Materials Chemistry and Physics 290 (2022) 126658

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Materials Chemistry and Physics

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/matchemphys

Durable antibacterial cotton fabric via spray-coating of photocatalytic MoS2

Amit Kumar a, b, *, Moolchand Sharma a, Rahul Vaish a
a
School of Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Mandi, Mandi, Himachal Pradesh, 175005, India
b
Department of Textile Engineering, Jawaharlal Nehru Government Engineering College Sundernagar, Mandi, Himachal Pradesh, 175018, India

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• MoS2 particles were coated on cotton

fabric by spray coating.
• Coated cotton exhibited excellent bac­
terial reduction against E. coli and
S. aureus.
• MoS2 loading did not affect the inherent
qualities of the cotton.
• The usage of the product in technical
textile is quite promising.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In the present work, a pigment-binder recipe was created by adding micro/nano-sized Molybdenum disulfide
MoS2 (MoS2) particles in two distinct concentrations of 10% and 5% to an adhesive binder and water mixture. Spray
Cotton coating was used to apply the mixture directly to the cotton cloth. The modified cotton demonstrated excellent
Antibacterial
bacterial reduction against E. coli and S. aureus. The 10% MoS2 coated fabric reduced E. coli and S. aureus by
Photocatalytic
about 98%, while the 5% MoS2 coated fabric reduced E. coli and S. aureus by 96 and 98%, respectively, during a
Coating
2 h bacterial contact period. The fabric’s antibacterial function showed impressive laundry endurance, with
bacterial reduction of more than 89% after 20 washing cycles. The fabric’s natural properties, such as water
vapor permeability, tensile strength, and abrasion resistance remained unaffected due to the loading of MoS2 on
the cotton surface. The photocatalyst MoS2 coated cotton could be used as a viable treatment against bacterial
infections and holds great promise for usage in medical textiles and everyday clothing.

1. Introduction
Cotton accounts for a substantial portion of natural textiles. Fabrics
made of cotton are a common choice in modern society. Cotton is known
for its comfort, smoothness, hydrophilicity, biocompatibility, and opti­
mum mechanical strength [1]. Cotton is more susceptible to microbial
attacks due to its higher moisture retentive capacity and porosity [2].
This results in unpleasant smells, skin allergies, and other illnesses.
Thus, the finishing of cotton textile products with antibacterial protec­
tion properties has become crucial in the textile industry. Antibacterial
fabrics can prevent the growth and propagation of microbes like bacteria
and fungus. These functional fabrics have garnered considerable atten­
tion in terms of human health protection and medical treatment, with
the intent of reducing the spread of infectious diseases [3]. According to

