’ or trusting reciprocity between infants and
their caregivers. Tronick and Weinberg (1997) theorized a ‘Mutual Regulation
Model’ that focused on the ‘interactive nature of development’. In this model mutu-
ality requires expression, reciprocal appreciation of intentions and active work
together allowing the partners to help each other achieve their desires. Through the
active work of mutuality, parents and infants co-create the meaning embedded in their
joint experiences, the meaning of a cry, the joy of tickling or the worry of separation.
In the world of school the notion of mutuality can be understood as the ways in
which teachers and students read and make meaning of each others’ actions and
intentions. It is this kind of mutual meaning making that allows students to make their
needs and desires known, that assists teachers in reading students’ cues and invites
both teachers and students to take action that facilitates the learning process. This can
be as simple as an error correction or as complex as a discussion of race. In the process
of mutuality both parties watch the other to see how their expressions and actions are
received. Students wonder if the teacher can hear what they have to say. Is she work-
ing to understand them or is she looking for the response that she already has in her
own mind? Will she be willing to entertain views that are different than her own? Is
she able to see students whose life experiences differ significantly from hers? Our own
research has shown that students watch the teacher’s responses to their offerings quite
closely in order to monitor the extent to which she is open to their experiences
(Raider-Roth, 2005a,b). Similarly, teachers observe students to see if their (the
teachers’) actions support a student’s capacity to learn, to make connections, to take
a step forward. Processes such as student self-assessment and descriptive feedback
assist teachers in honing this vision (Raider-Roth, 2005a,b; Rodgers, in press).
Nel Noddings (2003) addressed this notion of mutuality directly when she
discussed the place of reciprocity in a caring teaching–learning relationship. She
avered that the circle of care is only complete when there is student acknowledge-
ment, ‘response’, ‘delight’ or ‘growth’ that the teacher can discern (p. 74). While this
aspect of Nodding’s theory has been controversial, the significance of her theoretical
framework here is that the caring teaching–learning relationship requires a feedback
loop, where teachers can take action, can watch how students respond and can be
moved and changed by these responses, thereby shaping their next caring act.
Disconnection: an opportunity for repair

