Intro to terminology (21/6)

• 1. Social and Political Aspects

• 1.1. Origins
• In the 18th and 19th centuries, scientists were the leaders in
terminology.
In the 20th century, engineers and technicians have become
involved.
• During the first half of the 20th century, neither linguists nor
social scientists paid special attention to terminology, only
from the 1950s onwards did they begin to have generally
shown little interest in terminological studies.

Linguistic Form(sign)<Terms vs concepts

Linguistic Form(sign)<Words vs meaning

Technicians> anything other than what it was mentioned in the

next points
Medical> it’s own field
Scientific> chemistry, physics, biology

Thus, it is only in the twentieth century has a claim been made

for terminology as an independent discipline.
Such a claim rest on two foundations:
- The observation that an original theoretical framework has
been developed to deal with the phenomena of designation in
special language.
- The fact that in the field of communication, terminology is
considered a self-contained area of application.
Nomenclature > ‫التسم ة‬
‫ي‬ ‫علم‬

Some people still see terminology as a number of practices that

have evolved around the creation of terms, their collection and
explication, and finally their presentation in various printed and
electronic media. (books and websites)

Creating > organizing> presenting

Intro to terminology notes for (22/6)

Practices, however well established, do not constitute a

discipline, but there is no denying a long history of
methodologies which themselves require theoretical
underpinnings to justify their distinctive nature.

Disciplines establish knowledge about things and as such are

justified in their own right; methodologies are only means to an
end, in the case of terminology, how to do things.

The need for a methodology of terminological data processing

has grown largely in response to the information explosion
which led to an increased concern with appropriate designations
for the many new concepts created, especially in science and
technology, and to a strong interest in effective international
communication.

After being the exclusive domain of a fee theoreticians and

diverse subject specialists for many decades, the terminological
practice was forged into a coherent methodology with
appropriate supporting theories by the persistent efforts of a
small group of academics and practitioners.

Once such a body of knowledge had been assembled which

scholars could agree upon to have its own theoretical
foundation, objectives, and methodology, it could be described
as a subject field and taught to postgraduate and undergraduate
students.

Terminology can claim to be truly interdisciplinary (i.e. relating

to linguistics, logic, ontology, and information science with the
various subject) fields.

The common element among these disciplines is that they are

each concerned, at least in part, with the formal organization of
the complex relationships between concepts and terms.

It is vital to the functioning of all sciences, it is concerned with

designations in all other subject fields, and it is closely related to
a number of specific disciplines.
Term-formation rules
Word-formation rules > creations of words

A formal definition of terminology:

Terminology is the study of and the field of activity concerned
with the collection, description, processing, and presentation of
terms, i.e. lexical items belonging to specialized areas of usage
of one or more languages.

In its objectives, it is akin to lexicography which combines the

double aim of generally collecting data about the lexicon of a
language with providing a piece of information, and sometimes
even an advisory, service to language users.

Dichotomy> contrasts between two things

Introduction to terminology notes 23/6

Etymologically speaking ‘terminology’ is a polysemous

misnomer, i.e. a word with several senses, none of which
correspond precisely to the analysis of the traditional meaning
of its constituent elements.

For example on etymological, ask > aksen; any word ending

with en is a verb
Aks> middle English
Ask> modern English
By its etymology ‘terminology’ would mean ‘the
science/study/knowledge of terms’ which would make it
parallel to lexicology, the science/study/knowledge of the
lexicon or lexical items; this interpretation is, however, rejected
by most terminologies

Historically, the first usage of “terminology” is recorded as

referring to a technical vocabulary, i.e. a collection of terms,
which had a certain coherence by the fact that the terms
belong to a single subject area.

It is now also used somewhat more narrowly to refer to an

internally consistent and coherent set of terms belonging to a
single subject field, as identified by the result of a particular
terminological activity, e.g. the compilation of systematic
glossaries.

• In contemporary usage, it is necessary to distinguish three

meanings of the word:
1. The activity: talked about in the previous slides, i.e. the set
of practices and methods used for the collection, description,
and
2. A Theory, i.e., the set of premises, arguments, and
conclusions required for explaining the relationships between
concepts and terms which are fundamental for a coherent
activity under 1;
3. A Vocabulary of a special subject field. In its first two
meanings, the word is a non-countable noun; in its third, it is
countable and can have a plural form.

