Concept of Death, Hell and Afterlife in Hinduism

Dr Uday Dokras Ph D SWEDEN

The Yogins, through Yoga,
realise their being with the supreme Brahman.
Realization of this is called Mukti.
—Garuda Purana, Purvakhanda, Chapter 235

Yama, the Lord of Naraka, the Underworld

Death
"Our soul never dies; only the physical body dies. We neither fear death nor look forward to it ,
but revere it as a most exalted experience. Life, death and the afterlife are part of our path to
perfect oneness with God." "For Hindus, death is nobly referred to as mahaaprasthaana, 'the
great journey'. When the lessons of this life have been learned and karmas reach a point of
intensity, the soul leaves the physical body, which then returns its elements to the earth. The
awareness, will, memory and intelligence which we think of ourselves continue to exist in the
soul body. Death is a most natural experience, not to be feared. It is a quick transition from the
physical world to the astral plane..." Satguru S'ivaya Subramuniyaswami, p. 99.

Hell and Satan

"There is no external hell, nor is there a Satan. However, there are hellish states of mind and
woeful births for those who think and act wrongfully--temporary tormenting conditions that lift
the fiery forces within." Satguru S'ivaya Subramuniyaswami, p. 155.
Hinduism does not believe in an eternal hell. However, hellish states of mind and woeful births
do exist temporarily for those who think and act wrongfully. They consist of fear, hate,
jealousy, bigotry and anger, and are brought about by one's own thoughts, actions and deeds.
But they are not eternal and can be changed by positive karma.
Satan does not exist nor does he tempt mankind. (There asuras, immature entities of deception
and hurtfulness.) There is no eternal damnation; the way out of hellish situations can be altered
by positive karma. Paraphrased from Dancing with S'iva, p. 155

Death and the mortal world

According to Hinduism the world in which we live is a mortal world (mrtyulokam), ruled by
Death (Kala), who is a manifestation of Brahman himself. He is also personified as Time
because in this world everyone has a rendezvous with Death and meets with it when their time
comes. The ultimate cause of death is creation itself because everything that manifests in
creation, including inanimate objects eventually has to come to an end. Therefore, Death is
considered the lord of the mortal world. In Hindu tradition Death is also symbolized as Shiva,
the destroyer.
1
What happens after death?
According to the Hinduism, upon death, a soul or Self proceeds along one of the three paths
suggested in the Vedas. As death nears and a person begins to lose consciousness, the Self
gathers up the breaths (pranas) and the deities (devatas) hidden in the organs of the body, and
enters into the heart (hridayam). From there, through an opening in the heart, it travels upwards
along the channel of up breath (udana) and reaches the head.

There through an aperture in the top head, it escapes into the air or the mid-region called
antrariksham (interstellar space). Breaths and the deities who accompany the Self return to their
spheres in the macrocosm. As the body is cremated in the final sacrifice of life (antima kriya),
the elements in the body (bhutas) return to the elements in the world.
From here on karma (net result of past actions) catches up. Liberated souls, or those who have
burned their karmas and latent impressions, travel along a path called the northern path
(uttarayana) and enter into a timeless eternal zone in the sphere of the sun. From there they are
led by divine beings to the highest, immortal heaven of Brahman, known variously as
Vaikuntha, Parandhama or Kailasa.

Those who are not liberated, but lived virtuous and dutiful lives according to the laws of God,
go by another path called the southern path (daksinayana) to the ancestral world located in the
sphere of the moon, where they stay until their karmas are exhausted.
Then they fall down to the earth through rains and enter into plants, from plants into food,
either as plant food or animal food, and through food into male seed and then through male
seed into the wombs where they are reborn again according to their previous actions.
Now there is a third path, the path to the hell in the subterranean worlds (adhogati) reserved for
those who indulge in serious sins and demonic actions. Upon exhausting their karmas they are
born as worms, insects and other low life forms.

In Hinduism there is no particular Judgment Day. In fact, every day is a judgment day, where
your actions are weighed and your karma keeps accumulating according to your deeds.
Hinduism: The Ideas of Heaven and Hell