* Corresponding author. School of Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Mandi, Mandi, Himachal Pradesh, 175005, India.
E-mail address: ptd1901@students.iitmandi.ac.in (A. Kumar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2022.126658
Received 27 May 2022; Received in revised form 13 August 2022; Accepted 13 August 2022
Available online 19 August 2022
0254-0584/© 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
A. Kumar et al.
reported literature, surface antibacterial modification of cotton fabric
has been widely performed by embedding antimicrobial chemicals onto
the fabric surface. Coating, impregnation, soaking, electrospinning,
grafting, and pad-cure techniques are widely used to provide antibac­
terial finishes to textiles [4]. The different agents including metal
nanoparticles (NPs) like silver (Ag), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), titanium
(Ti), gold (Au) and their oxides; quaternary ammonium salts like poly­
siloxane based, halogens like N-Halamine and chitosan are used to
enhance the antibacterial activity of textile [5,6]. He et al. (2022) pre­
pared an antibacterial face mask by combining cotton with Ag/Zn
coatings and electro-spun poly (vinylidene fluoride)/polystyrene nano­
fibers while Cao et al. (2021) coated cotton gauze with photothermal
Au-NPs for producing the antibacterial effect [7,8]. According to Ran
et al. (2020), fabrication of zeolitic imidazole frameworks skeleton-8 on
poly-dopamine coated cotton showed effective inhibition toward E. coli
[9]. Rehan et al. (2019) coated cotton gauze fabric with guava leaf
extract mixed with sodium alginate/starch matrix. The modified cotton
gauze showed significant antibacterial, antioxidant, UV protection, and
wound healing characteristics [10].
Textile bacterial reduction modes can be categorized into two
groups: release-killing and contact-killing. Antibacterial activity gets
reduced with the release of antibacterial agents in release-killing anti­
bacterial situations; however, the bacterial resistance will not be pre­
vented [11,12]. Ag and other metals perform as release-killing
antibacterial agents on the textile surface. Ag-NPs coatings cannot form
covalent linkages with the surface of cotton fabrics, their antibacterial
effect’s stability and sustainability have always remained an issue. They
agglomerate in colloidal solutions because of their high surface energy,
making it difficult to apply them to textile substrates. Further, due to the
reactive surface of Ag, their toxicity has also become a concern [13,14].
On the other hand, a contact-killing antibacterial surface shows good
biocompatibility, higher antibacterial activity, and lesser side effects.
The quaternary ammonium salts-loaded textile works on the
contact-killing principle, however, it increases the hygroscopicity of the
textile, thus providing a platform for bio-fouling [15]. A simple and
universal coating technique is required to suit the textile substrate. The
coating applied should be efficient and durable and should not affect the
fabric’s native properties such as water vapor permeability and me­
chanical characteristics. In the present scenario, photocatalysis-based
products are appreciated over other antibacterial agents because of
their high efficiency, low cost, and non-toxicity. TiO2 has excellent
photocatalytic properties and offers advantages like effective antimi­
crobial properties, durability, non-toxicity, and relatively inexpensive
[16]. However, TiO2 has a limited absorption of visible light and can
only respond to UV radiation below 387 nm [17]. Thus, the efficacy of
photocatalytic reduction of TiO2 is limited.
Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), a two-dimensional material, has
received a lot of attention among newly produced photocatalytic ma­
terials because of its comprehensive surface area, open morphology,
flexible interlayer spacing, conductivity, and chemical stability [18,19].
MoS2 can respond to mid-Infrared (IR) light and thus possess high
photocatalytic reduction efficiency. Due to distinct electrical and optical
characteristics, MoS2 is widely used in biosensors, photodetectors, bat­
teries, super-capacitors, and transistors [20–23]. In addition, re­
searchers have explored the use of MoS2 in biological applications such
as radiation protection, cancer treatment, and antibacterial agent due to
its easy fabrication, relatively inexpensive, low toxicity, and good
biodegradability. Zhang et al. (2016) reported that cysteine-protected
MoS2 dots might be employed as radioprotectants and can be utilized
in ionizing radiation protection. He suggested the use of MoS2 dots in the
body to remove accumulated free radicals, repair DNA, and recuperate
all key chemical and biological markers [24]. Liu et al. (2014) explored
the use of lipoic acid-modified PEG-MoS2 nanosheets as a drug carrier
for cancer treatment [25]. Xu et al. (2020) synthesized antibacterial
nano-structured MoS2-nanoflowers by utilizing galvanostatic electrol­
ysis [26]. Ali et al. (2019) explored the application of MoS2 in
2
Materials Chemistry and Physics 290 (2022) 126658
supercapacitor electrodes while Wang et al. (2020) devised a unique
photo-responsive hybrid system for bacteria-killing by doping MoS2
nanosheets with Cu ions [27,28]. Zhu et al. (2020) loaded chito­
san-MoS2 with Ag-NPs on the Ti surface for bacteria killing. The coating
showed a high antibacterial reduction of more than 98.6% for both E.
coli and S. aureus [29]. M. Li et al. (2019) prepared a MoS2-based pho­
totherapeutic system for eliminating S. aureus bacteria biofilm from the
medical implant [30]. Based on Zn–MoS2 nanosheets, Wang et al. (2022)
created a biodegradable metal-organic framework that kills a significant
amount of bacteria and speeds up the healing of bacteria-infected
wounds.
MoS2, being photocatalytic, can produce reactive oxygen species
(ROS), which are lethal to bacteria [31,32]. The potential usage of MoS2
in textiles has yet to be fully researched. The incorporation of these MoS2
particles into textile fabric could aid in the creation of smart,
self-cleaning textiles. Spray coating is an easy, quick, non-contact, and
affordable technique that can be employed for coating textile substrate
with minimal agglomeration. Khattab et al. (2019) prepared
water-repellent viscose fibers by spray-coating lanolin-silicon rubber
with negligible agglomeration [33].
In this work, antibacterial cotton fabric was prepared by spray
coating micro/nano-sized MoS2 onto the fabric surface. The pigment-
binder spray-coating process is an easy-to-manage technology for pro­
ducing antibacterial-active coated fabric. ATR-FTIR, XRD, XPS, FE-SEM,
and TEM were utilized to characterize the prepared samples. The anti­
bacterial durability of the modified fabric, as well as its water vapor
permeability, tensile strength, and abrasion resistance, were assessed. It
was observed that the MoS2 coating provided remarkable bacterial ac­
tivity reduction without affecting fabric breathability and comfort.
2. Experimental
2.1. Materials
The micro/nano-sized MoS2, liquid ammonia, and urea were ob­
tained from Sigma Aldrich, India. Cotton fabric (100% cotton, and 138
gsm) was provided by Vardhman Unit India. CHT India Pvt. Ltd. pro­
vided cross-linkable acrylate-based binder TUBVINYL ASN, and anti­
foaming agent KOLLASOL OCE, emulsifier TUBIGAT WAF 200,
thickener TUBIVIS DL 600, silicone-based softener TUBISOFT PS and
fixing agent TUBIFIX HF.
2.2. Stock-pigment paste preparation
The stock paste was initially prepared by mixing liquid ammonia
(1.3%), urea (4%), antifoam agent (0.5%), emulsifier (0.5%), softener
(0.7%), and fixing agent with thermally cross-linkable acrylate binder
(22%) and water (67%) in a controlled fashion, accompanied by
continuous mixing. The mixture was then constantly stirred for 15–20
min at room temperature. To attain the appropriate viscosity level, the
thickening (4%) was incorporated into the mixture and stirred
constantly at 60 ◦ C for the next 10 min to achieve a homogenous stock
paste. Thereafter, micro/nano MoS2 pigment in two different weight
concentrations of 5% and 10% were added to the stock paste and both
mixtures were stirred continuously for the next 10 min to prevent ag­
gregation. The anti-foaming reduced the formation of foam in the so­
lution by lowering the surface tension. The emulsifier improved paste
flow qualities and coated fabric’s soft handle, luster, and rubbing fast­
