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Transformer Insulation Materials and Ageing 7

the evaporator to be heated again. In this way, after several cycles, the temperature
of the coil insulation increases continuously and moisture inside the insulation
evaporates to water vapor. The water vapor is taken out by vacuum, thereby
achieving uniform and effective drying of the insulation.
Compared with conventional hot-air drying, where the vapor temperature can-
not be raised beyond 110 C due to the presence of oxygen, kerosene vapor can be
raised to temperatures around 130 C without the risk of ageing the insulation.
Condensed kerosene that may accumulate on winding and insulation surfaces is
also a very good cleaning solvent. It can wash out dust and dirt from the insulation
surfaces. The KVPD process also takes approximately half the time for drying
compared with the conventional process.

1.2.4.7 Low-Frequency Heating [3, 4]

Low-frequency heating (LFH) is one of the most modern techniques of drying
transformer insulation by supplying a controlled, low-frequency current to the
transformer windings instead of using hot air or solvent vapor as the main heat
transfer medium. The LFH system is much faster and more cost-effective than
conventional hot oil and vacuum drying processes. The National Industry of Nor-
way built the first LFH drying plants for distribution transformers between 1984
and 1987. ABB Switzerland Ltd. Micafil further developed the LFH drying method
for small power transformers in production, and large power transformers for
onsite drying (Figure 1.3).
The process heats the transformer windings uniformly from inside by passing a
low-frequency (0.4–2 Hz) current at low voltage through the HV windings, while
the LV windings are kept short-circuited. In this process, HV and LV windings
can be made to heat up to drying temperatures of 110–120 C. Special controls
must be used to closely monitor the drying process, in particular the winding tem-
perature, so that hot spots do not form and damage to the insulation is avoided.
As in any conventional drying system, an LFH heating system is part of a drying
installation consisting of a vacuum autoclave or a transformer tank under vac-
uum, a vacuum pumping system, etc.
Given a moisture level in the insulation of between 3% and 1.5%, LFH offers a
drying speed that is eight times faster than conventional methods, resulting in
huge savings in energy, personnel, and equipment.
To reduce the moisture extraction process and also to enhance the quality of
insulation, often the LFH drying method is used in combination with conventional
methods, especially with “hot oil spray.” The combination of the hot oil and LFH
heating ensures uniform heating of all parts of the transformer. Reference [3] pro-
vides a good explanation of this methodology. Once the temperature inside the
transformer tank is stable, the oil is drained out to a separate tank followed by
application of vacuum. For the next heating cycle, only electrical heating (LFH)
is used to heat the windings. During this period, the vacuum level is removed.
As the preset temperature is reached, the LFH heating is stopped and only a partial
vacuum of <1 mbar is applied. This process makes most of the water to
evaporate. The duration of these heating cycles is dependent on the size of the
transformer, the humidity level, and the total weight of insulation inside the trans-
former. These periodic cycles are repeated until the rate of moisture extraction
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8 Transformer Ageing

Control unit

Vacuum
pump system

LF supply
Vacuum
chamber

Figure 1.3 Schematic diagram of LFH [3].

becomes less than a set point [3]. Once the desired level of drying is reached, the
transformer is filled with oil again.

1.2.5 Special Treatments of Insulation Paper/Pressboard – Thermal

Upgrading
“Thermal upgrading” or “thermal uprating” is the process by which the rate of
thermal decomposition of paper insulation is reduced over the lifespan of a trans-
former. Tom Prevost [5] defined thermally upgraded paper as:

Cellulose based paper which has been chemically modified to reduce the
rate at which the paper decomposes. Ageing effects are reduced either
by partial elimination of water forming agents (as in cyanoethylation) or
by inhibiting the formation of water through the use of stabilizing agents
(as in amine addition, dicyandiamide). A paper is considered as thermally
upgraded if it meets the life criteria as defined in ANSI/IEEE C57.100; 50%
retention in tensile strength after 65,000 hours in a sealed tube at 110 C or
any other time/temperature combination given by the equation
T + 273 −28 082
Time hrs = e 15 000
Because the thermal upgrading chemicals used today contain nitrogen,
which is not present in Kraft pulp, the degree of chemical modification
is determined by testing for the amount of nitrogen present in the treated
paper. Typical values for nitrogen content of thermally upgraded papers are
between 1 and 4 percent, when tested per ASTM D-982.

A significant advantage of thermally upgraded papers is their better resistance

to loss of physical strength in operation. Often, the expression “55 C rise paper” is
used for standard (plain, non-upgraded) paper, whereas “65 C rise paper” stands
for thermally upgraded paper. The numbers refer to the average oil rise