According to the Hindu Puranas, there are fourteen worlds in the universe - the seven upper
and the seven lower. The seven upper worlds are Bhuh, Bhavah, Swah, Mahah, Janah. Tapah,
and Satyam; and the seven nether worlds are Atala, Vitala, Sutala, Rasatala, Talatala, Mahatala,
and Patala. The region known as Bhuh is the earth where we dwell, while Swah is the celestial
world to which people repair after death to enjoy the reward of their righteous actions on earth.
Bhuvah is the region between the two. Janah, Tapah, and Satyam constitute Brahmaloka, or the
highest heaven, where fortunate souls repair after death and enjoy spiritual communion with
the personal God, and at the end of the cycle attain liberation, though a few return to earth
again. The world of Mahah is located between Brahmaloka and Bhuh, Bhuuah, and Swah.
Patala, the lowest of the seven nether worlds, is the realm where wicked souls sojourn after
death and reap the results of their unrighteous actions on earth. Thus, from the viewpoint of
Hinduism, heaven and hell are merely different worlds, bound by time, space, and causality.
According to Hinduism, desires are responsible for a person's embodiment. Some of these
2
desires can best be fulfilled in a human body, and some in an animal or a celestial body.
Accordingly, a soul assumes a body determined by its unfulfilled desires and the results of its
past actions. An animal or a celestial body is for reaping the results of past karma, not for
performing actions to acquire a new body. Performance of karma to effect any change of life is
possible only in a human body, because only human beings do good or evil consciously.
Human birth is therefore a great privilege, for in a human body alone can one attain the
supreme goal of life. Thus, in search of eternal happiness and immortality, the apparent soul is
born again and again in different bodies, only to discover in the end that immortality can never
be attained through fulfillment of desires. The soul then practices discrimination between the
real and the unreal, attains desirelessness, and finally realizes its immortal nature. Affirming
this fact, the Katha Upanishad says: "When all the desires that dwell in the heart fall away, then
the mortal becomes immortal and here attains Brahman."
Sankhya and Nyaya are Darshana Shastras, they deal with a different issue, not pertaining to
this question.

And who said Nyaya doesn't acknowledge Hell? Nyaya is entie Vedic, while Sankhya doesn't
accept Vedas in their entierty. Nyaya is also not consider Vedas as Swatah Pranamam, but
Paratah Pramanam.

The question of Heaven and Hell in Hinduism is secondary, first understand what HindUism is.
Hinduism is any path or belief system which 1) directly or indirectly approves the authority of
the Vedas or a part of the Vedas 2) agrees to the creatorship in God and approves of it being
omnipotent, omnipresent and omniscient.

Anything which disaproves of the 1 Creator God isn't a Hindu Darshana, it can be Aastika
(Vedic) but not Sanatanic/Hindu as the goal and purpose of Hinduism is different than the
purpose of Darshanas. The Darshanas which share the same goal/purpose as Hinduism, are
Hindu Darshanas but which deal with a different purpose aren't Hindu in nature.
—
Now, when we've cleared these things, let's understand the concept of Hell.
Afterlife, the soul leaves the material body and acquires spiritual body which comprises of
1)mind 2)intellect 3)consciousness and 4)ego or literally translated than I-hood/I-ness or the
feeling of I-Myself/I am/I exist/I feel etc.
The soul has no independent capacity to experience anything other than the Ultimate Cognition
of the 1 Supreme Personality. He has no sorrow nor joy, so the question of the soul going to
Heaven and Hell is impossible, but the soul which is still attached to the body's spiritual form,
which has retained the mind, intellect, consciousness and ego. Such a soul will go to Indra’s
abode or higher depending on his Karmas, or might go Hell, which are again of several types
where a person falls depending upon his Karma.

PrithivyAm bhAratam varsham karmabhoomirudAhritA.

KarmaNah phaladam sthAnam svargancha narakam tathA.
Bharatavarsha is considered as the Karnabhoomi on Earth. And the place where the fruit of
Karma is given is Swarga and Naraka.
Brahma PurANa - Chapter 27, Verse 27.

Thus, now we know what Heaven and Hell is. As Hinduism believes in rebirth and countless
births, after repenting for all sins, when the sin quota is completed, one is reborn on Earth. If
one has done many Punyas, he'll enjoy Heaven and when all Punya quots gets empty, he's
reborn on Earth. This cycle repeats until the soul gets liberated, that is merges into the Supreme
Soul or becomes 1 with the Supreme Soul.

Patal Bhuvaneshwar (Hindi पाताल भुवने श्वर) is a limestone cave temple 14 km

from Gangolihat in the Pithoragarh district of Uttarakhand state in India. It is located in the
village Bhubneshwar. Legend and folklore have it that this cave enshrines Lord Shiva and
thirty three koti demigods [33 types and not crore]. The cave is 160 m long and 90 feet deep
from the point of entrance. Limestone rock formations have created various spectacular
stalactite and stalagmite figures of various hues and forms. This cave has a narrow tunnel-like
opening which leads to a number of caves. The cave is fully electrically illuminated. Built by
the flow of water, Patal Bhuvaneshwar is not just one cave, rather a series of caves within
caves.