ness. The thicker improved the flow of the pigment paste and gave the
coating a pronounced edge and sheen.
2.3. Fabric coating process
The pristine cloth fabric was cleaned with deionized water and air
dried for 24 h. The coating of both prepared compositions on pristine
cotton samples (25 cm * 25 cm) was performed using automatic
A. Kumar et al.
HOLMARC spray coating equipment. The prepared pigment paste was
introduced by a dispenser through a tube near the atomizer’s liquid
inlet. Following passage through a dust filter, compressed air was
released into the gas inlet. The pressure of the gas was kept constant
using a different gas regulator. Both the gas and solution flow rates were
kept constant at 5 ml/min and 100 psi, respectively. Throughout the
deposition, a constant (20 cm) distance was kept between the substrate
and the nozzle. After deposition, the coated samples were dried and
cured for 05 and 07 min at 120 ◦ C, respectively. Thereafter, the samples
were first rinsed with hot water at 50 ◦ C, followed by cold water washing
and drying at room temperature. TUBVINYL ASN is a hot-curing
dispersion-based binder that forms a layer over compounds in the
form of a sandwich. Since cotton lacks the ability to self-crosslink with
MoS2, this cross-linkable acrylate-based binder forms a film over the
cotton’s surface. When MoS2 particles were added to the mixture, they
got entrapped in the binder fabric matrix. The addition of a fixing agent
enhanced the washing fastness of the coated fabric. The softener helped
in achieving coating results with a soft handle by improving the
smoothness of the coated fabric’s surface.
2.4. Characterization
SEM, UV–visible spectroscopy, and XRD were used to characterize
MoS2 particles and pristine cotton. Perkin Elmer spectrometer-2 with
ATR accessory was used for FTIR measurements within the spectrum
range 4000-400 cm− 1 (100 scans per sample). On a powder X-ray
diffractometer (Rigaku Corporation), XRD experiments were carried
out. XPS tests were carried out using a Thermofisher scientific X-ray
photoelectron spectrometer. The pristine and coated cotton morphology
was examined on Field Emission-Scanning Electron Microscope (JFEI
SEM-450) with an energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer ((EDS). A high-
resolution transmission electron microscope (HR-TEM; FP 5022/22-Tec­
nai G2 20 S-TWIN) was used for MoS2 particle size analysis.
Antibacterial activity was investigated by a drop cast of gram-positive
bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), and gram-negative bacteria,
Escherichia coli (E. coli) on cotton fabric surface under visible light and in a
dark atmosphere. The control sample was pristine cotton cloth. Autoclaving
was done on 1 cm × 1 cm square test cloth specimens. The swatches were
then placed in a cell cultured dish under visible light. The 100 μL of the
bacterial solution, both S. aureus and E. coli, were added to the swatches. A
900 μL of physiological saline solution was added to control and bacterial-
treated fabric swatches after 30 min, 1 h, 90 min, and 2 h respectively,
followed by four serial dilutions. Agar plates were inoculated with 100 μL of
the formulated bacterial solution and then maintained in an incubator at
37 ◦ C for 24 h. After 24 h, the following equation was used to estimate the
percentage of bacterial reduction (R %):
Y− X
R ​ %= ∗100 (1)
Y
where X and Y, respectively represent coated and control samples bac­
terium colony forming units (CFU) [34].
The cytotoxic potential of MoS2 coated cotton against the HeLa cells
was examined by a 3-[4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2, 5-diphenyl tetrazo­
lium bromide (MTT) assay. The pristine cotton and coated cotton sam­
ples were cut into 7 mm * 7 mm pieces. After autoclaving and exposure
to UV light for 30 min, they were loaded in a 24-well plate. Thereafter, 1
mL of HeLa cell suspension (1 * 105 cells per mL) was seeded in each well
and cultured at 37 ◦ C in 5% CO2 for 1, 3, and 7 days. Then, the cell
culture medium was replaced with 200 μL of 0.5 g/L MTT solution, and
further incubated for 4 h. The culture medium was removed and 200 μL
dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) was added to dissolve the crystals. Finally,
the optical density (OD) of the liquid was determined by measuring it
with a microplate reader at 570 nm wavelength. The cells without cotton
samples were used as the control samples. Using the following equation,
the relative cell viability (%) was determined:
3
Materials Chemistry and Physics 290 (2022) 126658
( / )
Relative ​ Cell ​ viability (%) = ODsample ODcontrol × 100 (2)
The ISO 105-C10:2006 standard was used to test the durability of the
coating [35]. The washed MoS2 coated sample (20 times) was also
subjected to the antibacterial test. The standards ASTM E− 96 (cup
method), ASTM D-5034, and ASTM D-4685 were used to conduct the
water vapor permeability test (breathability), fabric tensile strength,
and abrasion resistance measurement, respectively [36,37].
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Characterization of MoS2 particles and prepared samples
Fig. 1 shows the characterization of the MoS2 particles and pristine
cotton fabric used for coating. The FESEM and TEM images in Fig. 1(a–c)
revealed MoS2 micro-nanoparticles size. The band gap energy (Eg) of
MoS2 particles, Fig. 1(d), was calculated around 1.8 eV by using the
following equation [38]:
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
αhυ = A hυ − Eg (3)
where α is the absorption coefficient, A is a constant and υ is the tran­
sition frequency.
Thus, the optical band gap lies well within the visible region. SEM of
pristine cotton, Fig. 1(e), showed a rough and uneven appearance of
fibers, with a twisted ribbon-like surface. The diffraction peaks, Fig. 1(f),
noticed in pristine cotton at 2θ = 15.06◦ , 16.82◦ , 22.81◦ , and 34.31◦
correlate to cellulose 110, 110, 200, and 004 crystallographic planes
[39,40].
The ATR-FTIR spectrum of pristine cotton and MoS2 particles coated
cotton fabric is shown in Fig. 2 (a). In pristine cotton, a broad spectrum
band from 3271 to 3224 cm− 1 is related to the cellulose and water OH
group. The vibration of the C–H molecule is represented by the bands at
2977 cm− 1 and 2927 cm− 1. The band at 1626 cm− 1 corresponds to OH
bending vibration of water absorbed in cotton. The cellulose C–H
bending was seen at 1464 cm− 1 while the peak at 1259 cm− 1 correlates
to C–O stretching vibrations. The C–O–C asymmetric stretching of
β-glycoside linkage was seen at 1154 cm− 1 while the band 1055 cm− 1 is
associated with C–O stretching of C-6 in cotton [41]. In MoS2 coated
cotton, the sharp band observed from 3433 cm− 1 is associated with the
OH groups forming intra-molecular hydrogen while the band noticed at
3342 cm− 1 relates to N–H stretching vibrations of the urea molecule. A
band at 1729 cm− 1 is related to C– – O stretching while the band at 1677
− 1
cm is assigned to the C– C bond of the acrylate-based binder. The
–
weak band generated at 467 cm− 1 is attributed to Mo–S vibration [42,
43]. The FTIR spectrum authenticates that the MoS2 particles were
successfully lodged on the cotton surface.
Fig. 3 shows the XRD plot of MoS2 particles coated on cotton fabric.
The MoS2 particles embedded on the cotton fabric by spray coating were
identified by the diffraction peaks at 29.08◦ (004), 32.74◦ (100), 33.55◦
(101), 35.98◦ (102), 39.62◦ (103), 44.28◦ (006), 49.94◦ (105), 56.14◦
(018) and 58.43◦ (110) [42,44].
Fig. 4 (a) illustrates the XPS analysis of the pristine cotton and MoS2-
loaded cotton fabric. The C 1s and O 1s binding energy signals of carbon
and oxygen present in cellulose were found to be 284.8 and 532 eV,
respectively, in both samples. In the MoS2 loaded cotton, Mo (3d5/2) and
Mo (3d3/2) binding energies, Fig. 4 (b), were found to be 228.5 and
231.7 eV, respectively. Furthermore, the binding energies of S (2p3/2)
and S (2p1/2), Fig. 4 (c), were found to be 161.4 and 162.5 eV, respec­
tively [45,46].
Therefore, the XRD and XPS plots validate that MoS2 particles were
productively coated on the surface of cotton.
The surface morphology of coated cotton was examined by FESEM,
as presented in Fig. 5. The SEM images demonstrate that the cotton
surface was satisfactorily embedded with micro/nano-sized MoS2 par­
ticles after spray coating with pigment paste for both the 5% and 10%
A. Kumar et al. Materials Chemistry and Physics 290 (2022) 126658