Interestingly enough, a key learning moment in the teacher–student relationship
occurs when the connection falls apart. A teacher cannot humanly be present to all
her students all the time (though we all may wish we could). It is important to ask
what causes a teacher to fall out of connection with her students. What pulls her away
from being present to their experiences and their learning? What are the
consequences of this retreat? How does she re-enter after a disconnection? How does
she notice that she has fallen out of connection at all?
Kayla, a first year high school Spanish teacher, recounted a recent episode in her
classroom where she fell out of connection with her students. In some sense it was a
common high school scene. Students were misbehaving, a few had not completed
their homework, the disengaged few were distracting the rest and Kayla was furious.
Kayla described how ‘I felt like my classroom had spiraled out of control, the students
had lost respect for me and I, in turn, was behaving like I had lost respect for them’.
The next day, after considering her options, she moved the chairs and desks from line
formation to a circle and began a conversation with her students. Her students were
stunned to be included in a conversation about how the structure and climate of the
class needed to be changed. They were subsequently surprised to have their ideas
included in the changes Kayla made. As Kayla implemented the changes that she and
the students co-constructed, the climate of the class shifted dramatically. ‘We still
struggle every now and then’, Kayla reflected, ‘but the respect that we have gained for
each other has completely changed the classroom environment’. As Kayla and the
students found the language to re-connect, the nature of their relationship deepened,
accompanied by the essential quality of respect that emerges from this kind of mutual
attentiveness (Raider-Roth, 2005b).
Another example comes from Rick, a student teacher of social studies, writing
about a presentation he had given on the Civil War.
In the midst of a short presentation, I felt all the energy drain out of the subject, myself,
and the students. Afterward, my [pre-service teaching partner] said, before I could
comment, that it went well. I think his part went well, but I think mine went wrong
somehow. It went wrong, I think, because I had no idea what the students were thinking.
I just felt that the whole moment, well, it sucked.
This feeling of disconnection, which Rick characterized as a draining of energy
from himself, his students and the subject matter, led him to change his practice
slightly the following week. Although he still lectured, he also took time to inquire
into his students’ understanding.
Last Friday I gave a lecture. It was a power point presentation (my first), so it was a little
jazzier than a straight talk, but I still needed to know what they were getting from it. What
I did was warn them beforehand that I was going to inquire about their learning along the
way. I did it a couple of times. Unfortunately, we were really pressed for time, so I did not
get as much feedback as I would have liked. But I felt good about the attempt, and I sensed
that they at least knew I was serious about their being able to understand the material.
Rick’s feeling of not being present to his students’ learning prompted him to devise
a strategy to stay connected with it (in this case checking in with them along the way).
Later he asked for feedback from at least one student on how much she retained.
While he may not yet have devised the best way to deliver the material, he is devising
ways of staying connected to students and their learning, which, in turn, is taking him
down the road to more effective teaching strategies.
Psychological theory and research can again be useful in understanding the mean-
ing and power inherent in the moments of disconnection like these that inevitably
occur between a teacher and his students. Again, research on the parent–infant rela-
tionship offers a useful paradigm. The Mutual Regulation Model suggests that these
moments of disconnection or asynchrony offer an important opportunity for ‘repara-
tion’. Reparation means the ability of the parent and the infant to ‘fix’ or repair an
interaction in which the infant’s cues have been misread. A parent may not be sure
what is ailing his wailing baby. The infant may not understand a parent’s furrowed
brow. With consistent efforts at repair, parents and infants learn the signals that help
them return to a state of synchrony. As infants become more masterful in reading
their parents’ cues and expressing their needs in an effective manner, they learn that
they are effective communicators and that their caregivers are dependable. In discuss-
ing Tronick and Weinberg’s work (1997), Gilligan (2003) commented,
…trust grows when babies and mothers establish that they can find each other after
inevitable moments of losing touch. It is not the goodness of the mother or relationship
per se that is the basis of trust; it is the ability of the mother (or father or caretaker) and
baby together to repair the breaks in relationship that builds a safe house for love. (p. 40)
Gilligan helps us understand that in the teaching–learning relationship ‘moments of
losing touch’ are inevitable and important. As the teacher and student learn what it
takes to reconnect, they build the foundation of trust in their relationship. This foun-
dation holds the potential for love. In the classroom this would mean both student
and teacher bringing the whole of themselves, wide open, to the endeavor of teaching
and learning.
These moments of asynchrony also offer both the teacher and students
opportunities to develop communication strategies that can help them regain their
connection, as was the case with Kayla and Rick and their students. By doing so,
students learn that they are effective communicators and that their teachers are
responsive. Similarly, teachers can view moments of asynchrony as ‘teachable
moments’. Some might wonder if this kind of repair is as possible at the high school
or middle school level, where departmentalization is common and students see
teachers for short periods during the day, as it is at the elementary level, where
teachers have more time with their students. Yet, when we look at stories from high
school teachers such as Rick and Kayla they tell us that their efforts at reconnection
changed everything, both in terms of their relationship with their students as well as
their capacity to teach. Their stories resonate with current research on the centrality
of the teacher–student relationship in students’ experiences of schooling, at both the
elementary and high school levels (Lynch & Cicchetti, 1997; Roeser et al., 2000).
How can teachers help students develop adaptive communication strategies to let
teachers know when they perceive a disconnection? Indeed, students quickly create
less than healthy strategies, such as acting out or tuning out when they perceive that
their teacher does not care about their work or does not understand their struggles. It
is from this vantage point that we can see the importance of opportunities for student
feedback, self-reflection and self-assessment that is communicated to the teacher and
to which the teacher responds (Raider-Roth, 2004, 2005a,b; Rodgers, in press).
While the Mutual Regulation Model helps us understand the inevitability and
usefulness of disconnections and the importance of repair, we must still examine how
teachers recognize the disconnections when they occur and how they come to
understand the reasons that they disconnect from their students. Teachers like Rick
show us that in order to engage with their students they must stay connected with
themselves and recognize the parts of themselves that can short-circuit the
connection, from insecurity with the subject matter to lack of awareness of what
students know. Here we return to self and the importance of teachers’ presence to
themselves as teachers and learners.
A key aspect of being present to students’ experience means assuming a connected
stance. In this stance students must have a sense that their teachers can see them and
their learning, their strengths and their weaknesses. Not only do they see but they also
accept what they see without judging it as good or bad. It is mutuality that strengthens
the vision. When students sense that they have really got to know their teacher, that
their teacher allows herself to be known, the relationship becomes real. It is the
authenticity of the relationship that permits students and teachers to see each other
and know that what is being shared is real. In authentic connection teachers and
students can bring their feelings, experiences, memories and hopes to one another.
From this standpoint students can know that teachers are ready and available to partic-
ipate in the learning enterprise with them. They know that they will go on the journey
well accompanied. They know that they can extend themselves to the very edges of
their learning, to the borders of their known world, because they know that someone
will be there to meet them. In short, a teacher who is ‘present’ is a real learning partner.
The pedagogical connection

