Module 2c Anatomy and Physiology (Respiratory, Digestive, Urinary, and Reproductive Systems)

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VII. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 Respiration involves the process of gas
exchange between a living cell and its
environment
 Respiration involves more than the act of
breathing
 The circulatory system could not carry O2
and CO2 to and from the cells unless the
respiratory system performs its function
VII. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Major Functions:
 Delivery of O2 to the blood
 Removal of CO2 from the blood
Secondary Functions:
 Assistance in the regulation of the pH of
the body ﬂuids
 Assistance in temperature control
 Phonation
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Mechanisms of Respiration
1. External respiration – includes
 the movement of air into and out of the lungs
(breathing: inspiration and expiration)
 Passage of O2 from the lungs to blood and into
the cells
 Means by which CO2 is carried from cells to the
blood and into the lungs
 external respiratory system is essentially a series of passages
and tubes that commence at the exterior of the animal and
end blindly in a multitude of tiny, thin-walled, closed sacs or
alveoli
2. Cellular respiration – utilization by the cells of O2

to produce energy (adenosine triphosphate or
ATP) and production of CO2
The Respiratory Apparatus

1. Nose – includes
the external
nares (nostrils),
nasal hairs,
nasal septum,
turbinates,
sinuses,
olfactory
region, and the
nasal mucous
membrane
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2. Pharynx – a funnel-shaped musculomembranous
organ which is a common passageway of food
and air
3. Larynx – connects the pharynx and the trachea;

supports the epiglottis which regulates the
passage of air and prevents the aspiration of
food or other foreign bodies
4. Trachea – a non-collapsible tube formed by a

series of adjacent cartilage rings; a passageway
to the duct system of the lungs
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5. Lungs – two elastic membranous sacs whose interior is
in free communication with the outside air via a
system of passages
Duct system:
 Trachea
 Primary or stem bronchi
 Secondary bronchi
 Bronchioles
 Alveolar sacs
 Alveolar ducts
 Alveoli – smallest subdivision of the air passages and the
true respiratory structures where the exchange of gases
between the bloodstream and the inspired air takes place
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6. Thoracic cavity –
surrounds the
heart and its
structures, the
lungs and part of
the trachea and
esophagus,
mediastinal
structures and the
great vessels
entering and
leaving the heart.
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7. Pleura – serous membrane which covers the inner
wall of the thorax and the thoracic structures

8. Diaphragm – is a
musculo-
membranous
partition that
completely
separates the
thoracic from
abdominal
cavity; a
respiratory
muscle
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Breathing
Inhalation/inspiration Exhalation/Expiration
Patterns of Breathing
 Costal (thoracic) – involves considerable
movements of the ribs
 Abdominal (diaphragmatic) – with visible
movement of abdomen caused by diaphragmatic
contraction
 Eupnea – normal quiet respiration
 Dyspnea – labored or difficult breathing
 Apnea – cessation or absence of breathing
 Hyperpnea – increase in depth and/or rate of
breathing
 Polypnea – rapid shallow breathing
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Resting Heart Rate

Species bpm (range)
Dairy cow 26-50
Horse 10-14
Pig 32-58
Sheep 16-34
VIII. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

 Consistsof musculomembranous
tube extending from the mouth to
the anus
 Functions:
• Prehension, mastication, digestion,
and absorption of food
• Elimination of solid wastes
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Parts of Digestive System

1. Mouth
 the beginning of the
digestive system
 includes the lips,
tongue, teeth and
salivary glands
 responsible for
prehension and
mastication of feed
material
 Serves as defensive
and offensive weapon

2. Pharynx - A funnel-shaped musculomembranous
organ which is a common passage for feed and
air
3. Esophagus - musculomembranous tube extending

from the pharynx to the stomach
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4. Stomach - A hollow, pear-shaped,
digestive organ; organ
4.a. Simple Stomach
 Located just behind the left
side of the diaphragm
 It is divided into cardiq
(entrance), fundus, body,
and pylorus (termination)
 Produces hydrochloric acid
and pepsinogen
 Present in pig, horse, dog
and cat