Fig. 1. (a) SEM of MoS2 particles, (b–c) TEM of MoS2 particles, (d) Absorption spectrum of MoS2, (e) SEM of pristine cotton, and (f) XRD plot of pristine cotton.

Fig. 2. FTIR of (a) Pristine cotton and MoS2 particles loaded, (b) Magnified MoS2 loaded cotton FTIR curve.

compositions. The nano/micro-sized pigment tends to agglomerate,

resulting in a little heterogeneous distribution onto the cotton fabric
surface. This might be because of the way that cotton and the color
molecule interact chemically. The MoS2 particles were tightly bound to
the cotton’s surface by the acrylate crosslinking agent, and even after 20
washing, they were still retained within the matrix of the binder.
The surface elements constitution of treated cotton was studied by
EDX mapping (Fig. 5(e)). Molybdenum (Mo) and sulfur (S) atoms were
identified in MoS2 particles coated cloth after 20 washing cycles, in
addition to C and O observed in pristine cotton [47]. Broadened over­
lapping peaks in the MoS2 EDX analysis make it difficult to separate the
molybdenum signals from the sulfur ones. These peaks remain unre­
solved in the EDX spectrum because the energy resolution of the in­
strument utilized is substantially larger than Mo and S energies
difference. However, in the XPS spectra, Mo and S showed clear, distinct
peaks due to the much better resolution of the equipment.
This demonstrates that MoS2 particles remain entrenched in high
concentration on the cotton surface even after washing.

Fig. 3. XRD plot of the MoS2 particles coated cotton fabrics.

4
A. Kumar et al. Materials Chemistry and Physics 290 (2022) 126658

Fig. 4. XPS spectrum of (a) Pristine cotton and MoS2 loaded cotton, (b) Mo (3d) and (c) S (2p).

Fig. 5. FESEM images of (a) 10% MoS2 coated fabric, (b) 5% MoS2 coated fabric, (c) Washed fabric (10% MoS2), (d) Washed fabric (5% MoS2), and, (e) EDX Analysis
of fabric coated with 10% MoS2 (Washed; 20 cycles).

