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PWANI UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

DETERMINANTS OF CRIME RECIDIVISM AMONGST EX -

OFFENDERS IN KILIFI COUNTY.

BY

AYIEKO WYCLIFFE OTIENO

AB05/PU/41265/17

Signature
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………

A RESEARCH REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL

SCIENCES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE
DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS IN PSYCHOLOGY.

@2022
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Dedication

This work is dedicated to my lecturers throughout the academic journey as an appreciation to

their commitment in passing knowledge. I also dedicate it to all those who stood with and
supported me through out the journey.

Special dedication goes to my family for always being by my side. And most of all I dedicate it
to the most high Lord.

Declaration

This research is my original and raw work and has never been presented at any institution of
higher learning.

Signature ………………………….. Date…………..

This research has been submitted for review under my approval as supervisor

Name…………………………………….. Signature…………. Date ………..

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ABSTRACT

This study seeks to find out precisely why ex-offenders are likely to repeat crime

after incarceration in spite of the on-going rehabilitation and correction at prison. The existing

data from Kenya Prison division states that recidivism in Kenya prisons

continues to grow. The objective of the researcher in this perspective was to assess

determinants of recidivism rate in Kenya focusing on Kilifi G.K Prison.

The key questions of interest were of what relevance is the rehabilitation

programs offered in prison impact on recidivism, whether demographic characteristics

of inmates determines recidivism rate and whether inmates sentence duration

affect recidivism rate. Recidivism was given specific attention by the

researcher since it directly affects the Kenyan society both socially and

economically. The study adopts Relapse Prevention theory, which provides

a mechanism to assess the performance of rehabilitation programs on

criminals behavior change over time and avoid relapse. Relapse Prevention

theory is a cognitive behavior model with origin in Banduras, (1977) self efficacy theory that
presents a comprehensive and integrated framework for

explaining the change process in psychotherapy. What “Works in reducing

recidivism” theory, also referred to as evidenced-based practice, what works

movement demonstrate that empirically and theoretically sound, well-defined

programs that meet certain conditions can significantly reduce recidivism rate

for offenders. The research will adopt descriptive research design to collect
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data; the design is useful, as it will help the researcher to collect data without

altering the environment. Purposive sampling will be employed for prison

warders and tutors. Stratified sampling will be used for prison inmates. Data

was collected by the use of questionnaire and interview guide. The

questionnaire entailed both open and closed ended questions. Data collected

from questionnaires was coded, tabulated and analysed using excel and descriptive statistics,
which

comprise of mean and standard deviation to capture the features of the variables

under study.

LIST OF ACRONYMS

1. G.K – Government of Kenya

2. MCMI – Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory
3. NIJ – National Institute of Justice
4. PACS – Probation and Aftercare Services
5. PEN – Psychosis, Extraversion and Neuroticism
6. RNR – Risk Need Responsivity
7. USA – United States of America
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION .................................................................................................................... iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................. iv

ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................. v

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND

ACRONYMS............................................................................................................................. x

LIST OF FIGURES............................................................................................................... xi

LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................................ xii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of study............................................................................................................ 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem.................................................................................................... 4

1.3 General objective of

study............................................................................................................................................ 5

1.4 Specific Objectives of the

Study............................................................................................................................................ 5

1.4.1 Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 5

1.4.2 Assumptions of study.......................................................................................................... 5

1.5 Justification & significance of the

Study………………………......................................................................................................... 6

1.6 Scope of the Study ................................................................................................................. 7

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................... 9

2.2 Recidivism .......................................................................................................................... 9

2.3 Social factors Personal

Factors....................................................................................................................................... 10

2.4 Correction and rehabilitation

programs.................................................................................................................................... 12

2.5 length of incarceration.......................................................................................................... 18

2.6 Theoretical Review .............................................................................................................. 22

2.6.1 Risk Need factors theory................................................................................................... 22

2.6.2 Relapse Prevention Theory............................................................................................... 23

2.6.3 Theory of what works………………………................................................................... 24

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................... 28

3.3 Research design ................................................................................................................ 29

3.4 Study Site …………………………….. .......................................................................... 29

3.5 Sources of Data ................................................................................................................. 29

3.6 Target Population.............................................................................................................. 30

3.7 Sampling size and sampling procedure............................................................................. 30

3.8 Data Collection ………........................................................................................................ 31

3.9 Analysis of Data and

Presentation…………................................................................................................................ 32

3.10 Ethical issues and compliance ........................................................................................ 32

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CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS , INTERPRETATION AND PRESENTATION

4.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................... 34

4.2 Response Rate................................................................................................................... 34

4.3 socio demographicfactors................................................................................................... 34

4.3.1 Age of the respondents........................................................................................... 34

4.3.2 Level of Education attained by respondents.......................................................... 35

4.4 Personal Factors................................................................................................................ 36

4.8 Discussion of Findings...................................................................................................... 51

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY OF KEY FINDINGS, DISCUSSIONS,

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................... 53

5.2 Summary of
findings……............................................................................................................................... 53

5.2.1 socio demographic factors ................................................................................................ 53

5.2.2 social factors and

personalities .....................................................................................................................................
.................. 53

5.2.3 length of incarceration…................................................................................................... 54

5.3 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 54

5.4 Recommendation .............................................................................................................. 55

5.5 Recommendation for Further Studies............................................................................... 55

REFERENCES...................................................................................................................... 56

APPENDICES.......................................................................................................................... i
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Appendix I: Research Questionnaire Administered To Prisoners in Machakos Main

Prison... i

LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1: Response Rate....................................................................................................... 34

Table 4.2:number of times

convicted .........................................................................................................................................
........ 36

Table 4.3: Kind of Employment ............................................................................................ 37

Table 4.4: Religion Affiliation............................................................................................... 39

Table 4.5: Permanent Residence of the Respondents............................................................ 40

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 4.1: Distribution of Respondents by age .................................................................... 35

Figure 4.2: Respondents Highest Level of Education ........................................................... 36

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

The primary objective of this study was to explore the contributing factors for recidivism in
Kilifi county correctional centers and Probation and Aftercare Services department. This
research study sought to find out the probable reasons why ex-offenders are likely to repeat
crime after serving sentences even after going through correction and rehabilitation in prison.

Data from the correctional and rehabilitation department in Kenya shows a rising rate of
recidivism in the country. The research sought to assess the causes of the rising rates of
recidivism amongst ex-offenders focusing on Kilifi G.K Prisons and the Kilifi Probation and
Aftercare Services department.