Like the leaves and branches of a tree, a teacher’s pedagogy is the most visible aspect
of presence. It includes interactions between the teacher and her students, among
students, and between the students and the subject matter. In this third dimension of
presence the teacher pays close attention to the subject matter and her students’ engage-
ment with it. She is attending to the learning process itself, observing students at work,
analyzing what she sees and responding with what Dewey referred to as ‘intelligent
action’. This process of observation, analysis and intelligent response embodies the
reflective process of teaching (Rodgers, 2002a,b). If the connection between the teacher
and any of these three areas is weak, the ability to be present to students is compromised.
It is, in fact, the process of reflection in action, in the moment, that embodies the notion
of presence (Rodgers, 2002b). In order for the teacher to be free to be present to
learning, it is necessary to have a deep knowledge of the subject matter, children and
learning and a repertoire of pedagogical skills (from classroom management to lesson
planning to curriculum design to design and execution of appropriate activities).
Mastery of any of these does not precede presence nor vice versa. Instead, there is a
dialectical relationship between them. The more experience, coupled with reflection,
a teacher has, the greater is her capacity for presence. We examine the impact of knowl-
edge of subject matter, children and learning and pedagogical skills below.
Subject matter knowledge

Preparation is knowing the subject matter—how to set it up, and set activities that will do
the kind of things I want people to do and allow me to see learning in all of that so … if I
have a sense that that’s in play, then I go in and I just let it happen. I relax and open and
it doesn’t ever work the way I planned it—and that’s fine. I know this stuff. I want to [be
able] to respond to the moment and what everybody is doing. And I need to be present.
Jack, a veteran teacher and teacher educator, here identifies the critical piece of deep
subject matter knowledge and preparedness in order to be fully present. Perhaps the
most eloquent advocate of the importance of deep subject matter knowledge has been
educational philosopher David Hawkins (2000, 2002). Hawkins wrote that to know
one’s subject matter deeply (be it mathematics, chemistry or Shakespeare) is, for a
teacher, more than simply knowing the polished surfaces of a field of study—knowing
not just the Pythagorean theorem but how Pythagoras might have come to that
understanding. Many a teacher is knowledgeable of his or her subject matter without