5
A. Kumar et al. Materials Chemistry and Physics 290 (2022) 126658

3.2. Evaluation of antibacterial activity 3.4. Effect on intrinsic properties of cotton

Table 1 illustrates the results of a study on the MoS2 coated fabric’s
bacterial reduction against E. coli and S. aureus. After 30 min, 1 h, 90 min,
and 2 h, the bacterial reduction percentage (R %) of fabric swatches treated
with the bacterial solution under visible light and dark atmosphere was
measured. After a 2 h bacterial contact period, the 10% MoS2 coated fabric
reduced E. coli and S. aureus by around 98%, while the 5% MoS2 coated
fabric reduced E. coli and S. aureus by 96% and 98% respectively.
The antibacterial impact of the modified cotton fabric against E. coli
and S. aureus is shown in Fig. 6 and 7, respectively. After continuous 20
washing cycles, the coated cloth exhibited antibacterial reduction
greater than 89% for both the pigment paste concentration in visible
light. Therefore, from a financial perspective, fabric treated with a 5%
pigment concentration can offer excellent bacterial reduction. Even in a
dark environment, the reduction in both bacteria increases as the bac­
terial exposure time increases.
The antibacterial property of MoS2 is attributed to its photocatalyst
nature. When a photocatalyst absorbs light, the resultant electrons and
holes interact with water and oxygen forming reactive oxygen species
(ROS) [48,49]. ROS can destroy pathogens, including both
gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria, by disrupting biomolecules,
conflicting with their operation, causing cell wall collapse, and resulting
in cell malfunction. We believe an analogous effect is produced from
spray-coated MoS2 in the current study. Thus, the MoS2 can produce a
durable, non-toxic antibacterial effect on textile at a low cost.
3.3. Cytotoxicity evaluation MoS2 coated cotton
By increasing the smoothness of the coated fabric’s surface, the
softener aided in achieving coating results with a soft handle. The
measurement of water vapor permeability (breathability) of the coated
cloth is of much importance. The water vapor permeability of pristine
cotton, 10%, and 5% pigment concentration coated cotton were deter­
mined to be 45.4, 42.9, and 43.3 g/m2/h, respectively. The tensile
strengths of the three samples (pristine cotton, and MoS2 coated (un­
washed and washed) were measured as 128 N, 125 N, and 126 N,
respectively. Further, the samples showed abrasion resistance of 39000,
38000, and 38500 rubs, respectively for pristine cotton, and MoS2
loaded (unwashed and washed), respectively. These studies reveal that
spray coating of MoS2 onto a cotton surface does not affect the cotton’s
natural properties.
4. Conclusions
Using spray coating, the nano/micro-sized MoS2 particles were
successfully loaded on cotton fabric in varying concentrations. The
coated fabric demonstrated a bacterial decrease of more than 96% for
both strains of bacteria tested. After 20 washing, the coated MoS2
remained strongly attached to the cotton surface and is efficient in
reducing bacteria growth by 89%. The photocatalyst MoS2 loaded on
cotton surfaces using a simple and significant spray coating technology
could be employed as possible therapeutics against bacterial infections,
and holds a lot of promise for use in regular clothing as well as medical
applications.

Cytotoxicity is another crucial factor affecting the utilization of any CRediT authorship contribution statement
material for industrial and medical applications in addition to antibac­
terial activity. Appel et al. (2016) reported low toxicity of MoS2 against Amit Kumar: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing,
human epithelial kidney cells while Zhu et al. (2020) developed chito­ Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Validation. Moolchand
san/MoS2 coating loaded with Ag-NPs on the Ti surface and reported Sharma: Data curation, Characterization, Methodology, Investigation,
that the rough surface of MoS2 facilitated cell adhesion and was Validation. Rahul Vaish: Supervision, Resources, Writing – review &
observed non-toxic to cells [29,50]. In this study, the MTT assay was editing, Formal analysis, Conceptualization, Methodology,
used to examine the prepared sample’s cytotoxicity. The cytotoxicity Investigation.
results (Fig. 8) are expressed in percentage as a reduction of viability of
cells cultured in presence of pristine or MoS2 coated cotton compared to Declaration of competing interest
cells grown in a medium without cotton samples. After 07 days of
treatment, the results presented that both the pristine cotton and MoS2 The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
loaded cotton showed excellent cell viability of more than 97% and had interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
almost no cytotoxicity to cells. the work reported in this paper.

Table 1
The antibacterial effect of coated cotton.
Sr.No Samples Antibacterial Activities

E. coli

30 min 1h 90 min 2h

CFU/ml R% CFU/ml R% CFU/ml R% CFU/ml R%

1. Pristine cotton (Control) 2.81 *108 – 2.36*108 1.99*108 – 1.76*108 –

2. 10% MoS2 Coated (Dark; Unwashed) 4.6* 107 83.62 4.4* 107 81.33 3.3* 107 80.9 3.1* 107 82.38
3. 10% MoS2 Coated (Visible Light; Unwashed) 1.6* 107 94.3 8.5* 106 96.39 4* 106 97.98 2.5* 106 98.57
4. 10% MoS2 Coated (Visible Light; Washed; 20 cycles) 1.75* 107 93.77 9* 106 96.18 5* 106 97.48 3.5* 106 98.01
5. 5% MoS2 Coated (Visible Light; Unwashed) 1.8* 107 93.59 1.2* 107 94.91 9* 106 95.47 6.5* 106 96.30
6. 5% MoS2 Coated (Visible Light; Washed; 20 cycles) 2.15* 107 92.34 1.2* 107 94.91 1.2* 107 93.71 7.5* 106 95.73
S. aureus
7. Pristine cotton (Control) 2.6 *109 – 2.4*109 6.1*108 – 2.1* 109 –
8. 10% MoS2 Coated (Dark; Unwashed) 2.5* 109 2.8 2.3* 109 5.97 4.4* 108 26.55 6.3* 108 65
9. 10% MoS2 Coated (Visible Light; Unwashed) 2.05* 108 92.11 1.06* 108 95.72 3.9* 107 93.6 2.35* 107 98.88
10. 10% MoS2 Coated (Visible Light; Washed; 20 cycles) 2.22* 108 91.44 1.5* 108 93.94 6* 107 90.16 6.05* 107 97.11
11. 5% MoS2 Coated (Visible Light; Unwashed) 2.6* 108 89.88 1.27* 108 94.87 5.7* 107 90.65 3.9* 107 98.14
12. 5% MoS2 Coated (Visible Light; Washed; 20 cycles) 2.74* 108 89.44 1.55* 108 93.72 1.55* 107 89.01 8.75* 107 95.83