4. Stomach - A hollow, pear-shaped, digestive organ;
organ
4.b. Compound Stomach
Compartments:
1. Reticulum (honeycomb) – most anterior and
smallest compartment of forestomach; foreign
objects such as wire or nails that are swallowed
typically will fall into and remain in the
reticulum
2. Rumen (paunch) – largest part of the
forestomach; serves as a fermentation vat,
organ of maceration, site of microbial
digestion and organ of absorption
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3. Omasum (manyplies) – spherical organ filled
with muscular laminae that lie in sheets, much
like the pages of a book
4. Abomasum (true stomach) – secretes gastric
enzyme and hydrochloric acid
Intestine
Rumen
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Reticulum
Omasum
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Abomasum

5. Small intestine – tube connecting the stomach to
the large intestine; suspended from the dorsal part
of the abdominal cavity by a fold of peritoneum
called the great mesentery
Segments:
5.a. Duodenum – fixed of the small intestine and
closely attached to the stomach; pancreas lies
adjacent to the proximal duodenum
5.b. Jejunum – about 90% of the total length of the
small intestine
5.c. Ileum – last part of the small intestine
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6. Large intestine – extends from the termination of the
ileum to the anus
Segments:
6.a. Cecum – cul-de-sac situated between the
ileum and the great colon; it is somewhat
coma-shaped and lies to the right of the
median plane
6.b. Colon – differs from the small intestine in that it is
larger, sacculated, and has longitudinal bands
and more fixed position
7. Rectum – terminal part of the intestine; organ of
storage
8. Anus – terminal part of the alimentary system
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Accessory Glands
1. Pancreas – gland found in the duodenal loop;
produces sodium bicarbonate and digestive enzyme
2. Liver – the largest gland in the body
Functions:
 Storage and formation of Liver
glycogen (animal starch)
 Secretion of bile which is stored
temporarily in gall bladder
(absent in horse, deer, elk,
elephant, giraffe, rhinoceros,
camel, tapir and rat)
 Detoxification of poisons
 Breakdown of uric acid
 Formation of urea Gall bladder Pancreas
 Desaturation of fatty acids
Accessory Glands
3. Salivary glands – glands
that produce saliva
that lubricates food as
it is chewed and
swallowed and
salivary amylase
begins the digestion
of starch
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Avian Digestive System

1. Beak/Bill – Prehensile organ of bird for picking up of
feed
2. Esophagus – most birds have an enlarged area in
the esophagus referred to as the crop for:
holding and moistening of ingesta.
breakdown reaction of salivary amylase.
fermentation
3. Proventriculus – the site of gastric juice production

(hydrochloric acid and pepsin)

4. Ventriculus (gizzard) – Thick muscular walled organ
acting to physically reduce particle size of ingesta; its
lining normally contains grit (small stone or hard
particles) which aid in grinding ingested seeds and
grains.
5. Small intestine – Most of the enzymes found in
mammalian species are present, with the exception of
lactase
6. Large intestine –contains two blind pouches (ceca);
site for water reabsorption; site of fiber digestion and
water soluble vitamins synthesis from bacterial
fermentation.
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7. Cloaca – common passage for fecal (feces), urinary
(urine) and reproductive discharge (egg)
8. Vent (anus) – common opening for exit of feces,
urine and egg.
Ceca
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IX. URINARY SYSTEM

 Principal
function is the
extraction
and removal
of waste
products from
the blood
Structures of the Urinary System

1. Kidney – most domestic animals have somewhat bean-
shaped kidneys and located in the dorsal anterior portion
of the abdominal cavity on both sides of the median plane
and slightly posterior to the liver; the primary organ for urine
formation; the unit of structure and function of the kidney is
called nephron
2. Ureter – muscular tube that conveys urine from the pelvis
of the kidney to the bladder
3. Urinary bladder – a hollow muscular organ that varies in
size and position with the amount of urine it contains
4. Urethra – a relatively long usually curved common
passageway for urine and semen in male and a short
relatively straight and solely urinary function in the female
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Kidneys of Kidneys of
cattle and buffalo goat, sheep, pig, and left
Right kidney kidney of horse
of horse
1. renal artery; 2. renal vein; 3. ureter
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Urine Formation
 Secretion
moves substances out of
the blood and into the collecting
tubules where they mix with the
water and other wastes and are
converted into urine.
 The term for the expulsion of urine
from the bladder is micturition
(urination)
Urine Formation
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Urine Formation
Urine Volume
Species ml/kg BW/day
Cat 10-20
Cow 17-45
Dog 20-100
Goat 10-40
Horse 3-18
Pig 5-30
Sheep 10-40
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X. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Forms of reproduction:
a. Asexual reproduction – does not