• Development of the field

• The rural society where is characterized by people working in
the land: this stage is characterized by oral communication. •
The industrialized stage: the spread of education and the
growing importance of written communication (as opposed
to the prevalence of oral communication in rural culture).
• Post industrial civilization: This one is characterized by
technologization of society and the value attached to the
information

> first radio in kuwait ( ‫ادري شكو المعلومه هاذي اكتبها لكن احتياط‬
(1900

At present, however, we are witnessing a paradoxical

phenomenon in terms of the status of languages: on the one
hand, there is a trend toward monolingualism across cultures
which is just justified by the need for direct and efficient
communication

On the other hand, national languages are being recognized as

the natural tools of communication at all levels of usage.
Terminology is also affected by social changes which have had a
major effect on linguistic needs:
• 1. The accelerated development of science and technology

• 2. Technology is growing rapidly and prevail in all spheres of

society

3. Mass production is both the result of and the driving force

behind the overriding importance of standardized products the
idea of handcrafted is becoming outdated

• 4. The transfer of knowledge and products.

• 5. Information has become of the utmost importance and the

amount of information has increased exponentially this great
mass of data requires powerful and effective support
databases of all sorts are being created and require
continuous updating

• 6. The development of mass communication allows the

widespread dissemination of terminology

• 7. Government intervention in language subjects terminology

to standardization processes and makes it necessary to create
official organizations to manage this work
“Language planning”
————————————————————————
Terminology is also affected by social changes which have had a
major effect on linguistic needs:
• 1. The accelerated development of science and technology

2. Technology is growing rapidly and prevail in all spheres of

society

3. Mass production is both the result of and the driving force

behind the overriding importance of standardized products
the idea of handcrafted is becoming outdated.

4. The transfer of knowledge and products.

————————————————————————
The evolution of modern terminology

• 1. The origins (1930 -1960): the initial period of

development of the study of terminology was characterized by
the design of methods for the systematic formation of terms at
this stage. Wuster wrote the dictionary "the machine tool"
• 2. In the second stage of development (1960-1975), the
most important innovations in terminology came from the
development of mainframe computers and documentation
techniques. At this time, the first databanks appeared and the
international coordination of principles of terminology
processing was initiated.

• 3. The third stage, the boom of terminology, (1975-1985)

is characterized by the proliferation of language< (the increase
of language planning) planning and terminology projects.

• 4. In the most recent period of development (1985 to the

present), computer science has become one of the most
important forces behind changes in terminology.

The justification of considering it a separate activity from

lexicography lies in the different nature of the data traditionally
assembled, the different backgrounds of the people involved in
this work, and to some extent in the different methods used.

Intro to terminology (26/6)

-Scientific and functional aspects of terminology

• For some, the terminology is a practice dealing with social
needs that are often related to political and/or commercial
ends • For some, the terminology is also a true scientific
discipline that owes much to the other subject fields from
which it borrows fundamental concepts
• And for some, there are many intermediate positions, as
terminology is conceived within the framework of other more
consolidated disciplines (i.e. as an interdisciplinary field of
study).

Late-booming people/person >

————————————————————————
-The Theory of Terminology
• Terminological theory has developed through practical
experience, as it is motivated by the need to provide solutions
to language-based problems in communication.
• The work carried out in the 1930s, simultaneously but
independently, by Austrian, Soviet, and Czech scholars is the
basis for the beginning of what Austrians would call
terminology science.
• The three classical schools of terminology: the Austrian, the
Soviet, and Czech schools.

• Based on these schools, three approaches emerged:

• 1. The first approach considers terminology to be an
interdisciplinary but autonomous (independent) subject at the
service of scientific and technical disciplines
• 2. The second approach focuses on philosophy and logical
classification of concept systems and the organization of
knowledge; this is what we called ontology.
• 3. The third approach focuses on linguistics as it considers
terminology a sub-component or a branch of the lexicon of
language
————————————————————————
• A general theory of terminology is based on the first approach
in which the nature of concepts, conceptual relations, the
relationships between terms and concepts, and assigning
terms to concepts are of prime importance
————————————————————————
lexeme> a basic lexical unit of a language, consisting of one
word or several words, considered as an abstract unit, and
applied to a family of words related by form or meaning.
————————————————————————
• 1. Onomasiological approach: terminographers move from
concept to the term.
• 2. Semasiological approach: lexicographers move from the
word to the concept.
————————————————————————