3
"He who wants to feel the presence of eternal power should come to the sacred Bhuvneshwar
situated near the confluence of Ramganga, Sarayu and Gupt-Ganga." -Manaskhanda,
Skandapuran, whose 800 verses refer to Patal Bhuvaneshwar

Legend: The first human to discover this cave was Raja Ritupurna who was a king in Surya
Dynasty who was ruling Ayodhya during the Treta Yuga. The story starts with Ritupurna and
King Nala. It is said that once, King Nala was defeated by his wife, Queen Damayanti. In order
to escape his wife’s prison Nala requested Ritupurna to hide him. Ritupurna took him to the
forests of the Himalayas and asked him to stay there. While going back home he was fascinated
by a deer which ran into woods and went after it. He could not find it and took rest under a tree.
He had a dream where the deer was asking Ritupurna not to chase him. His sleep broke and as
he woke up and went to a cave where a guard was standing. After enquiring about the cave he
was allowed to go inside. Right at the entrance, Ritupurna met Sheshnag who agreed to take
him through the cave. It carried him on its hood. He saw the marvels of Gods taking place
inside. He saw all the 33-koti (33 types of god not 33 cror ) gods and goddesses including Lord
Shiva himself. It is said that after his visit, the cave was closed for ages with a slight prediction
in the Skandpurana that it will be reopened again in Kali Yuga. Shankarcharya in Kali Yuga,
during his visit to Himalayas re-discovered this cave. Since then regular worship and offering
are being done at this place.

According to belief King Rituparna of the Sun dynasty (Surya Vansha) discovered the
cave in Treta Yuga. Adi Shankaracharya visited this cave in 1191 AD. That was the beginning
of the modern pilgrimage history, at Patal Bhuvaneshwar. The journey inside the cave has to be
carried in feeble lights, holding protective iron chains. The Stone formations of Sheshnag can
be seen, holding earth, heaven the world beneath. ‘Havan’ (fire sacrifice) is performed in a
dimly lit, solemn atmosphere, under the spell of holy chants. You’ll also be impressed by theto
visit these parts form the celestial heights of His abode in Kailash. The cave, it is believed, is
connected by an underground route to Mount Kailash. [3] it’s believed that Pandavas, the
‘Mahabharat’ heroes proceeded towards their last journey in the Himalayas after meditating
here, in front of Lord Shiva. This hidden pilgrimage situated at 1,350 m above sea level is
mainly dedicated to Lord Shiva.Almost every god that you would have heard of resides in this
mystifying cave. It is also believed that you can worship at Patal Bhuvaneshwar is equivalent to
worshipping at Char Dham of Uttarakhand.

The priest family, the Bhandaris are performing religious rites at Patal Bhuvaneshwar since the
time of the Adi Shankaracharya. More than 20 generations in the line. They are a treasure
house of legends, lores, anecdotes and information about this holy place. It is also believed that
this cave is internally connected to the four abodes /seats (Char Dham). According to one
belief, the original head of lord Ganesha which was cut down by lord Shiva, is situated here
who creates obstacles for bad people to improve, popularly known as "Vighnakarta".

"This awesome cave is believed to be as old as the earth itself. It has been mentioned in detail
in the 103 chapter of Manaskhand of "Skanda Purana". The first human who entered this cave
was king "Rituparna" of Suraya Dynasty during the Treta Yuga. It is said that during his visit,

4
he had encountered several demons and "Sheshnaag" himself acted as his guide.One can see
the gateway of the great ages in Patal Bhuvaneshwar. There are four entrances inside the cave
named as ‘Randwar’ ‘Paapdwar’, ‘Dharamdwar’ and ‘Mokshadwar’. The Paapdwar was closed
soon after the death of Ravana and the Randwar, literally, the road to war, was closed down
after the great Mahabharata war. At present only two gateways are opened. You can see the
tongue of Kali Bhairav, Aravati of Indra, hairs of Lord Shiva and several other wonders inside
the caves of Patal Bhuvaneshwar.

In Dvapara Yuga this cave was rediscovered by the Pandavas. In Kali Yuga, Adishankar
Acharya consecrate this cave and since 1191, this has been a place of visit, both for sightseeing
and worship."

The motorable road ends half a kilometer away from the cave entrance. You have to descend
nearly 100 steps into this narrow cave, to reach the sanctum sanctorum, which gives an
overwhelming feeling that you’re entering the centre of the earth.
Each stone, each stalagmite within each cave or doorway, in magnificent erection reveals the
story of Hindu pantheon in the shapes of Gods, Goddesses, saints and known mythological
characters. Patal Bhubaneshwar, which literally means the sub-terranian shrine of Lord Shiva is
a cave temple located about 91 kms. from Pithoragarh and 14 kms north of Gangolihat. The
way to the temple is through a tunnel which leads into a cave and through a narrow dark
passage of water.

Discovering The Myths and Mysteries of Patal Bhuvaneshwar

5
The Mystery Of Patal Bhuvaneshwar Cave Temple Uttarakhand, India

“I don’t think I can go any further, I want to go back”! That was one from our group who was
in front of me.
But there was no going back, as we crawled, squeezed, and slid in single file down a small
tunnel holding on to iron chains for dear life. If one lost a foothold and slipped it was sure that
the others below would also come down like a house of cards.