1.0. Background of the study.

The term recidivism is derived from the Latin word “recidere”, which means to fall back‘.
Within the context of sociology of punishment and corrections (penology) and criminal justice
system (police, court, prisons, etc) across the globe, the concept of recidivism has, over time,
been known by different terminologies. Recidivism encompasses re-arrest, resistance to
rehabilitation, repeat offending, re-conviction, re-offending, re-admission, re-incarceration,
repetitious criminal tendency, among others. In broad terms, recidivism means a relapse into
crime and criminal lifestyle or activities by an offender who had once or more times been
processed through the penal system or the correctional services. (Mears, Cochran, & Cullen,
2015). Otherwise known as “repeaters”, incorrigible offenders and offenders beyond
rehabilitation, recidivists are persons who repeatedly violate the law, get arrested and processed
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by the criminal justice administrators. Crime is an unlawful act punishable by a state or other
authority. (Lindsay, 2008). Recent focus has been on transnational crime, defined as offences
whose inception, prevention, and/or direct or indirect effects involve more than one country.
(Finckenauer 2000)

Recidivism is “one of the most fundamental concepts in criminal justice” and relevant in
understanding the core functions of the criminal justice system such as incapacitation,
deterrence, and rehabilitation (NIJ,2010). Within criminal justice agencies, the level of
recidivism is an important outcome variable that provides the basis for determining the extent to
which an agency has been able to effectively intervene in the criminality of the offender
populations it serves, identifying the needs for more effective programs, communicating the need
for increased resources, and demonstrating accountability to the public and to legislators. There
are many different plausible contributing factors that might explain why released offenders could
not successfully reenter the community. (Andrews, D.J.,Bonta, 2010)

Globally, recidivism is one of the most essential concepts in criminal justice system. The ever-
increasing recidivism rate has been a worrying reality worldwide. In US cities, according to
National Institute of Justice 2014 re-arrest and drug abuse monitoring report, approximately two
third of grown-ups and more than half of adolescence arrested were confirmed positive for at
least one illicit drug, they committed the offences while under the influence of drugs. Most of
them turned to crime for money to maintain expensive drug habit (NIJ, 2014).

Studies show United States of America (USA) as the country with the worst crime in the world,
with a recidivism rate of 90 percent, while, Germany and Asia at 74 percent. (Hale 2005; Coyle
2005)

In Africa, South Africa has a 74 percent recidivism rate. Kenya recidivism rate is at 47 percent,
Rwanda and Tanzania 36 percent and Zambia 33 percent. Uganda stands out among African
countries ranking fourth lowest globally with a recidivism rate of 32 percent (Stahler et al, 2013).
Rehabilitation and reintegration continues to be elusive and contentious mostly in Africa.
Rehabilitation is challenging for many African prisons to realize due to underfunding and
congestion even when it stands as a main objective for policy makers. The criminality trend
experienced in Kenya is alarming. The increasing rate of prisoner population as shown by the
prison Statistics (2016) is a sign of major challenge. The prison records show that prison
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population increased from 39582 in 2003 to 52,105 in 2014.there is an increase of about 12,000
prisoners in a span of 11 years, giving an average of 1,500 prisoners per year.

This situation has led to several research studies concentrating on prison rehabilitation and
recidivism reduction effort in Kenyan prisons. For examples, Wekesa (2012) assessed the role of
penitentiaries in the management of prison rehabilitation for prisoners in Kenya. The study
established that vocational training, formal education, counselling and spiritual rehabilitation
were the major rehabilitation programs which are administered to impact change on prisoners
way of life through promotion of behavior change.

This research suggested a further study that would develop and expound on the emerging issues
in prison management to put in place to address the solution of the problem. For example, the
motives why some inmates still feel contented and have no regrets regardless of being
imprisoned once or severally ought to be considered. However, the studies among others do not
focus on the correlation between rehabilitation programs and recidivism among prisoners.

1.1 Statement of the problem

Even after going through correctional services and release, some prisoners have continued living
a life of criminality and deviance hence, some are re-imprisoned. Time that convicts could have
spent constructively in improving and developing themselves, families, societies and the nation
in general is lost in prison serving a loop of continuous stretches.

In spite of the remarkable efforts in rehabilitating inmates, the current correctional system does
not include all interventions, rehabilitation and re- integration programs. They cannot go beyond
incarceration for follow ups after an offender finishes jail term, hence the ex- offender will still
go back to being exposed to criminogenic needs.

It is in light of this background that the study sought to assess determinants of recidivism rate in
Kilifi G.K Prisons and the Probation and Aftercare Services in Kenya.

1.2 General Objective of the study

The general objective of the study as to examine and ascertain why ex- offenders who have been
processed and undergone rehabilitation and correctional programs at correctional facilities
relapse back to deviance and criminal behaviors.
1.3 Specific objectives of the study
Was;
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1 To ascertain how correction and rehabilitation programs determine recidivism rate among
prisoners in Kilifi G.K Prison and at The Probation and Aftercare Service in Kilifi.
2. To examine how social factors, personal attributes and personalities of individuals
contribute to recidivism in Kilifi G.K Prison and the probation department.
3. To evaluate how the length of incarceration determines recidivism rate in Kilifi G.K
Prison and at the probation department.

1.4 Research questions

1. Do social factors determine recidivism rate in Kilifi G.K Prison and the Probation and
Aftercare Services?
2. To what extent does one’s individual attributes and personality determine rate of crime
recidivism, and is it the primary cause?

1.5. Assumptions of the Study

1. Rehabilitation programs at the prison and Probation and Aftercare Services influence
recidivism rate .
2. Length of incarceration influence recidivism rate at Kilifi G.K Prison and at the PACS
department
3. There is correlation between social factors of the Prisoners and recidivism rates in Kilifi G.K
Prison and at the PACS department.