• The difference between lexicology: the study of the form,

meaning, and use of words. • and terminology: the body of
terms used with a particular technical
application in a subject of study, profession, etc. •
Lexicography: the practice of compiling dictionaries • The
difference between lexicographer: a person who compiles
dictionaries. and terminographer: compilation of the
terminology used in a specific field.
————————————————————————
-The functions of terminology:
• 1. For linguists, the terminology is part of the lexicon of the
language, defined by subject matter and pragmatic usage • 2.
For subject fields specialists, the terminology is the formal
reflection of the conceptual organization of a special subject
and a necessary medium of expression and professional
communication.
3. For end-users, the terminology is a set of useful practical
communication units which assist according to criteria of
economy precision and suitability.
• 4. For language planners, the terminology is an area of a
language requiring intervention in order to reaffirm its
usefulness and survival and to ensure its continuity as a means
of expression through modernization.
————————————————————————
Two major user groups of terminology:
1. Users of terminology for direct communication (i.e. the
specialists in each subject field).
2. Users of terminology for a communication through
intermediaries (e.g. language professionals, translators,
technical writers).
• According to the needs of these two groups terminology
have two dimensions which are closely related a communicative
dimension, a linguistic dimension, and a cognitive dimension.
————————————————————————
• Three major orientations in terminology processing defined
by their main objectives can be identified here:
• 1. Terminology is adapted to the linguistic system (the
linguistic approach). This orientation is represented by three
schools of Vienna, Prague, and Moscow!
2. Terminology for translation (The translation approach). This
orientation, which supports translation is highly developed in
institutionally bilingual or multilingual provinces or counfries
such as Quebec.
3. Terminology for language planning: Language planning is
concerned
with introducing policies supportive of the use of minority
languages inside larger soco-linguistic areas. The objective here
is to replace terminology imported from languages spoken and
technologically dominant countries thus fostering word
formation in the native language.

• Terminological activities and the role of the

terminologist are conditioned by the nature of the
environment which also determines the approach to be
adopted.
• Here we mean the macro and micro social linguistic
environment

Intro to terminology 27/6

Chapter 2: Terminology: An Interdisciplinary Field.

————————————————————————
Terminology is a discipline that is defined in relation to the other
fields from which it takes a specific set of concepts.
• For example, Wuster considers terminology as being located
at the intersection of linguistics, logic ontology, information
science, computer science and individual disciplines.
•This interdisciplinarity of terminology is determined by the
characteristics of terminological units which are simultaneously
language units (linguistics), cognitive elements (logic and
ontology, i.e. part of cognitive science), and vehicles of
communication (communication theory)
• Terms appear in specialised communications (i.e. information
science), and computers are usually employed in
terminographic activity (i.e. computer science)
————————————————————————
Terminology and linguistics
• The general scientific study of terminology is largely
influenced by its relationship to applied linguistics of which it
is a branch.
• Linguistics is the study of language
• A complete study of language therefore requires three
different theories:
theory of competence a theory of usage and a theory of child
language acquisition.
————————————————————————
Advent / manually > coming / arrival
• Such a competence must include the description of the
various elements that account for the internalised linguistic
knowledge that speakers of any language have and which
allows them to construct and understand occurrences in their
language.
————————————————————————
Competence(the internalized linguistic knowledge)(innate
knowledge) vs performance (applied linguistics) (usage of
language)
————————————————————————

• Therefore it is important to distinguish between the

knowledge speakers have about language, and knowledge
they have about the world.
•What speakers know about language constitutes their linguistic
competence.
• What they know about the world is their extra-linguistic
competence.

Introduction to terminology 28/6

• Speakers also have information about the rules of language

usage which constitute their pragmatic competence.

• When speakers know the marked utterances that can

never be produced then this is the pragmatic competence at
work.
————————————————————————
Innate: something natural and born with () ‫فطري‬
————————————————————————
"Colorless green ideas sleep furiously" is a sentence composed
by Noam Chomsky in 1957 as an example of a sentence whose
grammar is correct but whose meaning is nonsensical.
————————————————————————
Pragmatics: “language in use”, the branch of linguistics dealing
with language in use and the contexts in which it is used,
including such matters as deixis, the taking of turns in
conversation, text organization, presupposition, and
implicature.
————————————————————————
•accuracy (grammaticality) vs adequacy (pragmatic)
(performance) (acceptability)
————————————————————————
• Theoretical linguistics focuses on that description of language
competence (i.e. the linguistic competence)
• Pragmatic and discourse analysis focus on the description of
pragmatic competence.
————————————————————————
• As such describing language not only involves accounting for
the competence of speakers in general but also for speakers'
usage in specific communicative situations within a complex
society.
•This new social attitude has favoured the development of
various branches of applied linguistics such as language teaching
language therapy computational linguistics lexicography and
terminology
————————————————————————
• Applied linguistics views language as a heterogeneous
(different) system of dialects and functional varieties and allows
us to place terminology as one of its branches, since it is a part
of one of the functional subsystems determined by subject
specialization.
————————————————————————
•Lexicology:
• What is lexicon?
• It is the set of lexical units containing phonological,
morphological, syntactic, and semantic information. Lexicology
(general vocabulary/dictionaries) vs terminology
(specialized vocabulary/dictionaries)