necessarily being able to decompress it in a way that makes it accessible to their
students. Hawkins (2000) lamented ‘[academicians] pass by the genuinely elementary
aspects of subject matter …’ (p. 59). By this he meant that teachers must be able to
reorganize subject matter, i.e. to forget for a moment the ordered, synthetic, textbook-
like logic of it and reconstruct ‘the process and order in which it has been evolved and,
more importantly, form the diverse sorts of process and order by which it might be
evolved again in the minds of individual learners’ (pp. 98–99). Imagining these
‘diverse sorts of order’, a teacher can more easily conceive of the various potential
entry points to the subject matter for learners. It is a kind of meta-knowledge: knowing
how the finished and orderly knowledge that one has might be variously constructed
by the naive mind. Hawkins called this knowledge ‘elementary’. It also includes an
awareness of how the domain of one’s subject connects to other subject areas and how
those subjects might provide still other ports of entry.
In terms of subject matter and presence we again turn to Dewey (1933), who
explained how being at home in one’s subject frees the teacher’s attention to be ‘alive’
to the students and their learning.
The teacher must have his mind free to observe the mental responses and movement of the student.
… The problem of the pupils is found in the subject matter; the problem of teachers is what
the minds of pupils are doing with the subject matter. Unless the teacher’s mind has mastered
the subject matter in advance, unless it is thoroughly at home in it, using it unconsciously
without need of express thought, he will not be free to give full time and attention to
observation and interpretation of the pupils’ intellectual reactions. The teacher must be
alive to all forms of bodily expression of mental condition—to puzzlement, boredom,
mastery, the dawn of an idea, feigned attention, tendency to show off, to dominate
discussion because of egotism, etc.—as well as sensitive to the meaning of all expression
in words. He must be aware not only of their meaning, but of their meaning as indicative
of the state of mind of the pupil, his degree of observation and comprehension. (p. 275,
original emphasis)
Complete mastery of subject matter is, of course, never fully achieved, but a
knowledge that is deep enough to free the mind of the teacher from preoccupation
with it and that is able to connect students to an appropriate point of entry is a
prerequisite for presence.
Knowledge of children, learning, and pedagogical skills