require the sex organs to facilitate
the perpetuation of the species.
b. Sexual reproduction – involves

the union of sex cells, ovum and
sperm cell, to form a new
individual.
Male Reproductive System
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a. Testes
 Male gonad; the primary organ
of the male
 In birds, the two testes are
located within the body cavity.
 In livestock, testes are located
outside the body cavity within
the scrotum
Functions: Testis
 (a) production of sperm cells or
spermatozoa
 (b) production of sex hormone –
testosterone.
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a. Testes
 Seminiferous
tubules are found
inside the testes
and responsible for
the production of
spermatozoa.
 Leydig cells are
embedded
between the
seminiferous tubules
of the testes that
produce
testosterone

b. Scrotum
 isa cutaneous sac that
serves as the external
covering of the testes.
 Protects the testes from
direct mechanical injuries
and provides an
environment which is
cooler (6-9oC) than the Scrotum
body temperature
required for normal sperm
production.
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c. Duct System
c.1. Epididymis Head of
epididymis
 the seminiferous tubules join

together to form the rete Body of
epididymis
testis and come out of the
testis as vas efferens. Tail of
epididymis
 The vas efferens converged
to form the head, then the
body and tail of the
epididymis.
 Epididymis is a convoluted
tube that serves as site of
sperm maturation.

c. Duct System
c.2. Vas deferens
 found at the end of the tail Ampulla
of epididymis
 straightened and enlarges
to form the ampulla.
 carry sperm from epididymis
to the urethra. Vas deferens
 Ampulla joins with the

urethra.
Head of
epididymis
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c. Duct System
c.3. Urethra
 where spermatozoa
and accessory fluids are
mixed.
 It has a loop called
sigmoid flexure (bull,
boar, ram and buck).

d. Penis
 male organ of
copulation.
 Divided into three
general areas: the
glans, the body and
the roots which are
attached to the arch
of pelvis.
 The free portion of
penis is covered by skin
called prepuce
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Decent of Testes
 At fetal stage, the initial development of the testes
starts inside the body cavity.
 As fetus grows, testes start to descend to the
scrotum through the inguinal canal.
 Descent is completed at birth or soon after birth.
Terminologies..
 Bilateral cryptorchid – Species Intact Castrated
Adult Male Male
when both testes
Horse Stallion Gelding
failed to descend to
the scrotal sac (sterile)
Cattle Bull Steer
 Unilateral cryptorchid –
when only one of the Pig Boar Barrow
testes failed to
descend, but capable Sheep Ram Wether
of fertilization
Goat Buck (billy) Wether
 Castration - term usually
applied to removal of Chicken Rooster Capon
the testes of the male
animal
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e. Accessory sex glands
e.1. Seminal vesicles
 paired, hollow and pear shaped in stallion,
lobulated in bull, ram and boars, absent in
dogs.
 Secretions include ascorbic acid, citric
acid, acid soluble phosphorus, seminal
fructose and ergothionene.
 Secretions neutralize urine residues.

e.2. Prostate gland
 unpaired, more or less completely surrounds
the pelvic urethra.
 It produces alkaline secretion which gives
characteristic odor of semen.
 Secretes substances to nourish and
stimulate activity of the sperm.
 Example of secretion: antagluttin minerals.
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e.3. Cowper’s gland or bulbourethral gland
 small paired glands located on either side of
the pelvic urethra.
 Found in all domestic animals except in dogs
and are extremely large in boars.
 Secretions add volume to ejaculate.
 Sialoprotein is a secretion responsible for the
formation of gelatinous fraction of semen
(sometimes called tapioca). In boar, gel blocks
the cervix to prevent back flow of the semen
during copulation.

vs – vesicular gland
p – prostate gland
b – bulbourethral gland
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f. Semen
 Semen consists of the sperm cells plus the
secretions of the accessory glands.
 In vasectomized animal (sterile male without
losing libido), the vas deferens is severed, thus
the semen consists only of the secretions of
accessory glands.
 Castrated animal, when both testes removed,
rendered the male sterile with loss of libido.
 A normal spermatozoon consists of head, neck
or mid-piece and tail.

f. Semen
 Shape varies with species from flattened ovoid in
bull, ram, boar and rabbit and rounded in man.
 The life span of ejaculated spermatozoa in the
female reproductive tract is about 24 hours (20-
30 hours) in most mammals and about 14 days in
chicken.
 Few thousand from the so many millions of
spermatozoa will reach the oviduct and only
one sperm cell enters the ovum and
accomplishes fertilization.
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Spermatozoa
Age when sperm