1.6 Justification and Significance of the Study

The study was expected to present new information in education sector, as it may expound more
on a specific area of interest, determinants of recidivism in Kilifi G.K Prison and at the PACS
department. Kilifi G.K Prison and the PACS department was chosen as the site of the study
because it is the major Prison in Kilifi county, and because of the diversity of prisoners in terms
of age, crime type and cultures.
Recidivism has been given very little consideration by previous researchers particularly, in the
field of criminology. The result from the study would provide useful facts for understanding the
prison service. The service is not well known to public and researchers because of long history of
closed boundaries in Prisons. Literature review exposes that not many studies have been done on
determinant of recidivism rate among male inmates in Kenyan prisons.
The discoveries of the study may be of valuable significance to correctional and rehabilitation
services who would gain an understanding of determinants of recidivism in Kenya. The
understanding would enlighten their choices in ensuring that rehabilitation programs are
upgraded in a manner that help the prisoners once they are out of prison therefore lessening their
chances of re-offending and going back to jail again.
The discoveries of the study may also be essential to the inmates, as the upgraded rehabilitation
programs informed by the finding of the study would help them streamline their lives once out of
custody.
The government may also benefit from the study’s discoveries because well versed policies on
rehabilitation programs in prison would lessen recidivism
This may not only be cost saving for the government but may also ensure that instead of ex-
prisoners going back to jail, they contribute in useful and lawful economic events that can help
develop the country’s economy.
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1.7 Scope and limitation of the Study

The study looked at how rehabilitation programs, demographic factors and length of
incarceration determine recidivism rate of inmates in Kilifi G.K Prison and at the PACS
department.
The focus of the study was on prisoner, warders and tutors at Kilifi G.K Prison and at the PACS
department.
There is limited literature on recidivism, a fact that posits need for detailed exploration of
primary and secondary facts. Secondly, there may be limitations about inmate’s sincerity and
frankness with answers owing to projected anxiety of definitive aim of the research .This would
be perhaps because of a broken relationship between the prior researchers who conducted related
studies with inmates. Finally, one major restraint in conducting study on determinants of
recidivism maybe relative lack of control due to language barrier. Majority of the respondents
were semi-illiterate.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW & THEORETICAL REVIEW

Criminality and recidivism can have their origin in individual, social, and environmental factors

(Redondo, 2015). In this regard, some studies have shown contextual factors, such as economic

disadvantage, racial segregation, and proximity to other recidivists, can all influence individual

recidivism (Clark, 2016; Mears et al., 2008; Stahler et al., 2013). In this study, we are going to

try to establish a recidivist profile considering sociodemographic and criminal characteristics but

with special emphasis on personality and psychopathology (Krueger et al., 1994), particularly in

the externalizing spectrum (Krueger et al., 2007). Savage (2009) suggests criminal recidivism

represents a stable behavioral pattern in the sense of assuming that personal dispositions could be

one of the determinants of that kind of behavior. Also, personality traits that are related to

criminal recidivism have been found to be those that were already proven as being related to

criminal behavior in general. Several studies point out those recidivist offenders to be

characterized by antisocial tendencies and the development of criminal behavior at an early age.
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Likewise, studies suggest that neuropsychological problems related to learning difficulties,

reasoning problems, and children’s and adolescents’ academic failure, along with the interaction

with criminogenic environments throughout their development, may end up in a pathological

personality and as a result, leading to persistent or recurrent criminal behavior (Me edovi et al.,

2012; Moffitt, 1993; Savage et al., 2013). In the study of delinquency, temperament is an

important figure for the

of the externalizing spectrum of psychopathology, which is associated with attentional focus,

inhibitory control, and effort. In this sense, early facets of temperament, such as activity, level,

negative affectivity, and low inhibitory control can prospectively predict the development of

externalizing behavior, especially in high risk environments (Beauchaine & McNulty, 2013;

Stringaris et al., 2010). Therefore, the presence of neurobiological vulnerabilities in conjunction

with the interaction of high-risk environments increases the probability of participating in

criminal behaviors (Meier et al., 2008). It has been found that some adult offenders can follow a

developmental path that begins in preschool, many with severe ADHD problems, close

relationships with fellow offenders, substance abuse and dependence, incarceration, and ends up

with recidivism (Beauchaine et al., 2010). Along these lines, studies in prison population point

out that antisocial and borderline personalities are more associated with recidivism (Chang et al.,

2015; Krueger et al., 1994; Krueger et al., 2007). Another compared study with recidivists and

non-recidivists evaluated through the MCMI-III inventory found that sadistic aggressive,

antisocial, paranoid, and borderline personality types predominated among criminal recidivists

(Kiwi & Sadeghi, 2015). In the same vein, others studies found impulsive characteristics,

aggressive behavior (Dargis & Koenigs; Hiscoke et al., 2003), and substance abuse (Walter et

al., 2011) are important risk factors for criminal recidivism in adults (Gendreau et al., 1996).
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Social factors and personality traits on recidivism

As per Gisler et al(2018), the community agencies within the reintegration measures and

rehabilitation programs are essential within the correctional settings and punishment is a viable

means of rehabilitation to reduce recidivism.

Sociologists have found many links between recidivism and social ties and they have

consistently found that connection to family plays a huge role on recidivism.( Glaser, 1964)

Family ties are important in obtaining employment post release( Laub& Sampson,2003)

Good family ties can create connections to job market for the ex- offender (Glaser,1964). Social

ties ie family has proven over time and again that family members are incredibly important in

times of crises for mental and financial support. 9 Cattell,2001; Umberson, 1987)

Offenders heavily rely on family support when they are released from prison and family ties

become their core network9 Malik- Kane & Visher,2008) because family members often do not

discriminate or stigmatize ex- offenders. ( Eckland- Olson, Supancic,Campbell &Lenihan,1983)

Apart from social and environmental factor , mental health has also been shown to influence

recidivism. Peirson(2016) in general, incarceration is a significant challenge to a person’s mental

and psychological health. Incarceration is always a trauma, the state of a person’s mental health

after just being released from prison is among the most critical factors that influence society’s

overall security and the individual’s own security.( Fazel,2019)

It is critically important that the focus of rehabilitation measures should be on the prisoner’s

incarceration experience, taking into account their age, gender and several other factors critical

in determining the help that the individual actually needs.

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Robinson (2005) states that a person who is willing to return to normal life will do their best in

order not to violate the conditions of parole or probation.