In addition to knowledge of subject matter, presence is predicated on the teacher’s
ability to translate the aforementioned points of entry into curriculum, activities and
learning environments and to link these to the hearts, minds and abilities of children.
[The] principle concern [here] is that important subject matter be introduced to students
as a challenge to their own investigative curiosity and art, with enough diversity of ways
into that subject matter to match that of the students’ talents and potential interests, their
different strengths and trajectories of curiosity. (Hawkins, 2000, p. 128)
The trick is that no textbook can possibly determine ahead of time this trajectory
for any one child, much less a group of them. While texts can serve as resources,
they are not determinants of learning. It is the children and their questions,
comments, actions and puzzlements that are the guides to teaching, that give the
teacher the necessary clues about when and how and how much to intervene. Being
present to them and their sense making is essential. In Duckworth’s (1987) words,
the teacher must ‘understand the child’s understanding’ (p. 85). To be able to
understand children and their learning, i.e. how they make sense of the world
around them is, Hawkins (2002) argued, the art of diagnosis. He wrote ‘The func-
tion of the teacher, then, is to respond diagnostically and helpfully to a child’s behav-
ior’ (p. 55). If children are sitting passively in rows listening quietly to the teacher
talk ‘[she] won’t get very much information about them, [she] won’t be a very good
diagnostician of what they need. Not being a good diagnostician, [she] will be a poor
teacher’ (p. 55).
Once students are engaged with the subject matter there remains the problem of
sustaining that engagement. If the first step is diagnosis, then the next is responding
to and thereby nurturing students’ learning according to that diagnosis. This process
of observation, diagnosis and compassionate response is at the heart of presence. It is
iterative and ongoing, and the essence of reflective teaching. Diagnoses that are
incorrect can be as useful and important as those that are accurate. Each gives
information about what students know and do not know, need and do not need.
Ideally, a response should aim at keeping the students invested in their inquiry by
helping them to uncover, rather than cover, the nature of the phenomenon in which
they are involved (Duckworth, 1987; Hawkins, 2002).
The key here is that in order to be able to be present to students’ learning, the
teacher needs to be free to observe. This suggests that students must be involved in
experiences that will reveal their learning. Experiences that offer students opportuni-
ties to experiment, make mistakes, journey down paths of knowledge of their choice,
interact with experts (including teachers) who will entertain their questions in
dialogue with them will reveal learning. Students’ learning is revealed in their doing
and the teacher needs to be free from other preoccupations in order to see clearly.
The teacher must also be free from her own mental chatter. As Jack, the veteran
teacher and teacher educator, put it, what causes him to become not present is this
mental noise.
It’s [my] thoughts. In teaching it happens when I’m doing a new course—totally new—
when I’m not sure what is going to happen next and how long it’s going to last and all of
that. I think for beginning teachers it’s there all the time; they can’t be present because
they’re not sure about what they’re doing so they have to be with [attentive to] the content.
If they design [the lesson] in ways that they’re not on center stage it helps a lot.
Evident in Jack’s words is the understanding that the kind of ‘emptiness’ that Waks
(1995) referred to is only possible when the self is free from preoccupation.
The learning that a teacher is able to observe, along with her ability to correctly
diagnose what is understood and needed, will suggest a response. As a teacher gains
skill and experience and collects strategies that work, her ability to respond grows
appropriately. Like a skilled pianist whose fingers know just where to go in order to
produce a particular sound or harmony, a teacher who is present deftly employs a
strategy that rings true for each learner. Thus, presence, along with subject matter
knowledge, also demands knowledge of child development, the ability to design and
manage learning activities that will reveal learning, the ability to correctly diagnose
this learning and, finally, a collection of adequate responses; the right question, piece
of information, activity or other intervention that will allow a child to take his or her
own best next step.
It is important to note that the teacher is always simultaneously attending to the indi-
vidual and the group. Her attention is both tightly focused and cast like a net over the
group, reading individuals and at the same time sensing the energy and understanding
of the class as a whole. The ability to listen and stay in tune with the group is, in fact,
honed by deep knowledge of the individual. Schultz (2003) suggested that teachers’
focus on the particularity of the individual child … also provides a way for teachers to listen
to the whole class and each child’s possibility within the larger group. Knowledge of a
single child can be the basis for understanding and teaching a class. (p. 36)
Clearly, presence requires flexibility and demands a context that supports

responsive teaching. Such a context trusts teachers’ ability to diagnose the needs of
the individual and the group, to design curriculum according to those needs and to
implement that curriculum skillfully and creatively. It also provides the resources
(money, time and materials) with which to do so. Sadly, we recognize the rarity of
such contexts and the barriers that oblivious or hostile contexts place in the path of
teacher presence. The role that context plays cannot be ignored.
Context
Talbert et al. (1993) defined ‘context’ as ‘any of the diverse and multiple environ-
ments or conditions that intersect with the work of teachers and teaching—such as
the school, subject area, department, district, higher education, business alliance,
professional networks, state policies, community demographics’ (p. 46). They note
that context ‘matters fundamentally to conceptions of teaching that assume an active
role for students and their teachers in the construction of knowledge’ (p. 46). The
confluence of teacher, students, subject matter and the multiple contexts in which
they interact paints an exceedingly complex picture. It is rare that a classroom repre-
sents a perfect synergy of all of these factors. Teachers usually work within the
confines of the classroom, hoping for a harmony within that semi-controllable
context.
McDermott (1977) argued that the context in which the teaching–learning
relationship occurs is pivotal for the development and growth of this relationship.
What is true between student and teacher also needs to exist between teachers and
the environment in which they work. In this case we can speak of connectedness
between the context and its teachers and students and, therefore, the school’s
presence to their experiences. McDermott wrote,
I am suggesting … that in contexts that offer teachers and students enough resources to
work together to establish a trusting environment, children will have sufficient time and
energy to devote themselves to the intellectual tasks set before them. In other words,
trusting relations are framed by the contexts in which people are asked to relate and where
trusting relations occur, learning is a possibility. (p. 199)
Extrapolating from McDermott’s (1977) argument, we suggest that relationally