Species
is produced
Boar 117 days
Bull 224 days
Buck 110 days
Ram 147 days
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Female Reproductive System

The female
reproductive
system
includes: the
pair of
ovaries and
the
reproductive
duct system
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a. Ovaries
 Female gonad
 the primary sex organs of the
female attached by the broad
ligament (mesovarium) to the
dorsal wall of the sub-lumbar
region of the body cavity.
Functions:
(a) production of egg cells or
ova and
(b) production of female sex
hormones: estrogen and
progesterone.

b. Oviduct or Fallopian tube
 tube (left and right) extending
from the ovaries to the uterus.
 The portion of the oviduct
Oviduct
nearest the ovary is modified
into a thin, funnel-shaped Mesosalpinx
fimbriated membrane known
as infundibulum, which
partially surrounds the ovary.
 Mesosalpinx, a fold in the
anterior portion of the broad
ligament suspends the oviduct.
 Oviduct reserves the ova
during ovulation and it is the
site of fertilization.
Infundibulum
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c. Uterus
 known as the site of
implantation for the
fertilized egg. This is divided
into a body and two horns.
 The proportion, shape and
arrangement of the parts
vary with species.
 Uterus receives blood and
its nerve supply through the
support of the broad
ligament (mesometrium).

c. Uterus
1. Bicornuate like swine

have horns which are
folded and convoluted
while the body is short or
not prominent.
Sow
2. Bipartite (cattle, sheep,

goat and horses) are
with prominent uterine
body and a septum
that separates the two
horns.
Mare
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d. Cervix
 the neck of the uterus
 Its opening, os uteri, closes
when the animal gets
pregnant to protect the
uterine contents.
 Cervix acts as sperm
receptacle in certain
animals (e.g. horse and
pig).
 facilitates transport of viable Cervix
sperm through the cervical
mucus to the uterus.

e. Vagina
 the primary organ of
copulation.
 It serves as the sperm
depository area in many
species (e.g. cattle and
sheep). Cervix
 Also comprises a part of

the birth canal at Vagina
parturition.
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f. Clitoris
 small rudimentary organ
homologous to the
glans penis of the male.
g. Vulva Clitoris
 the common passage

for the products of
reproduction and urine.
 comparable to the
cloaca of the birds.
 homologous to the
scrotum of the male
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Puberty and Estrus Cycle

 The production of ova starts early in the prenatal
period.
 When ovum is formed, it is enclosed in a
structure called ovarian follicle or graafian
follicle (GF) consisting of: (1) epithelial cells
around the ovum (2) folliculi (theca interna and
externa); and the antrum which is filled with
brown or yellowish, alkaline, albuminous fluid.
 The female reproductive tract starts to function
at age of puberty.
 Puberty indicates that the female has reached
sexual maturity.

 At puberty, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
secreted from the anterior pituitary gland
causes growth and development of the GF in
he ovary.
 The developing follicle secretes estrogen
which causes estrus in female.
 Estrogen stimulates the production of
luteinizing hormone (LH).
 At the peak of estrogen production, LH
production increases which coincides with the
production of inhibin from the ovary which
inhibits production of FSH.
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 LH is the hormone that causes ovulation of
matured follicle at the ovarian surface. It
also initiates the formation of a yellow
body (filled with lutein cells) called corpus
luteum (CL) at the site of ovulation.
 The CL secretes progesterone.
Progesterone is responsible for
(1) preparation of the endometrium of the
uterus for implantation of the fertilized
egg
(2) maintain normal pregnancy until birth.
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Estrus Cycle
Puberty and Estrous Cycle

 If there is no pregnancy, CL will regress to
form corpus albicans, while the uterus
secretes prostaglandin F2 alpha (PGF2)
which could destroy the CL.
 Animals may be classified based on the
occurrence of estrus cycle:
a. Monoestrus – animal that comes in heat
only once a year (example: deer and fox)
b. Polyestrus – if animal comes in heat all
throughout the year (example: swine,
cattle)
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 Phases of estrous cycle
1. Proestrus
 characterized by follicle growth and
thickened uterine mucosa which
become congested with blood
2. Estrus
 under the influence of estrogen wherein
the female accepts the male for mating
(standing heat).
 Ovulation takes place during this phase.