Antisocial cognition, criminal associates, developmental history and personality factors have

been suggested to be the ‘‘big four’’ risk factors in current criminology theory. Moreover,

antisocial cognition and personality variables are suggested to make independent

A core feature of antisocial cognition is criminal thinking which includes the attitudes and beliefs

that are used to rationalize and justify criminal behavior. Gendreau et al. (1996) found that

attitudes, values, and behaviors that support a criminal lifestyle were individual predictors of

recidivism. Additionally, Walters (2012) conducted a meta-analysis on criminal thinking and

recidivism

andfoundthatcriminalthinkingwasfoundtocorrelatewithrecidivism.Asantisocialcognition has been

linked with criminal identity (Andrews and Bonta, 2010; Boduszek et al., 2012), it is suggested

that criminal identity may also serve to increase an individual’s likelihood of

recidivism.Antisocialassociateshavealsobeenfoundtobeastrongpredictorofreoffending, and

continued association with criminal friends after release from prison will increase an individual’s

likelihood of re-entry into prison (Andrews and Bonta, 2010).

Correction and rehabilitation programs

Given the large potential of prison based treatment programs, it is highly important to

empirically evaluate such programs in various populations and what works for such populations.

A prison based program that aims to lower re- offending rates among prisoners by administering

an individualized treatment program that addresses the criminogenic needs of an individual

offender. ( Andrews & Bonta, 2010)

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When prisoners return to society, they often do so under far from optimal life circumstances.

Many ex-offenders are unemployed, homeless, face financial difficulties, struggle with drug and

substance addictions and or experience physical and or psychological problems.( Binswanger et

al., 2009)

In recent years correctional interventions have at times become more punitive and have sought to

achieve recidivism by deterring offenders rather than changing them. Intervention strategies such

as intensive supervision of probationers and parolees, lock till straight programs for juveniles.

Research has shown that these deterrence oriented programs do not work to reduce recidivism.

( Cullen & Gendreau; Cullen et al., 1996) rehabilitation programs generally reduce recidivism

when conducted according to the principles of effective treatment( Gendreau), cut re-offending

substantially. (Andrews & Bonta, Cullen& Gendreau; Lipsey et al., 2006). Rehabilitation and

treatment should focus on changing those factors that are most strongly associated with or

predict recidivism e.g, antisocial values and peer associations, low self- control e.t.c

According to Mack (2020), the goal of rehabilitation and correction should be rehabilitation.

Most prison systems and PACS focus on the employment outcomes after being released because

the ability to get income is vital for post- release success. In Kenya correctional programs focus

on vocational training and education as an approach to rehabilitation because they are essential

for reintergration into the community for many ex-offenders.( Wekesa, 2012)

Cummington (2020) states that education and employment programs are the gateways to

successful economic and social flexibility and survival. Vocational training and education reduce

recidivism rates by teaching the offender vital skillsets for successful reentry. As a result the

motivation to change on the offender’s part is successfully promoted when they have skills to

earn a livelihood.
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Correction and rehabilitation should include therapeutic programs which are more suitable for

offenders serving long sentences. Rehabilitation and restorative programs should prepare

inmates to fit into society after release while ensuring that they have the necessary skills and

knowledge to help them adjust back to life in regular society. ( Yukhnenko et al., 2019)

Length of incarceration

Lengthy incarcerations are seen as a pre-requisite of successful rehabilitation. Offenders who

receive longer sentences and do not receive proper treatment or correction are more likely to

become criminated in prison(Cummington,2020). Past incarcerations also interferes with a

persons capacity to gain and maintain employment, which is vital for reentry into society.

Long imprisonment, being fully isolated from family and means of socialization and

socialization only with particular social groups( fellow prisoners0 increase antisocial behaviors

and further increases antagonism towards society. (Hodgkinson et al.,2020) once a person is

imprisoned they find themselves in another different kind of environment and this environment

can lead to further traumatization. An environment within which the imprisoned learns to live,

survive among criminals and live in strict adherence to prison’s specific laws. When they leave

the prison , it turns out that they have no skills of living in normal society.( Hodgkinson et al.,

2020)

Individual interventions are relatively effective in reducing recidivism as they have a

psychological focus. ( Hodgkinson et al., 2020)

Mack(2020) showed that incarceration is effective in deterring criminal behavior, but it cannot

lower recidivism.
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Research on criminology has long investigated the extent to which personality traits are

associated with repeated criminal engagement. Eysenck’s theory of personality is one of the few

theories of personality that explicitly links personality to criminality; thus it would follow that

the model may also contribute to the prediction of recidivism. According to the model, the three

basic dimensions of personality (psychoticism, extraversion and neuroticism- PEN) are related to

physiological mechanisms in the brain and the central nervous system. The theory suggests that

through these neuropsychological processes, delinquents should score high on the psychoticism,

extraversion and neuroticism dimensions (Eysenck and Gudjonsson, 1989). However, support

for the theory remains equivocal, and while some research has supported the model (Eysenck

and Gudjonsson, 1989; Carrascoa et al., 2006; Savina, 2009), others have failed to find support

for the model (Fonseca and Yule, 1995). Eysenck and Eysenck (1976) investigated juvenile

recidivism and found that non-recidivists scored significantly lower on extraversion with no

differences found on the other two dimensions. In a later study, van Dam et al. (2005) found that

self-reported recidivism was associated with the PEN, but psychoticism was the only predictor of

the severity of self-reported recidivism.

Additionally, demographic factors have also been identified as predictors of recidivism; younger

offenders (Bonta et al., 1998; Gendreau et al., 1996), those who are unmarried (Theobald and

Farrington, 2009) and those with low levels of education (Nally et al., 2012) are more likely to

reoffend. The aim of the current study is to investigate the extent to which personality factors,

antisocial associates and psycho-social criminal cognition (criminal thinking and criminal social

identity), place an individual at a higher risk for non-violent recidivism while controlling for

these demographic factors. Specifically, the study aims to investigate the role of personality as a

moderating in the relationship between psycho-social criminal cognition and recidivism.

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In an effort to facilitate the social reintegration of their inmates, all provincial prisons offer a

diversified set of programs. These programs’ primary purposes are to turn the participants’ time

in prison into a unique opportunity for them to start reflecting, sharpen their sense of

responsibility, and acquire skills that they will use to transition into the workforce. In this

respect, prisons have established partnerships with other government bodies, such as the Ministry

of Education and Higher Education and the Ministry of Labor, to offer tailored programs to

match the labor market demand. Social organizations and external agencies can also be

responsible for developing other types of programs.

Theoretical review

Risk/Need Factors

What are the major risk/need factors in the analysis of criminal behavior, and how strongly are

they associated with criminal behavior, on their own and when acting in combination?