• The goal of lexicology is to construct a model of the lexical

component of a language which includes speakers' implicit
knowledge of words and their use as well as systematic and
appropriate mechanisms to connect the lexical component
with the other grammatical components.

Lexicography:
• What is lexicography?
• Lexicography deals with the principles and methods of writing
dictionaries
• What is dictionary?
• A dictionary is a linguistic product that brings together a
chosen set of words and provides information about them.

•The world is not isolated rather it is related to other words in

the lexical system .
————————————————————————
• The way the entries are selected and ordered in a dictionary
constitutes its macrostructure and the information about the
entries, its microstructure.
• Two types of dictionary:
• 1. General dictionaries.
• 2. Special dictionaries.
————————————————————————
Terminology
• The word terminology refers to at least three different
concepts:
• 1. The principles and conceptual bases that govern the study
of terms (the whole field).
• 2. The guidelines used in terminographic work (its
methodology).
• 3. The set of terms of a particular special subject.
————————————————————————
• If we accept that terms constitute a subcomponent of the
lexicon of the language since a speaker's competence cannot
exclude a specialized vocabulary, then terminology clearly
forms a part of linguistics.

• In fact, there is no single scientific approach to terminology,

but several, and the three most important of these are: * 1.
For linguistics, the terminology is a part of the special lexicon
that is characterized by subject and pragmatic criteria

* 2. For scientific-technical disciplines, terminology is the

formal reflection of their conceptual organization and thus an
essential means of expression and communication.

* 3. For the user, the terminology is a set of useful

communicative units which must be evaluated from the point of
view of the economy, precision, and suitability of expression.

Concise(short) (economic) /precise (economical)

Concision/precision
Introduction to terminology 29/6

Swelter: an uncomfortably hot atmosphere.

• We conclude that terminology is an interdisciplinary field of

inquiry whose prime object of study are the specialized words
occurring in natural language, which belong to specific
domains of usage.

An International Outlook

• 1. Terminology has an international outlook to terms.

• Terminology accepts intervention and gives priority to those
methods of term formation that bring languages closer to one
another. •This leads to the adoption of international criteria
for term formation and guidelines that are broader than those
customary for a single language.
• Given this international outlook, terminology is concerned
with the written rather than the spoken form of words.

Different Ways of Presenting Dictionaries

• 2. The second defining feature about terminology is the fact

that lexicology and terminology present their inventories of
words or terms in different ways because they start from
 different viewpoints: terminology starts with the concept and
lexicology starts with the word.

'Systematic Order' versus 'Alphabetic Order'

• Terminological dictionaries present entries in a systematic

order as opposed to the alphabetic order of general language
dictionaries.
• Systematic ordering is in itself an attempt to reproduce the
conceptual system of a specific subject
• Ordering by a concept also allows a better layout for
multilingual dictionaries.

Tensile test> ‫اختبار تحت الضغط‬

Mono-semantic > one meaning/concept

Specificity
• 3. Since it starts from the concepts and then proceeds to the
designation, terminology must be absolutely sure that it is
naming a specific concept and not a similar one.
•As a result, terminological dictionaries favour exhaustive
descriptive definitions of concepts which often also indicates the
relationships among related concepts.

The analysis of terms

• Any linguistic sign possessing a meaning can be represented
on three axes: the form, the meaning and the referent it
represents.

• Through the form we gain access to the formal system that

allows us to form new words and expressions

• Through the meaning of the sign, we can access to the

semantic system of a language. Meanings of individual signs
are not isolated in the speaker's mind.

• The referents of concepts which in the real world are found in

the form of concrete and abstract objects do not constitute a
chaotic and unstructured set but occur in a specific order.

Ontology: is the discipline that deals with analyzing objects of

the real world. Their location and the relationships they have
with each other.
Introduction to terminology 30/6

The relationship between concept and form

• If we compare the vocabulary of general language and

terminology in this respect, we see that the two systems differ
significantly.

• Most words in the lexicon of general language have multiple

meanings and each linguistic form is associated with the
numerous meanings, e.q. bank.