Signs of estrus include:
a. reddening and swelling of the vulva
b. frequent urination
c. restlessness
d. mucus secretion from the vagina that
can be seen in the vulva (watery at first
and towards end or estrus becomes
sticky)
e. mounting other animals stands still
when mounted by a male
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3. Metestrus
 characterized by the formation of CL
develop in the ruptured follicle and the
uterine mucosa are prepared to receive
fertilized egg.
 CL will produce progesterone.
 If fertilization occurs, metestrus is followed
by the period of pregnancy (conception).
 If not diestrus will follow.

4. Diestrus
 when corpus luteum cease to function, the
uterus goes into a period of quiescence
(resting stage) in order that a new cycle
can begin.
Silent heaters can be detected by breeding male

through the smell of pheromones, a hormone like
substance secreted by the female.
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 Terms related to estrus:
Anestrus – absence of estrus in an animal.
Nymphomania – animals with estrogen
primed ovary and always in heat (may be
due to cystic ovary).
Fertilization and Pregnancy

 During mating, the sperm cells deposited in
the vagina of most farm animals reside in
the female reproductive tract before
becoming capable of attaching to and
penetrating the ovum. This process is
known as sperm capacitation and
believed to start in the uterus.
 Final capacitation occurs in the oviduct or
fallopian tube.
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Fertilization
 takes place in the upper part of the fallopian
tube.
 The following are the stages involved:
1. sperm migration from the site of deposition
to the oviduct and convergence of the
spermatozoa towards the ovum
2. sperm attachment and penetration
through the zona pellucida
3. fusion of the sperm and ovum nuclei

Fertilization
 The transport of the sperm from deposition site
takes 2-15 minutes aided by the rhythmic
contractions of the vagina, cervix and uterus.
 The viability of the sperm in the female
reproductive tract of the cows, ewes and sow is
about 24 hours, and 2-3 days in mares
 The fertilized egg is called a zygote and
undergoes its first division within 24 hours and
repeated cells divisions occur.
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Pregnancy
 When the zygote travels from the oviduct to the
horn of the uterus, cleavage continue to progress.
 Cleavage divisions give rise to an embryo that has
developed into the 8-to 16-cell stage, (morula)
which is transported into the uterus where it will
continue to proliferate.

Pregnancy
 Stages:
1. Nidation or implantation
 trophoblastic cells of the blastocyst attach
themselves between the epithelial cells of
the uterus.
 In the maternal recognition of pregnancy,
implantation allows the conceptus and
uterine endometrium to achieve intimate
contact for nutrient exchange and
endocrine communication.
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Pregnancy
 Stages:
1. Nidation or implantation (contin…)
 At appropriate time, the conceptus produce
steroid hormones and/or protein to signal its
presence to the maternal system necessary to
maintain the corpus luteum for continuous
production of progesterone.

Pregnancy
 Stages:
2. Embryonic period
 extends from the time of attachment of the
fertilized egg to the wall of the uterus until the
form of new individual is laid down
 During this period three extra embryonic
membranes are developed.
3. Fetal period
 period which extends from the end of the
embryonic period to the time of birth.
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Pregnancy
Placental development
 Three extraembryonic membranes
1. Allantois
 formed as an outpouching of the hind gut of the
digestive tract.
 Fuses with chorion to form the allantoic cavity that
serve as urinary receptacle for the embryo and
also collects some solid waste.
 The allantois which fuses with the chorion
becomes the fetal placenta.
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1. Allantois (contin…)
 Placenta is an apposition or fusion of the fetal
membranes to the endometrium of the uterus to
permit physiological exchange between the fetus
and mother.
2. Chorion
 outer layer which is in contact with the maternal
tissues; completely surrounds the embryo, amnion
and allantoic cavity.