6
A. Kumar et al. Materials Chemistry and Physics 290 (2022) 126658

Fig. 6. Antibacterial effect of E. Coli on: (a.1-a.4) Pure cotton, (b.1-b.4) Fabric coated with 10% MoS2 (Dark), (c.1-c.4) Fabric coated with 10% MoS2 (Visible light;
Unwashed), and (d) Bacterial reduction with treatment time.

Fig. 7. Antibacterial effect of S. aureus on (a.1-a.4) Pure cotton, (b.1-b.4) Fabric coated with 10% MoS2 (Dark), (c.1-c.4) Fabric coated with 10% MoS2 (Visible light;
Unwashed), and (d) Bacterial reduction with treatment time.

Data availability

The data that has been used is confidential.

References

[1] M. Mahbubul Bashar, M.A. Khan, An overview on surface modification of cotton

fiber for apparel use, J. Polym. Environ. 21 (2013) 181–190, https://doi.org/
10.1007/s10924-012-0476-8.
[2] A. Møllebjerg, L.G. Palmén, K. Gori, R.L. Meyer, The bacterial life cycle in textiles is
governed by fiber hydrophobicity, Microbiol. Spectr. 9 (2021), https://doi.org/
10.1128/Spectrum.01185-21.
[3] R. Gulati, S. Sharma, R.K. Sharma, Antimicrobial textile: recent developments and
functional perspective, Polym. Bull. (2021), https://doi.org/10.1007/s00289-021-
03826-3.
[4] M. Periolatto, F. Ferrero, C. Vineis, A. Varesano, G. Gozzelino, Novel antimicrobial
agents and processes for textile applications, in: Antibact. Agents, InTech, 2017,
https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.68423.
[5] S.M. Fergusson, Garment-finishing techniques, in: Garment Manuf. Technol,
Elsevier, 2015, pp. 387–403, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-78242-232-
7.00015-1.
[6] L. Windler, M. Height, B. Nowack, Comparative evaluation of antimicrobials for
textile applications, Environ. Int. 53 (2013) 62–73, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
envint.2012.12.010.
[7] R. He, J. Li, M. Chen, S. Zhang, Y. Cheng, X. Ning, N. Wang, Tailoring moisture
Fig. 8. MTT assay results. electroactive Ag/Zn@cotton coupled with electrospun PVDF/PS nanofibers for
antimicrobial face masks, J. Hazard Mater. 428 (2022), 128239, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.128239.
[8] F. Cao, C. Wei, G. Ma, L. Hou, R. Zhang, L. Mei, Q. Qin, Synthesis of photothermal
antimicrobial cotton gauze using AuNPs as photothermal transduction agents, RSC
Adv. 11 (2021) 25976–25982, https://doi.org/10.1039/D1RA01597D.
[9] J. Ran, H. Chen, S. Bi, Q. Guo, Z. Deng, G. Cai, D. Cheng, X. Tang, X. Wang, One-
step in-situ growth of zeolitic imidazole frameworks-8 on cotton fabrics for
photocatalysis and antimicrobial activity, Cellulose 27 (2020) 10447–10459,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-020-03483-1.
[10] M. Rehan, O.A. Ahmed-Farid, S.R. Ibrahim, A.A. Hassan, A.M. Abdelrazek, N.I.
M. Khafaga, T.A. Khattab, Green and sustainable encapsulation of guava leaf
extracts (psidium guajava L.) into alginate/starch microcapsules for