Major Risk/Need Factors: The Central Eight

1. History of Antisocial Behavior. This includes early involvement in a number and variety

of antisocial activities in a variety of settings, such as in the home and out of the home. Major

indicators include being arrested at a young age, a large number of prior offenses, and rule

violations while on conditional release. Place little weight on the seriousness of the current

offense or the amount of injury imposed by the current offense. The latter is an aggravating

factor at the time of sentencing, but that is not the same as being a risk factor. In risk assessment,

place the emphasis on early onset and number and variety of offenses. A history cannot be

changed, but appropriate intermediate targets of change include building up new noncriminal

behaviors in high-risk situations and building self-efficacy beliefs supporting reform.

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2. Antisocial Personality Pattern. In everyday language: impulsive, adventurous pleasure-

seeking, generalized trouble (multiple persons, multiple settings), restlessly aggressive, callous

disregard for others (Caspi, Moffi et al., 1994; Patrick, Curtin & Tellegen, 2002). Weak

Constraint (low on traditionalism, or endorsing high moral standards; low on harm avoidance, or

low on avoiding excitement and danger; low on self-control; low on being reflective and

planful). Negative Emotionality (aggression, or causes discomfort in others; alienation and feels

mistreated; stress reaction dominated by anger and irritability). Note that Positive Emotionality is

not a major correlate of delinquency (the indicators of positive emotionality include being happy,

having positive self-esteem, and being sociable). Defined according to the Five Factor Model

(Miller & Lynman, 2001; Digman, 1990): Low Agreeableness (hostile, spiteful, jealous, self-

centered, indifferent to others, antagonistic) and Low Conscientiousness (lack persistence,

impulsive, weak planning, weak constraint, criminal values). The following are not major

correlates: extraversion (as defined by sociability), openness to experience, and neuroticism

(except for items that suggest irritability).(Cloninger et al., 1993): Novelty Seeking (intense

exhilaration/excitement in response to novelty). Low Self-Directedness (self-determination and

willpower). Low Cooperativeness (tending to be antagonistic and hostile, not agreeable). Harm

avoidance, persistence, and self-transcendence (spirituality) are not associated with antisocial

behavior.

3. Antisocial Cognition. This set of variables includes attitudes, values, beliefs,

rationalizations, and a personal identity that is favorable to crime. The cognitive-emotional states

associated with crime are anger and feeling irritated, resentful, and/or defiant. Specific indicators

would include identification with criminals, negative attitudes toward the law and justice system,
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a belief that crime will yield rewards, and rationalizations that specify a broad range of

conditions under which crime is justified (e.g., the victim deserved it, the victim is worthless)

4. Antisocial Associates. This risk/need factor includes both association with procriminal

others and relative isolation from anticriminal others. This risk/need factor is sometimes called

“social support for crime. Dynamic need and promising intermediate targets of change: This

factor is dynamic, and the appropriate intermediate targets are again obvious: reduce association

with procriminal others and enhance association with anticriminal others.

5. Family/Marital Circumstances. The key to assessing both family of origin for young

people and marital circumstances for older people is the quality of the interpersonal relationships

within the unit (parent-child or spouse-spouse) and the behavioral expectations and rules in

regard to antisocial behavior, including monitoring, supervision, and disciplinary approaches.

The risk factor is poor-quality relationships in combination Reduce conflict, build positive

relationships, enhance monitoring and supervision.

6. School/Work. Yet again we place a major emphasis on the quality of the interpersonal

relationships within the settings of school and/or work. Generally, the risk/need factors are low

levels of performance and involvement and low levels of rewards and satisfactions..

7. Leisure/Recreation. Low levels of involvement and satisfactions in anticriminal leisure

pursuits. Enhance involvement and rewards and satisfactions.

8. Substance Abuse. The risk/need factor is problems with alcohol and/or other drugs

(tobacco excluded). Current problems with substances indicate higher risk than a prior history of

abuse. Reduce substance abuse, reduce the personal and interpersonal supports for substance-

oriented behavior, enhance alternatives to substance abuse.

`

The specification of a history of antisocial behavior notes the importance of not equating risk of

offending with seriousness of the current offense. The indicators of risk are early involvement,

an extensive history, a variety of antisocial activities (property plus violent offences), and rule

violations even while under supervision (e.g., parole violations). A major error in risk assessment

is to score seriousness of the current offense as a risk factor. It is not a major risk factor. It is an

aggravating factor in sentencing (in the sense that the more serious the injury imposed by an

offense, the more severe the penalty). Just desert and risk of reoffending reflect different

concerns. The descriptions of antisocial personality factors uses everyday language as well as the

more precise language associated with certain well known personality classification and

dimensional systems. An antisocial personality pattern in regard to risk/need typically involves

at least two relatively independent dimensions. One is weak self-control and a lack of planning.

The second is negative emotionality (in the sense of irritability, feeling mistreated, and being

antagonistic). It is important to note that the trait measures of antisocial pattern assess these

predispositions as relatively stable, enduring factors.

Theory of What Works in Reducing Recidivism

The theory “what works in reducing recidivism’’, Latessa (2004). Is a body of knowledge

grounded on over thirty years of research, which had been piloted by many researchers in both

America and Europe. What works movement reveals empirically that theoretically sound, well-

defined programs that meet certain conditions can significantly reduce recidivism rate for

offenders. One area of concern about the interpretation of “what works” literature is that,

research studies into its efficacy have mostly assessed organized groups programs which are not

the only effective intervention in working with individuals. The probation service has mainly

embraced the work of Bandura, (1999) a method founded on relapse prevention theory that
`

integrate components of “what works’’ approach. Based on the literature reviews in the research

the theory “what works’’ seem to carry a lot of weight on reduction of recidivism.

Relapse Prevention Theory

The goal of this theory is to address the problem of relapse into previously forgotten behaviors

and to generate methods of deterrence and handling its relapse (Miller & Heather, 2013). This

theory offers mechanism to evaluate the performances of rehabilitation program on clients.

Relapse prevention is a cognitive behaviour model with basis in Banduras (1977) self-efficacy

theory, which presents an inclusive and cohesive context for clarifying the alteration process in

psychoanalysis. The theory states that methods generating initial behaviour alteration maybe

fruitless at upholding that alteration over a time and evade deterioration. Relapse prevention

treatment provide individual with the behavioural and cognitive assistance essential to handle

effectively (temptation both intrapersonal and interpersonal, (Witkiewitz, Bowen, Douglas &

Hsu, 2013). The strength of the theory comprise good support system .good management team,

good understanding and inspiration to get better depicting upon a wide variety of skills.