• Theoretically, terms should be unambiguous and have one

meaning and only one designation corresponding to one form.

• A term in the system of a subject field should identify only one

concept.

Polysemy (polysemous): the coexistence of many possible

meanings for a word or phrase. (Related to each other)
Vs.
Homonymy (homonymous): each of two or more words having
the same spelling or pronunciation but different meanings and
origins. (Not related to each other)
^forms of ambiguity (word have more than two meanings)
• Three basic aspects of terminology: the cognitive aspect, the
linguistic aspect, and the communicative aspect.

• A term is a unit referring to a reality that is expressed by

means of a form and used for intercommunication.

• The cognitive aspect is the most complex to describe.

• Cognition is the result of a mental process that leads to

knowledge.

• Cognition is a mental process that consists of understanding

reality.

A cognitive theory of terminology should provide an explanation

of the three key issues related to knowledge:

• A. How individuals understand reality and structure

knowledge.

• B. What concepts exist? How are they formed? How are they
related to one another? And how are they ordered within the
structure of knowledge?

• C. How concepts are related to terms?

 Concept Formation
• A concept is an element of thought; a mental construct that
represents a class of objects.

• Concepts consist of a series of characteristics that are shared

by a class of individual objects. These characteristics which are
also concepts allow us to structure thought and to
communicate.

• What concepts express however is not the real world as it is

but rather how the individual and the community have
internalized it. Language does not reflect the real world
exactly but rather interprets it.

• Concepts are mentally independent of terms and exist before

they are named.

• Terms are not semantically isolated units nor is the knowledge

of the specialized world produced by means of isolated terms

• Traditionally a concept is, as it has been indicated earlier on,

an element of knowledge that represents a class of objects of
the real world consisting of a set of the characteristics shared
by all the individual objects.
• Concepts are thus grouped together into sets (i.e., into
conceptual fields) and share some characteristics.

• Most concepts do not have rigidly set borders but rather

approximate diffuse limits. With standardization, the limits of
concepts are artificially defined.

The Relationships Between Concepts

• The organization of concepts or rather the organization of
conceptual systems

• The criteria for organizing concepts that make up a single field

as well as their membership of a specific set depends on the
way objects in the real world are understood within each field.

•Concepts are related to one another on the basis of two major

types of relationships: logical relationships based on similarities
and ontological relationships based on the proximity or contact
in space or time.

Introduction to terminology 3/7

Subject classification
• To classify a domain is to organize it.
Classification Systems for the content of documents and for
information are needed
• These systems have been basically based on two features: 1.
The identification of the main concepts contained in a
document.
2. The subject classification of the domains of knowledge.

• Thesauri which are collections of semantically related terms

are essential tools for organizing and retrieving information.

• Thesauri are used to control the names of the concepts and

relationships among them and thus enable more efficient
retrieval of information.

• The ordering of thoughts and the conceptualization represent

the cognitive side of terminology.

• the transfer of knowledge constitutes its communicative side.

• Therefore, terminology is not only used to order thought but

also to transfer specialized knowledge in one or more
languages and to structure the information contained in
specialized texts.
 Terminology and specialized communication
• In general texts, expression, variety, and originality prevail
over other features.

• In specialized texts, concision, precision, and suitability are the

relevant criteria.

• A scientific text must be concise because concision reduces

the possibility of distortions in the information.

• It must also be precise because of the nature of scientific and

technical topics and the functional relations among specialists.

• Finally, it must be appropriate or suitable to the

communicative situation in which it is produced.

Terminology and the Translation

• Translators and interpreters are also major users of
terminology when they mediate communication between
specialists.

• Translation is a process aimed at facilitating communication

between speakers of different languages.
• Translation implies understanding the source text and this
requires knowledge of the specific terms of the source and
target languages. This means, in turn, the technical translators
must have some familiarity with the subject matter they are
translating.

• In the case of specialized translation, the reader will be a

specialist in the field.

Introduction to terminology 4/7

• This doesn't mean however that translators do not prepare

terminology themselves. On occasion, they have to act as
terminologists to find equivalents for those terms that are not
listed in the available vocabularies, nor any specialised
databanks.

• Terminology prepared for translators must contain contexts

that provide information on how to use the term, and ideally
provide information about the concept in order to ensure
translators use the precise form to refer to a specific content.

• Terminological equivalence. (At the level of terms)

Source language / target translated language

Translating from english (source) to arabic (target)
 Terminology and language planning

(Can language be planned?) >a branch of applied linguistics

•What do we plan:
1. Planning the corpus (body) of language
2. Planning the acquisition
3. Planning the status (the usage of language)

• The survival of a language depends on its being appropriate

for all contexts of communication identified by a society.