3. Amnion
 innermost membrane which surrounds the embryo.
 It encloses the embryo in a double layered sac
that forms the water bag (amniotic bag) filled with
a clear watery fluid in which the embryo is
suspended.
 The water bag provides a protective cushion
against external shocks and pressure of the
adjacent body organs and prevents adhesion
between the surface of the embryo and the
surrounding membranes.
 At parturition, the amnion acts as wedge to dilate
the cervix.
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General Types of Placentation
a. Diffuse placenta
 consists of a simple apposition of fetal and
maternal epithelia (e.g. sow and mare)
b. Cotyledonary placenta
 cotyledons from the fetal placenta are
attached to the caruncles of the maternal
placenta through which the uterine blood flows
(e.g. ewe, doe, cow and caracow)
 A caruncle with attached cotyledon is called
placentome
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Diffuse placenta
Cotyledonary placenta
Parturition
 Parturition is a physiological process by which the
pregnant uterus delivers the fetus and placenta
from the maternal organism.
 Signs of approaching parturition
a. enlargement of the vulva
b. obvious enlargement of the mammary gland,
teats become swollen
c. presence of milk is a strong indication of
approaching parturition
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Parturition
 Stages of parturition
1. Dilation of the cervix – with uterine contractions
which are painful causing restlessness and abdominal
discomfort, fetus progresses to the cervix
2. Expulsion of the fetus – fetus enclosed in amnion is

propelled through the birth canal and appears at
the vulva, amnion ruptures. Emergence of head,
forelegs and chest. The umbilical cord breaks as the
neonate or the dam moves.
3. Expulsion of the placenta – rhythmic contractions

continue after birth and cause the expulsion of the
placenta.
Male Fowl Reproductive System

 Testicles are located inside the abdominal
cavity, along the backbone and near the
front end of the kidneys.
 The body temperature of the fowl (about
104°F) does not inhibit spermatogenesis
 Production and maturation of large
numbers of spermatozoa occur rapidly
within the semeniferous tubules.
 Vas deferens are the main storage site of
sperm cells.
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Male Fowl Reproductive System

 No accessory glands in the bird. As sperm
cells leave the testicle, they are carried by
seminal fluid produced by the testicle.
 Transparent fluid derived from the cloacal
wall is ejaculated with the sperm.
 Pappilae or small projections in the cloacal
wall serve as the copulatory organ.
Caponization, is a process of removing the testicles

by making an incision on one side of the back of
the cock. Capon
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Testicles
Cloaca of
male
Cloaca of
female
Oviduct
Ovum Ovary
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Female Fowl Reproductive System

 Only left ovary and its oviduct function in
the production of the ovum within the egg
layed.
 The eggs produced by birds are much
larger than ova produced by most of the
mammals.
 Avian embryo develops inside the egg and
receives nourishment for embryonic
development until hatch.

1. Ovary – forms the
ovum (yolk). When
fully formed
ovulation will occur
(stimulated by
luteinizing hormone).
The yolk moves into
the duct system of
the female
reproductive system.
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2. Oviduct – (duct system) consists of the
following:
 a) infundibulum – picks up ovum or yolk from
the ovary; site of fertilization
 b) magnum – secretes albumen, a high protein
and viscous (thick white) secretion deposited
around the yolk.
 c) isthmus – secretes shell membranes
containing the albumen.

3. Uterus (“shell gland”)– where secretion of
protein, calcium and other materials including
pigments are secreted to form the shell. Egg shell
is comprised of largely calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) but the very thin outer layer called the
cuticle is largely protein.
4. Vagina – inverts to expel the egg from uterus.
Stimulated by oxytocin, causes vigorous
contraction of the uterus moves the egg through
the vagina and cloaca depositing the egg
externally of the bird.
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5. Cloaca – there is no cervix in female fowl
but there is sphincter between the uterus and
vagina, and vagina opens directly into the
cloaca which serves as common passage of
egg and feces.
The smaller pointed end of the egg is generally the