In contrast, with traditional methods that over-stresses initial routine alteration,

Relapse Prevention Theory concentrates more on the maintenance phase of the habit alteration

process. From this viewpoint, relapse is not regarded merely as an indicator of treatment failure.

Instead, possible and real experiences are key objective for both pre-emptive and reactive

intervention approaches (Vengeliene, Bilbao & Spanagel, 2014). Also involved are more global

routine intervention intended to improve overall coping skills and promoting health and well-

being. Vital queries raised by this relatively current alternative to traditional methods are

deliberated (Miller & Heather, 2013). Regardless of the strength of the theory, there are also
`

faults like perfectionism, putting perception into action, dealing with alterations (Witkiewitz,

Bowen, Douglas & Hsu, 2013). In addition, the study attempts to look at the effect of

rehabilitation program on reducing the incidences of re-conviction of the prisoners after release

(Miller & Heather, 2013).

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction
`

This chapter highlights the research design, location of the study, sampling design, sampling

procedures, research instruments, validity of research instruments, reliability of research

instruments, data collection procedures, data analysis techniques and ethical issues.

Research Design

The research design was a descriptive research design. The design was used because it depicts

the participants responses in an accurate way and allow insight into life experiences due its

unique approach. Descriptive method is suitable in finding the view of respondents on a given

study problem and presenting facts the way they are without interpretation. It allows the

researcher to access data across wider section of the chosen respondents (Lyman 2009).

The researcher considered this approach most applicable in this research, which aims at

establishing determinants of recidivism rate in Kilifi G.K Prison and at the Kilifi PACS

department despite the efforts of rehabilitation programs. Descriptive techniques use inferential

approach in making prediction or comparison about a group using evidence gathered from a

small part of that population (Keone, 2011).

3.3 The Study Site

The study was conducted at Kilifi G.K Prison, which is located in Kilifi South, Kilifi County in

the Coast region along the Mombasa Malindi highway in Kenya and also at the Kilifi Probation

and Aftercare Services department.

3.4 Target Population

`

The study targeted a population of 50 second time offenders and officers both at the prison and at

the PACS department, with a focus on 40 offenders at the Kilifi G.K prison and 10 0ffenders

under the PACS department.

Sampling techniques and Sample size

The researcher used purposive sampling for prison warders and instructors.

Purposive sampling has been selected as a sampling technique for this research because it

enabled the researcher to select and interview prison warders and instructors with experience on

the subject matter.

As Mugenda & Mugenda (1999) assert that 10% of the total population of interest is considered

accurate this study followed the ratio.

Data Collection

The study collected both primary and secondary data, primary data included the information

gathered from the questionnaires and interview guide, one –on-one interview with prison

officials (the interview was administered orally and the scripts recorded by the researcher), and

questionnaires.

Questionnaires were administered to collect data from inmates. The open ended questionnaires

gave the respondents greater latitude and leeway in expressing their views, opinions, attitude,

experience and recommendations.

This instrument was ideal because it allowed the researcher to get opinions from large number

of respondent, thus making it easier and more consistent to make inferences from responses. The

researcher focused on prisoners and tutors opinions, views perception, feeling and attitudes.
`

While secondary data included information from prison lock-up sheets and documentary records

of inmates tracking system. Documentary examination was used to acquire facts on recidivism

rate of participating re-offenders and non-participating reoffenders for the last three years.

Data Analysis and Presentation

The study employed descriptive statistics for quantitative data. To analyse quantitative data, the

study relied on Excel office. To present data, the study utilized frequency tables, bar graphs, pie

charts and cross tabulations. Inferential statistics was also used to determine recidivism rate.

Qualitative data was analyzed using content analysis where responses from interview guide were

grouped and categorized based on the emerging themes relevant to the study. The result of

quantitative data analysis were presented in a descriptive narrative prose.

Ethical Consideration

Participants in the process of data collection were informed of a right to refuse participation and

hence their ethical rights was respected. In the study, the researcher put the following in mind:

Permission to conduct research at the Kenya Prison Service was sought from the relevant

authorities. The researcher informed the Kenya Prison Service about the intention to carry out a

research and their participation in the research through the officer in charge . Participation in the

research was by free consent, the respondents were not forced to participate and the information

disclosed was not used against anybody.

The respondents were informed of the objective of the questionnaire; they were made to

understand the purpose of the study. The nature of the research was shared with the participants

before engaging them in the study.

`

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION AND PRESENTATION

4.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses the introduction, interpretation and discussion of the discoveries got from

the field responses. The part introduces the foundation data of the respondents and the findings

of the investigation in light of the objectives of the examination.

4.2 Response Rate

The study targeted a sample size of 40 respondents of which 30 respondents were inmates from

Kilifi G.K prison and 10 were from the PACS department. The respondents also included the

available officers from the two stations. 31 filled in and returned the questionnaires making a

response rate of 77.5 percent. This response rate was fairly satisfactory to make conclusions for

the study.

According to Bailey (2000) assertion that a response rate of 50% is adequate, while a response

rate greater than 70% is very good. Based on the assertion, the response rate was concluded to be

excellent.

Table 4.1: Response Rate

Kilifi G.K Prisons

30 questionnaires were issued at the institution and administered to the repeat offenders and

officers. 27 were successfully and adequately completed by the recidivists. 3 officers at the

institution successfully. All the respondents were male.

`

PACS department

At the probation department questionnaires were administered and filled based on the availability

of recidivists since the institution doesn’t hold them at the institution and the exercise proved

hectic but a total of 10 questionnaires were completed, 6 by recidivists while 4 were completed

by the probation officers.

Table 4.2.1 recidivist’s response rate

Institution Frequency Percentage (%)

Kilifi G.K Prison 27 90

PACS Male 4 40

department Female 2 20

Table 4.2.2 Officer’s response rate

Institution Frequency Percentage (%)

Kilifi G.K Prison Male 3 10

Female 0 0

PACS Male 3 30

department Female 1 10

4.3 Socio Demographic factors

The respondents were asked to fill in general information. It is the demographic characteristics of

the sampled population. This section will analyze issues on religion affiliation, age bracket and
`

age when 1st convicted, marital status, family relations, number of times convicted, reasons for

conviction, length of years sentenced and length already served

4.3.1 Age of the respondents

The study sought to establish the age groups of the respondents. The findings revealed that most

of the respondents on average at the two institutions of study, 55% were aged between 30 and 39

years, followed by 35% of the respondents between 18 and 29 years, while 7% of the

respondents between 40 and 49 years and 3% of the respondents between 50 and 59 years. These

findings show that respondents were drawn from different age categories and therefore stipulate

that the largest proportion of the respondents were aged between 30-39 years followed fairly

closely by 18-29 years. The findings are as shown in figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1: Distribution of Respondents by age

age distribution%

30 - 39 18 - 29 40 - 49 50 - 59
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4.3.2 Level of Education attained by respondents

The study sought to eastablish the level of education attained by the respondents before

incarceration.