• Therefore, in order to survive, this language must have

modern terminology - either created or borrowed - that allows
it to refer to all the new concepts needed for the development
of technology.

• So, there must be a language policy for this.

• In other words, there should be linguistic intervention in

support of a language, specially when the language of a region
is not the same as the official language of the country it
belongs to and within which it is in a minority situation.
• This should be done within a legal framework that favours this
process of change. The standardisation of a language must be
planned.

• The dissemination of terminology must be accompanied by

effective actions to encourage usage and by indirect measures
to change the customs, attitudes, and prestige of the language
being standardized.

Royal decree > ‫ملك‬

‫مرسوم ي‬

Terminology and documentation

• Terminology is the basis for the writing of technical texts (i.e.
technical writing), for the translation of specialised text (i.e.
technical translation), and for the description, storage, and
retrieval of specialised information (i.e. technical
documentation).

Introduction to terminology 5/7

• A document is a unit of information that can be described
both by its form and by its content.

• In an efficient retrieval system, a document can be

accessed both via its form and its content.

• The form of a document is described by bibliographical

data.

• The content is represented by indexing terms which refer

to the context content by means of descriptors (i.e. keywords).

• Documentation is a relatively new field that deals with the

collection analysis, assignment, classification, and storage of
documents in order to make the information retrievable for
various uses and purposes.

• In order to provide access to information, "information

scientists" analyze documents formally and semantically
(content) in order to describe them: formal description of the
document, description of its contents, and the storage of both
descriptions in a file or database.
 The relationship between terminology and
documentation

• While terminology is at the service of documentation,

documentation is also at the service of terminology (Vice
versa/help each other and support each other) technical
documents are the basis for terminological work.

•Terminologists do not invent designations for concepts in a

previously established system, but rather identify and collect
terms that specialists use in documents.

•Terminologists use documents in order to acquire knowledge

of the subject and its conceptual structure to search for the
terms used in the subject field, to confirm the quality of the
primary data they have collected, and to study the data from
the various viewpoints represented by different documents.

Terminology computer science and knowledge

engineering

• There is a tie between terminology and computer science.

• In fact terminology relies on computer science to provide
tools and the result is increasingly able to eliminate manual
working procedures in its turn.

• Terminology provides computer science with concepts useful

for the development of artificial intelligence and expert
systems.

• The link between terminology and cognitive science is created

by concepts.

• Knowledge engineering, which is primarily an applied field,

uses this knowledge to construct expert systems among which
those related to language and communication are essential.

• Artificial Intelligence(AI))‫االصطناع‬
‫ي‬ ‫ )لذكاء‬starts from the
assumption that an expert system that can perform "human"
operations must possess the knowledge that humans possess.

• If we want the technological construct to work "like a human

being", it has to be equipped with the knowledge required to
recognize and analyze a situation so that it can then act
accordingly.
• Based on all that has been said, it can be claimed that
computer science is at the service of terminology.

• In the past, computers were only tools for storing and

retrieving information. The situation has changed dramatically
and the services computers can provide for terminology go
well beyond being simply a way of storing information.

Parsing: analyze (a sentence) into its parts and describe their

syntactic roles (‫)اعراب‬

Lemmatization: sort words by grouping inflected or variant

forms of the same word
^
Lemmas

Derivatives

• Although the collection of documents, the study of concepts,

placing the information in files and dissemination are
essentially the same now as 25 years ago, working methods to
 achieve these goals have diversified and tools have become
easier to use, and more powerful since Wuster's time.

• Four different phases in the evolution of computer science as

applied to terminology can be identified:

1. At this stage, computers were used as tools to store

information. They were first applied to bibliography, and
later to terminology. During this phase, the first databanks
of documents and bibliographies were created, followed in
the 1960s by the first terminology databanks.

2. In the second phase, as people continued to work on

making computerized data compatible, tools were
designed to facilitate person- machine and
machinemachine communication. In other words,
information can now be obtained remotely via a personal
computer and a modem via optical discs.

3. The third stage includes work on expert systems in

linguistics and terminology developed within the
framework of artificial intelligence. Some of the operations
previously carried out by terminologists are now
 performed by computer or a terminologist is aided by a
computer.

4. The fourth phase of development of terminologyoriented

computer science began with the incorporation of
knowledge into expert systems; this is the stage of
knowledge engineering