leading end during egg formation process, but
before the egg is laid it is usually rotated 180 degrees
in a lateral manner.
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Chicken Egg
Mammary Gland
Exterior of the udder
 Udder - skin gland not connected with
abdominal cavity except through the
inguinal canal. Udder contains large
amount of secretory tissues and small
amount of connective tissue.
Supporting system
 median and lateral suspensory ligament
(fibrous elastic connective tissue)
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Mammary Gland
Duct and secretory system
-includes the teat, teat cistern, sphincter
muscles, gland cistern and secretory tissues
Alveolus - tiny structure resembling a
balloon, lined with simple layer of
epithelial cells
Myoepithelium - contractive tissue covering
the surface of the which forces milk from
the gland after a sustainable stimulus
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Mammary Gland
Physiological Mechanism of Lactation
 The mammary glands are the distinguishing
characteristics of all mammals.
 Classified as exocrine glands, these
modified skin glands secrete milk for the
nourishment of the young.
 These glands grow during pregnancy and
start to secrete milk after parturition.
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Mammary Gland
Physiological Mechanism of Lactation (contin…)
 Lactation is the production of milk by the
mammary gland in mammals
 Young mammals at first feed solely on milk
from their mothers.
 The milk produced for human consumption
usually comes from cow and goat, including
buffalo/carabao.
Mammary Gland
Development of mammary gland
 At birth, a female mammal has a mammary gland
with the characteristics number of teats: 2 for
sheep, horse, and donkeys; 4 for cattle;10-18 for
swine
 Development of udder is not remarkable until
puberty (sexual maturity).
 At puberty,
- Estrogen stimulates the udder to develop a duct
system.
- Progesterone stimulates alveolar development at
the end of duct.
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Mammary Gland
Development of mammary gland (contin…)
 At estrus, development of udder progresses
when estrogen level is high and regresses
when low.
 At pregnancy, further development of udder
continues due to estrogen-progesterone
secreted from the placenta.
 Hormones from pituitary gland (lactogenic
hormone or prolactin and growth hormone
or somatotropin) are necessary for proper
udder development and milk secretion.
Mammary Gland
Secretion of milk
 milk is made and secreted by the single
layer of cells in the alveoli.
 precursor for milk is the plasma from the
blood.
 Large blood vessels can be seen in the
udder.
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Mammary Gland
Milk let-down
 most animals do not “let the milk down”
until they are stimulated (nudge or
pressure applied to the udder and teat
by the young or milking process)
 nervous impulse causes the posterior
pituitary to release oxytocin causing
contraction of smooth muscle of the
udder
 Contraction forces the milk into the teat
and gland
Mammary Gland
Factors affecting the level of milk production
1. Genetics
- fat is most variable
- minerals and lactose - least variable
2. Nutrition
a ration that increase milk production
usually reduces fat percentage
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Mammary Gland
3. Stage of lactation and persistency
Colostrum - secretion produced by udder
after parturition (3-5 days); rich in gamma
globulin (antibodies); rich in calcium,
magnesium, phosphorus and chlorine, iron,
vitamins A and D.
4. Milk secretion rate
Milk ejection rate is maximal immediately after
milking and lowest just before and during
milking
Mammary Gland
5. Environment
 High temperature  decrease appetite of cow
 reduced milk yield.
 Heat stress affects high-producing cows more
than low producers.
6. Disease and drugs
 Diseases (mastitis, ketosis, milk fever and
digestive upsets)
 Pesticides are also excreted into the milk
(discarded) aside from antibiotic residues.
63

Module 2c Anatomy and Physiology (Respiratory, Digestive, Urinary, and Reproductive Systems)

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Module 2c Anatomy and Physiology (Respiratory, Digestive, Urinary, and Reproductive Systems)

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9/24/2021

VII. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

VII. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

2. Cellular respiration – utilization by the cells of O2

The Respiratory Apparatus

The Respiratory Apparatus

3. Larynx – connects the pharynx and the trachea;

4. Trachea – a non-collapsible tube formed by a

The Respiratory Apparatus

The Respiratory Apparatus

The Respiratory Apparatus

The Respiratory Apparatus

The Respiratory Apparatus

The Respiratory Apparatus

The Respiratory Apparatus

Resting Heart Rate

Dairy cow 26-50

VIII. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Parts of Digestive System

Parts of Digestive System

3. Esophagus - musculomembranous tube extending

Parts of Digestive System

Parts of Digestive System

Parts of Digestive System

Parts of Digestive System

Parts of Digestive System

Parts of Digestive System

Avian Digestive System

3. Proventriculus – the site of gastric juice production

Avian Digestive System

Avian Digestive System

IX. URINARY SYSTEM

Structures of the Urinary System

Structures of the Urinary System

Structures of the Urinary System

1. renal artery; 2. renal vein; 3. ureter

a. Asexual reproduction – does not

b. Sexual reproduction – involves

Male Reproductive System

Male Reproductive System

Male Reproductive System

Male Reproductive System

Male Reproductive System

 the seminiferous tubules join

Male Reproductive System

 Ampulla joins with the

Male Reproductive System

Male Reproductive System

Male Reproductive System

Male Reproductive System

Male Reproductive System

Male Reproductive System

Male Reproductive System

Male Reproductive System

Age when sperm

Male Reproductive System

Female Reproductive System

Female Reproductive System

Female Reproductive System

Female Reproductive System

Female Reproductive System

Female Reproductive System

1. Bicornuate like swine