Findings reveal that majority of the respondents at the Kilifi G.K Prison 65% had either dropped

out at early stages, no education at all or attained at least primary level, 28% of the respondents

were at secondary level, 5% of the respondents were at university level and 2% of the

respondents had attained tertiary level of education. While at the Probation department findings

show 58% had attained primary level education, while 30% secondary education, 7% had

attained university level while 5% had achieved tertiary level. These findings show that

respondents involved had attained the basic education and would thus understand the questions

to give credible information related to this study. Those with little understanding of the questions

or difficulties were supported with further elaboration and assistance.

Figure 2: education level

distribution of education level

70

60

50
percentage (%)

40

30

20

10

0
primary and below secondary secondary tertiary
education level

Kilifi G.K PACS

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4.3.3 Crime history

In order to address the major questions for this research, the crime history of the respondents was

deemed crucial. Thus; the respondents were requested to fill their crime history and the number

of times they have been convicted.

Table 4.3.1 Number of times convicted

KILIFI G.K PRISONS PROBATION & AFTERCARE

SERVICES

NO. OF FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE NO. OF FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE

TIMES (%) TIMES (%)

2-3 16 59.26 2–3 4 66.67

4-5 9 33.33 4–5 2 33.33

More 2 7.41 More O 0

than 5 than 5

TOTAL 27 100 TOTAL 6 100

At Kilifi G.K prison 59.26% of the respondents indicated that this is there 2 nd or 3rd time to be

convicted though with charges that were similar to the previous ones, 33.33% indicated that this

is their 4th or 5th time to be convicted where most of them indicated that they were rearrested for
`

the same crime as the first because they embark on their bad company who influenced their

decision to go back to crime. Only 7.41% of the respondents indicated that they were re-arrested

for more than 5 times where the earlier arrests were no major with 6 months-1year sentence.

However now they are serving a sentence of more than 5 years which they say it has changed

their perception and attitude in life in prison.

Table 4.3.2 Reasons for conviction the 1st time

KILIFI G.K PRISONS THE PROBATION DEPARTMENT

TYPE OF FREQUEN PERCENTA TYPE OF FREQUEN PERCENTA

CRIME CY GE (%) CRIME CY GE (%)

BURGLAR 8 29.62 DOMESTIC 1 16.67

Y & VIOLENCE

ROBBERY

SEXUAL 2 7.41 DRUGS & 2 33.32

OFFENCE SUBSTANCE

S RELATED

FRAUD 2 7.41 PUBLIC 1 16.67

AND DISTURBAN

FORGERY CE &

INDECENCY

SUBSTAN 10 37.04 THEFT & 1 16.67

CE ABUSE BURGLARY

&

SUBSTAN
`

CE

RELATED

VIOLENC 5 18.52 SEXUAL 1 16.67

E OFFENCES

Drugs and substance abuse crimes were leading (37.04%) causes of incarceration and also for

probation placement (33.32%) as the convicts stated that once someone was into drugs it was

difficult to have control over their life choices and even attempts at quitting were futile. Most

described addiction as enslaving, while those who were in for trafficking, production or handling

of illegal substances described their crime as a way of trying to get their daily bread and also as

an attempt at bettering their livelihoods. Robbery with violence and assault at the prison and theft

and burglary followed suit with 29.62% and 16.67% respectively. The respondents, who were

convicted with robbery, indicated that that was their way of earning their income. Some of who

were semi - illiterate said they did not have any other means to get money for their basic needs

and thus stealing became part of their lifestyle. The cases of forgery and fraud were done by

respondents who were well informed and educated. These respondents are skilled and had been

employed before opting to forge documents that saw them convicted. Sexual offences, domestic

violence and public disturbance and indecency followed as crimes in which recidivists have

reoffended. The respondents who were convicted for this reason blamed it all on witch- hunt and

wrongful accusations by people they are close to, most of whom they accused of wanting them to

languish away in prison and never amount to nothing due to jealousy and family feuds.
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CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the summary of findings, discussions, conclusion drawn from the findings

and recommendations made. The conclusions and recommendations drew focus on the purpose

of the study which was to investigate factors influencing recidivism in Kilifi G.K prison.

5.2 Summary of the findings

The summary of the findings are discussed in relation to the general demographic factors socio-

economic factor which included employment, rehabilitation and therapeutic programs, inmates

training which include academic, vocational, and professional and faith based programs,

individual skills, and prison reforms and their influence on convicts relapse

5.2.1 Socio demographic factors

Most of the respondents were male who are considered youth and single . Many prisoners could

not read or write above primary school levels, if at all. The most common crimes committed by

these inmates were robbery, burglary, theft, drug trafficking, forgery and fraud and defilement.

Because of their poor educational backgrounds, their employment histories consisted of mostly

low wage jobs with frequent periods of unemployment. Cases of drug abuse and substance

related crimes were the highest with convictions of up-to 15 years while forgery and fraud was

the least since these convicts were highly skilled and educated which is not a case of most of the

inmates in prison who literacy level was that of low primary and others had no schooling at all.
`

5.2.2 Socio economic factors and re-entry

The study established that majority of the convicts in Kilifi G.K prison had Primary level of

education. 26 (65%) – had dropped out of school before were unskilled complied, had no

permanent employment. They committed crime out of rage and some regretted having been

controlled by their emotions. They felt if they had an education they would have better

opportunities and would have had an income and engaged in better practices. 32 (86.76%)

indicated that there level of education forced them to resort to crime since they did not have any

other option. 40 (70.56%)of the respondents both at Kilifi G.K prison and at PACS department

indicated that they had no formal employment and hence depended on low wage jobs. Lack of

skills made them to do menial jobs that was not stable and thus made them to resort to crime.

5.2.3 Inmate’s training and re-entry

The study findings revealed that Kilifi G.K Prison and Kilifi PACS department offered different

programs to the convicts and they were encouraged to take keen interest in these programs.