healthy teaching–learning contexts are essential to teachers’ capacity to be present to
their students’ learning. This is not to say that presence cannot exist in untrusting insti-
tutions; it is often found behind closed doors in isolation, in protected spaces (Lortie,
1975; Johnson, 1987; Rosenholtz, 1989). Over time this underground and hidden
stance takes a toll on the teacher, often leading to teacher burnout (Rosenholtz, 1989).
The forces that militate against presence are daunting. These include: a national
and state level push to ‘cover’ set amounts of material within predetermined time
frames at each grade level, causing teachers to ‘cover’ material regardless of whether
students learn it; under-qualified teachers teaching outside their subject areas severely
limiting how present teachers can be to the sense that children are making; a lack of
awareness on the part of teachers of the assumptions they make about the children
they teach; unequal funding of schools across racial and class divides (Oakes, 2004)
that further divert teachers’ focus and energy; overcrowded classrooms, that hinder a
teacher’s deep knowledge of individual learners. These and other contextual factors
pull teachers’ attention away from attending to the learner and the learning and the
end-in-view of a more educated and just society.
We began this article by saying that today’s imperatives for standardized
achievement take us further and further from a complicated notion of what it means
to teach. This is the context, the environment, in which teachers are trying to make
possible the kind of connected teaching we talk about. Many of them, even before
they are out of their student teaching experiences, have already resigned themselves
to stunted teaching. They see the imperatives of the local and national contexts in
which they work as too strong to fight and so they slip into covering rather than
teaching, going along with rather than creating. Johanna Hadden (2000), a teacher
writing in the Harvard Educational Review, put it this way:
I, like many teachers, entered the field of education with high ideals and a firm
commitment to educating. Also, like many teachers, I found myself on an endless treadmill
of training students to unquestioningly accept overt and hidden measures of control. In
my case, the treadmill ended when I realized that I had been putting the interests of the
institution ahead of the interests of my students. (p. 535)
Presence may live but it cannot thrive in a hostile environment. The same trust and
deep knowing that are necessary for presence to live between a teacher and her
students are also necessary between and among teachers and principals, parents,
school boards and even presidents, who make policy. Teachers are aware of those
things that compromise presence in the classroom: policies that link their salaries and
student diplomas to test scores, that mandate a ‘one size fits all’ mode of professional
development and that reduce teachers’ expertise and wisdom to a checklist of
behaviors. None of these policies communicate trust in teachers. They are the toxins
that poison the air and pollute the ground in which presence grows.
Conclusion
We have spoken here of what it means to be present as a teacher, to be wide awake to
one’s self, to one’s students and to their learning in such a way that that learning is
served through skillful and compassionate analysis and access to both subject matter
knowledge and pedagogical strategies. We have suggested that trust is essential to
presence. Teachers need to know and to trust themselves and they also need to know
and trust their students and the contexts in which they work. Equally important,
students need to know and trust themselves and their teachers, as well as the schools
in which they learn. For teachers, this knowledge and trust are created every day by
staying connected to themselves, their students, their students’ learning and their
communities. The connection is created: through slowing down to observe students’
interactions with the subject matter, rather than racing to cover it; through observing
one’s own reactions to students and their learning; through dialogue with students,
their parents, colleagues and community members.
If we want teachers to create classrooms that are, in Gilligan’s (2003) words, ‘safe
houses for love’, then we need to speak out loud about it and not be embarrassed by
the non-technical-rational (Schön, 1983) nature of presence. Likewise, schools need
to be safe houses for love, not only for the sake of the children they temporarily house,
but also for the teachers who are their long-term residents.
We began this article with a quote by Martin Buber (1970): ‘The real filled present
exists only in so far as actual presentness, meeting and relation exist’. To be present
is to come into relation, into connection, with students, their learning, subject matter
and oneself. Presentness, he theorized, arises when the ‘Thou becomes present’, when
one comes to see the other and allows one’s self to be seen. This kind of seeing is an
act of love. Presence is no less than this. Like love, presence offers us a moral imperative,
a psychological stance and an intellectual trajectory that can root the world of teaching
and learning in its essential purpose, the creation of a just and democratic society.
Notes
1. Empirical work is beginning. Katherine Schultz’s (2003) work with listening is one
example.
2. All quotes and stories of teachers and students are used with their permission.
3. They were instructed to recall experiences of presence that they then related as short ‘recollec-
tions’ or stories. This is a practice developed by Patricia F. Carini and her colleagues at the
Prospect Archives and Center for Education and Research, in North Bennington, VT (see
Himley, 2002). The teachers who participated in the group were members of the New York,
Vermont, Massachusetts, Study Group loosely affiliated with the Prospect Center in North
Bennington, VT.
4. It is not the purpose of this paper to explore the various conceptions of self. Such a discussion
would necessarily span the fields of psychology, religion and philosophy and is beyond the
scope of this discussion.
5. David Hawkins (2002), from his essay ‘I, thou, and it’ where ‘I’ represents the teacher, ‘thou’
the student and ‘it’ the subject matter in which both are engaged. Hawkins’ essay has provided
both authors of this article with a fundamental framework for understanding the world of teach-
ing and learning.
6. While Belenky et al. applied their theory to female teachers, we believe that this notion of
connectedness is equally key for male and female teachers. Indeed, current research on boys’
development and male connections to boys supports this approach (see Pollack, 1998, 2000;
Kindlon & Thompson, 1999; Chu, 2000; Gilligan, 2003; Raider-Roth, 2003).
7. As this article focuses on the teacher’s experience of the teacher–student relationship, we look
at the teacher’s experience of trusting herself and the trust necessary for the teacher–student
relationship. For a more detailed discussion of students’ trust of self and the interconnections
to the teacher–student relationship see Raider-Roth (2005a,b).
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“Bridge” Upskilling Program: Pre-course