7
A. Kumar et al.
multifunctional finish over cotton gauze, ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 7 (2019)
18612–18623, https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.9b04952.
[11] Z. Li, D. Lee, X. Sheng, R.E. Cohen, M.F. Rubner, Two-level antibacterial coating
with both release-killing and contact-killing capabilities, Langmuir 22 (2006)
9820–9823, https://doi.org/10.1021/la0622166.
[12] H. Ao, S. Yang, B. Nie, Q. Fan, Q. Zhang, J. Zong, S. Guo, X. Zheng, T. Tang,
Improved antibacterial properties of collagen I/hyaluronic acid/quaternized
chitosan multilayer modified titanium coatings with both contact-killing and
release-killing functions, J. Mater. Chem. B. 7 (2019) 1951–1961, https://doi.org/
10.1039/C8TB02425A.
[13] S. Agnihotri, S. Mukherji, S. Mukherji, Immobilized silver nanoparticles enhance
contact killing and show highest efficacy: elucidation of the mechanism of
bactericidal action of silver, Nanoscale 5 (2013) 7328, https://doi.org/10.1039/
c3nr00024a.
[14] Z. Ye, S. Li, S. Zhao, L. Deng, J. Zhang, A. Dong, Textile coatings configured by
double-nanoparticles to optimally couple superhydrophobic and antibacterial
properties, Chem. Eng. J. 420 (2021), 127680, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
cej.2020.127680.
[15] D. Gao, J. Zhang, B. Lyu, L. Lyu, J. Ma, L. Yang, Poly(quaternary ammonium salt-
epoxy) grafted onto Ce doped ZnO composite: an enhanced and durable
antibacterial agent, Carbohydr. Polym. 200 (2018) 221–228, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.carbpol.2018.07.073.
[16] V. Rodríguez-González, C. Terashima, A. Fujishima, Applications of photocatalytic
titanium dioxide-based nanomaterials in sustainable agriculture, J. Photochem.
Photobiol. C Photochem. Rev. 40 (2019) 49–67, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jphotochemrev.2019.06.001.
[17] V. Etacheri, C. Di Valentin, J. Schneider, D. Bahnemann, S.C. Pillai, Visible-light
activation of TiO2 photocatalysts: advances in theory and experiments,
J. Photochem. Photobiol. C Photochem. Rev. 25 (2015) 1–29, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jphotochemrev.2015.08.003.
[18] Y. Yuan, R. Guo, L. Hong, X. Ji, Z. Li, Z. Lin, W. Pan, Recent advances and
perspectives of MoS2-based materials for photocatalytic dyes degradation: a
review, Colloids Surfaces A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 611 (2021), 125836, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2020.125836.
[19] J. Xu, R. Cai, Y. Zhang, X. Mu, Molybdenum disulfide-based materials with
enzyme-like characteristics for biological applications, Colloids Surf. B
Biointerfaces 200 (2021), 111575, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
colsurfb.2021.111575.
[20] K. Kalantar-zadeh, J.Z. Ou, Biosensors based on two-dimensional MoS 2, ACS Sens.
1 (2016) 5–16, https://doi.org/10.1021/acssensors.5b00142.
[21] H.S. Nalwa, A review of molybdenum disulfide (MoS 2) based photodetectors: from
ultra-broadband, self-powered to flexible devices, RSC Adv. 10 (2020)
30529–30602, https://doi.org/10.1039/D0RA03183F.
[22] T. Stephenson, Z. Li, B. Olsen, D. Mitlin, Lithium ion battery applications of
molybdenum disulfide (MoS 2) nanocomposites, Energy Environ. Sci. 7 (2014)
209–231, https://doi.org/10.1039/C3EE42591F.
[23] N. Joseph, P.M. Shafi, A.C. Bose, Recent advances in 2D-MoS 2 and its composite
nanostructures for supercapacitor electrode application, Energy Fuels 34 (2020)
6558–6597, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.0c00430.
[24] X.-D. Zhang, J. Zhang, J. Wang, J. Yang, J. Chen, X. Shen, J. Deng, D. Deng,
W. Long, Y.-M. Sun, C. Liu, M. Li, Highly catalytic nanodots with renal clearance
for radiation protection, ACS Nano 10 (2016) 4511–4519, https://doi.org/
10.1021/acsnano.6b00321.
[25] T. Liu, C. Wang, X. Gu, H. Gong, L. Cheng, X. Shi, L. Feng, B. Sun, Z. Liu, Drug
delivery with PEGylated MoS 2 nano-sheets for combined photothermal and
chemotherapy of cancer, Adv. Mater. 26 (2014) 3433–3440, https://doi.org/
10.1002/adma.201305256.
[26] Q. Xu, P. Zhu, J. Zhang, Y. Liu, L. Cai, H. Jiang, M. Ji, J. Chen, Electrochemical
formation of distinct nanostructured MoS2 with altered antibacterial activity,
Mater. Lett. 271 (2020), 127809, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2020.127809.
[27] B.A. Ali, A.M.A. Omar, A.S.G. Khalil, N.K. Allam, Untapped potential of polymorph
MoS 2 : tuned cationic intercalation for high-performance symmetric
supercapacitors, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 11 (2019) 33955–33965, https://doi.
org/10.1021/acsami.9b11444.
[28] C. Wang, J. Li, X. Liu, Z. Cui, D.-F. Chen, Z. Li, Y. Liang, S. Zhu, S. Wu, The rapid
photoresponsive bacteria-killing of Cu-doped MoS 2, Biomater. Sci. 8 (2020)
4216–4224, https://doi.org/10.1039/D0BM00872A.
[29] M. Zhu, X. Liu, L. Tan, Z. Cui, Y. Liang, Z. Li, K.W. Kwok Yeung, S. Wu, Photo-
responsive chitosan/Ag/MoS2 for rapid bacteria-killing, J. Hazard Mater. 383
(2020), 121122, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121122.
Materials Chemistry and Physics 290 (2022) 126658
[30] M. Li, L. Li, K. Su, X. Liu, T. Zhang, Y. Liang, D. Jing, X. Yang, D. Zheng, Z. Cui,