Convicts had the chance to engage in even more than one of them. The programs were intensive

and inmates had the accessibility of well rolled out trainings. The convicts engaged in Academic

programs, those who were undertaking primary level of education were joining at levels, for

which they had dropped out of school. Counseling, faith based programs and the vocational

programs attracted a higher number of trainee inmates. The convicts are keen to the trainings

since it provides them a sense of ability, they are kept busy, can develop a hobby; they get a little

income once the items are sold.

With a mean of 4.41, majority of the inmates felt that lack of employment and a source of

income is the major reason why they resort to crime even after release. They end up following

their older patterns of crime as an alternative to ensure they meet their basic needs. Although
`

prisons have reformed and they are not very bad, very few with a mean of 3.82 said that they

cannot consider coming back to prison. Although they agreed that prison changed their mode of

thinking and their intent on committing crime, they still say that life in prison is very difficult.

5.2.4 length of incarceration on recidivism

The study reveals that the length of a prison sentence, either short, medium or long term has

significantly minimal influence on recidivism. This is evident in the minimal mean variance of

recidivism among recidivists sentenced to different lengths of prison terms.

From the study finding, there are no clear differences in the rates of recidivism among offenders

who served different lengths of sentences in prison. However, reviewed literature reveals that

offenders who serve long prison sentences experience greater reentry challenges and therefore

are more prone to recidivism compared to offenders who are incarcerated for short-term

sentences.

5.3 Conclusion

The study findings have shown that the majority of the convicts are youthful in age, have low

level of education, they have primary level of education, are unskilled laborers, have siblings and

many have both parents. Convicts who were on the 2nd and 3rd conviction indicated that during

the 1st and 2nd conviction, depending on the nature of conviction did not inform their parents

nor siblings of the prison term which they were able to serve, complete and go back to their

employment. Majority were convicted for traffic offences( misdemeanours and disturbing peace)

like touting, refusal to wear the PSV uniform and driving while the car tires were worn out and

drug related offences. On completion of term they went back to the community and were readily

accepted, however a PSV driver who was serving his fourth sentence and was currently serving a
`

term for loss of items in his PSV vehicle where he worked noted that stigma is still a great

concerned, on loss of items in the vehicle he was treated as the first suspect having been in

prison to serve for three other terms. Though this were traffic related offences and his employer

could not bail him out by settling the fines, but he got employed once he completed his prison

terms, he was not certain that on completion on this particular one he would be able to work

among his peers within the transport 50 industry with ease and trust. The majority of the convicts

being unskilled would continue to do manual and casual work to earn a living. The trainings

convicts gained from prison gained from prison during their term assist them both while in and

out of prison. The convicts are keen to take up vocational skills, farming, upholstery, faith based

and counseling programs. These convicts do these trainings with the hope that on release they

will be well equipped to settle back to the community. The convicts who opt to take up the

professional courses wish to be at a level where they will have a bargaining power, they will

have developed a high self esteem and they will have left prison better educated. The study

findings confirm that convicts enroll for K.C.P.E and K.C.S.E while serving their sentence.

There are programs which provide convicts a chance to have presentations for Presidential

awards, this provides the convicts a chance to re-evaluate their self worth and appreciate that

they can give back to the society and be appreciated. The faith based and counseling programs

provides them a chance to come to terms with their situation, live a life of acceptance, hope and

assist in their rehabilitation. Majority of convicts come to know God while in prison and

appreciate the world out of prison by having visits from different denominations providing

support. The findings indicate that convicts are encouraged to enroll and gain individual skills

which include knitting, embroidery, improved farming techniques, carpentry, welding, building

and construction. This helps them develop a hobby, keep busy and have a working schedule.
`

Through these skills convicts get income from the items sold. On release they are able to use the

income for transport and settling back to the community. The key informants noted that these

individual skills gained by convicts can only adequately enable them settle back to the

community if they are provided with startup capital to assist them start a business and settle. This

provides a regular schedule which calls for discipline, employment and an income. The prison

reforms as per the research findings have been appreciated by both the prison officers and the

convicts. The prison reforms have opened up prisons for collaboration with other stakeholders

and provided better conditions. However it was noted by the convicts that prison is not a good

place to be in, they have to forfeit their rights of parenthood, freedom, profession and their

valuable youth. This being the main prison majority is in for life imprisonment, ten years 51 and

above. Those on life and long term convictions have learnt all the skills available, they are now

trainers and there is nothing more to learn. Fellow prisoners are not so cooperative and can make

life unbearable over petty issues. There is still need to continue improving on the services

offered, a major issue to note was the need to provide parents a chance to have visitation from

their young children whom they have not been able to see for the longest time they been prison.

The warders are better trained and handle the convicts with great care. The relationship between

the convicts and warders is cordial, and they discuss issues that concern them with a lot of ease.

Suspicion still reigns but not as earlier where the warders inflicted corporal punishment. It was

noted that if a convict served their term while having the discipline required the instances of

conflict were minimal though there are warders who still practice the punitive methods of

correction

5.4 Recommendations

5.41 Policy Recommendation

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There is need to train the prison warders on basic legal issues because they provide legal advice

to convicts as soon as they are convicted especially on appeal issues. This is done within 21 days

and in most cases, the convicts cannot access the legal officers for advices. The warders will only

give advice on what they know. These warders will benefit from basic law training in order they

can be able to give further assistance to the convicts. From the findings, it was noted that

convicts who have been in prison for long tend to couch new convicts on how to respond at their

appeal hearings and what not to say. Thus there should be limited contact among convicts before

appeal to avoid the new inmates from being misled by older convicts. There should legal rules

and considerations on 1st time offenders on cases like traffic offence, drug abusers and mothers

who abandon their children, in most instances the drug abusers and mothers who have

abandoned their children need counseling and psychological support and confining them makes

them become recidivists. A case of a traffic offender are a drug abuser who have been convicted

and are serving their 2nd and third term for traffic related issues and drug offence

Rehabilitation and correctional officers need also to be educated on and policy expanded to

include emphasis on addressing the risk need factors and the real criminogenic needs that lead to

deviance and re-offending.

5.42 Recommendations for further study and research

There is need to do a study on the factors that influence offenders family in providing support

upon release and also studies to educate and inform society and community members on the

importance of giving ex- offenders a chance for change and providing conducive environments

for such. Re integration of ex- offenders back into the society as functional members should be

an area of focus.
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