reading for Soft Skills

International Conference on Education & Educational Psychology 2013 (ICEEPSY 2013)

Soft Skills Development to Enhance Teachers’ Competencies

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +668-8116-6995

1877-0428 © 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Phase 1 Contextual Study and Programme Construction

Phase II Programme construction & developing assessment tools

Phase III Verification of the programme

The external validity of the programme was investigated by connoisseurship.

x To identify the qualifications of experts and recruit 15 experts.

Input Teacher Development and Teacher Competencies

Phase IV Implementation and assessment of programme

5. Discussion & Recommendations

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Introduction to the Special Issue on Early Care

Patricia A. Jennings, Lieny Jeon & Amy M. Roberts

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CONTACT Patricia A. Jennings paj9m@Virginia.EDU; tishjennings@Virginia.EDU Department of Curriculum, Instruction, and

Descriptive Studies of Stress and Well-being

Intervention Studies of Stress and Well-being

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professionals must be fairly compensated. A comprehensive approach to this process of transforma­

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Carol R. Rodgers & Miriam B. Raider‐Roth

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Keywords: Presence; Relational theory/relationship; Self-awareness; Reflection

*Corresponding author: 5 Jones Road, Pelham, MA 01002, USA. Email: rodgerca@sover.net

ISSN 1354-0602 (print)/ISSN 1470-1278 (online)/06/030265–23

We frame our discussion in an interdisciplinary theoretical context, drawing on

Maxine Greene (1973), borrowing the language of Merleau-Ponty, wrote of

Mindfulness, like reflection, Tremmel said, is a ‘smooth, free thinking way of

A prerequisite state is ‘the achievement of a hospitality toward and knowledge of

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Risks of a divided self

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Disconnection: an opportunity for repair

The pedagogical connection

Subject matter knowledge

understanding. Many a teacher is knowledgeable of his or her subject matter without

Knowledge of children, learning, and pedagogical skills

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Extrapolating from McDermott’s (1977) argument, we suggest that relationally

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