Z. Li, S. Zhu, K.W.K. Yeung, Y. Zheng, X. Wang, S. Wu, Highly effective and
noninvasive near-infrared eradication of a Staphylococcus aureus biofilm on
implants by a photoresponsive coating within 20 min, Adv. Sci. 6 (2019), 1900599,
https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.201900599.
[31] D. Chimene, D.L. Alge, A.K. Gaharwar, Two-dimensional nanomaterials for
biomedical applications: emerging trends and future prospects, Adv. Mater. 27
(2015) 7261–7284, https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201502422.
[32] Y. Yu, L. Lu, Q. Yang, A. Zupanic, Q. Xu, L. Jiang, Using MoS 2 nanomaterials to
generate or remove reactive oxygen species: a review, ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 4
(2021) 7523–7537, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsanm.1c00751.
[33] T.A. Khattab, S. Mowafi, H. El-Sayed, Development of mechanically durable
hydrophobic lanolin/silicone rubber coating on viscose fibers, Cellulose 26 (2019)
9361–9371, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-019-02721-5.
[34] H.M.M. Ibrahim, M.S. Hassan, Characterization and antimicrobial properties of
cotton fabric loaded with green synthesized silver nanoparticles, Carbohydr.
Polym. 151 (2016) 841–850, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2016.05.041.
[35] A. Achilli, D. Pani, A. Bonfiglio, Characterization of Screen-Printed Textile
Electrodes Based on Conductive Polymer for ECG Acquisition, 2017, https://doi.
org/10.22489/CinC.2017.129-422.
[36] A. Gennadios, C.L. Weller, C.H. Gooding, Measurement errors in water vapor
permeability of highly permeable, hydrophilic edible films, J. Food Eng. 21 (1994)
395–409, https://doi.org/10.1016/0260-8774(94)90062-0.
[37] T.F. dos Santos, C.M. da Silva Santos, R.T. da Fonseca, V.S. dos Santos, M.
G. Grosschopf, M.S. de Aquino, Influence of structure and composition in the
mechanical properties of textile polymeric fabrics, Polym. Polym. Compos. 27
(2019) 222–227, https://doi.org/10.1177/0967391118823075.
[38] J. Ryou, Y.-S. Kim, S. Kc, K. Cho, Monolayer MoS2 bandgap modulation by
dielectric environments and tunable bandgap transistors, Sci. Rep. 6 (2016),
29184, https://doi.org/10.1038/srep29184.
[39] V. Pandiyarasan, J. Archana, A. Pavithra, V. Ashwin, M. Navaneethan,
Y. Hayakawa, H. Ikeda, Hydrothermal growth of reduced graphene oxide on cotton
fabric for enhanced ultraviolet protection applications, Mater. Lett. 188 (2017),
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2016.11.047.
[40] D. Gaspar, S.N. Fernandes, A.G. de Oliveira, J.G. Fernandes, P. Grey, R. V Pontes,
L. Pereira, R. Martins, M.H. Godinho, E. Fortunato, Nanocrystalline cellulose
applied simultaneously as the gate dielectric and the substrate in flexible field
effect transistors, Nanotechnology 25 (2014), 094008, https://doi.org/10.1088/
0957-4484/25/9/094008.
[41] Y. Dong, L. Hou, P. Wu, Exploring the diffusion behavior of urea aqueous solution
in the viscose film by ATR-FTIR spectroscopy, Cellulose 27 (2020) 2403–2415,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-020-02997-y.
[42] J. Zhao, Z. Zhang, S. Yang, H. Zheng, Y. Li, Facile synthesis of MoS2 nanosheet-
silver nanoparticles composite for surface enhanced Raman scattering and
electrochemical activity, J. Alloys Compd. 559 (2013) 87–91, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jallcom.2013.01.067.
[43] S. Liu, X. Zhang, H. Shao, J. Xu, F. Chen, Y. Feng, Preparation of MoS2 nanofibers
by electrospinning, Mater. Lett. 73 (2012) 223–225, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matlet.2012.01.024.
[44] S.-C. Shi, J.-Y. Wu, T.-F. Huang, Raman, FTIR, and XRD study of MoS2 enhanced
hydroxypropyl methylcellulose green lubricant, Opt. Quant. Electron. 48 (2016)
474, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11082-016-0748-y.
[45] H. Lin, X. Chen, H. Li, M. Yang, Y. Qi, Hydrothermal synthesis and characterization
of MoS2 nanorods, Mater. Lett. 64 (2010) 1748–1750, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matlet.2010.04.032.
[46] Y. Peng, Z. Meng, C. Zhong, J. Lu, W. Yu, Y. Jia, Y. Qian, Hydrothermal Synthesis
and Characterization of Single-Molecular-Layer MoS 2 and MoSe 2, Chem. Lett. 30
(2001) 772–773, https://doi.org/10.1246/cl.2001.772.
[47] N.A. Ibrahim, B.M. Eid, E.A. El-Aziz, T.M. Abou Elmaaty, S.M. Ramadan,
Multifunctional cellulose-containing fabrics using modified finishing formulations,
RSC Adv. 7 (2017) 33219–33230, https://doi.org/10.1039/C7RA05403C.
[48] K. Tang, L. Wang, H. Geng, J. Qiu, H. Cao, X. Liu, Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2)
nanosheets vertically coated on titanium for disinfection in the dark, Arab. J.
Chem. 13 (2020) 1612–1623, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2017.12.013.
[49] X. Yang, J. Li, T. Liang, C. Ma, Y. Zhang, H. Chen, N. Hanagata, H. Su, M. Xu,
Antibacterial activity of two-dimensional MoS 2 sheets, Nanoscale 6 (2014)
10126–10133, https://doi.org/10.1039/C4NR01965B.
[50] J.H. Appel, D.O. Li, J.D. Podlevsky, A. Debnath, A.A. Green, Q.H. Wang, J. Chae,
Low cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of two-dimensional MoS 2 and WS 2, ACS
Biomater. Sci. Eng. 2 (2016) 361–367, https://doi.org/10.1021/
acsbiomaterials.5b00467.