Inside the tunnel leading to the Patal Bhuvaneshwar Cave of Uttarakhand

Of course, there was no going back once you entered the dark entrance to the tunnel that led to
a mysterious subterranean world lying 90 feet below. In fact many years ago there was a belief
that anyone who entered the cave would not return!
There was only just enough space in the tunnel for one person to squeeze through and in one
place the awning seemed so small, one wondered if a person with slightly greater girth could
pass through.

inside the Patal Bhuvaneshwar cave temple

We were at Patal Bhuvaneshwar, a very ancient and sacred cave temple located in the northern
Indian Himalayan state of Uttarakhand. The descent into the cave temple is in itself a thrilling
adventure, an unforgettable experience. Once inside the cave you enter a different world, a
world of myth and mystique, a place charged with the vibes of spirituality and history that
engulf you in an ice-cold embrace.
But what is Patal Bhuvaneshwar? What is the history of Patal Bhuvaneshwar? What is the
mystery behind Patal Bhuvaneshwar? These may be some of the questions that are ringing in
your mind at this moment. So before we regale you with our experience at Patal
Bhuvaneshwar, here is a little bit of background and history about the place Patal
Bhuvaneshwar one of the subterranean wonders of the world.
Patal Bhuvaneshwar History

“This awesome cave is believed to be as old as the earth itself” reads an inscription that one can
see outside the temple of Patal Bhuvaneshwar. In a single sentence this probably nicely sums
up the history of the place.
The earliest reference to the cave is found in the ancient Hindu text known as Skanda
Purana which has origins dating back to the 6th century CE. The Skanda Purana is the largest
of 18 Mahapuranas which are odes to the Hindu trinity of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. The
Skanda Purana with 81,000 verses is an ode to Lord Shiva though it is named after Skanda who
is the son of the divine couple Shiva and Parvati. Skanda is popularly known as Kartikeya,
Murugan, or Subrahmanya and is the brother of the elephant-headed God Ganesh.
It is fascinating to note that the Skanda Purana besides having stories about Shiva and Parvati
also has a section which in many ways is a travel guide of sorts. It talks about various places of
pilgrimage and sacred temples as well as their geographical locations!

6
The section of the Skanda Purana known as Manas khanda has a description of Patal
Bhuvaneshwar. It says, “he who wants to feel the presence of eternal power should come to the
sacred Bhuvaneshwar situated near the confluence of the rivers Ramganga, Sarayu, and Gupt
Ganga”.
Patal Buvaneshwar is alluded to in various sacred Hindu texts across the passage of time. As
per Hinduism the cycle of time is measured as a Yuga and one Yuga consists of four
components namely Satya Yuga, Treta Yuga, Dvapara Yuga, and Kali Yuga. It is believed that
currently, we are in the Kali Yuga which is estimated to have begun after the end of the
Kurukshetra war of the Hindu epic Mahabharata, sometime around 3102 BCE.
Legend has it that Lord Shiva in his abode known as Bhuvaneshwar, more precisely Patal
Bhuvaneshwar was worshipped by the 330 million Gods and Goddesses of the Hindu
Pantheon. It is believed that even today on the Trayodashi, the 13th day of the Lunar month
which is considered very auspicious for the worship of Shiva, the 330 million Gods and
Goddesses descend into Patal Bhuvaneshwar to worship Lord Shiva.
First Discovery Of Patal Bhuvaneshwar By Humans

It is believed that a king called Rituparna accidentally discovered the cave temple of Patal
Bhuvaneshwar sometime during the Treta Yuga. As he entered the mysterious cave, he
encountered Adishesha, the primordial being as per Hinduism who is the king of Nagas or
beings who take the form of snakes. Adishesha took King Rituparna around the cave where he
witnessed the awe-inspiring sight of different Gods and Goddesses and saw Lord Shiva
himself.
After that, the cave temple was again lost in the realms of obscurity only to be re-discovered by
the Pandavas during the Dwapara Yuga. It is believed that the Pandavas prayed to Lord Shiva
here before embarking on their final journey of ascending the peak known as Swargarohini, a
massif situated in the Saraswati range of the Garhwal Himalayas which is about 218 kilometers
from Patal Bhuvaneshwar.
In the Kali Yuga, the mysterious cave temple of Patal Bhuvaneshwar was re-discovered by
none other than Adi Shankaracharya who lived in the 8th century.

The Patal Bhuvaneshwar Cave Temple, Pithoragarh District In Modern Times And Our
Experience
A sleepy looking street with eateries on either side led to an arch. We alighted from our vehicle
near the arch and we needed to walk from there till the Patal Bhuvaneshwar cave temple.

Memorial to Major Sameer Katwal near the Patal Bhubaneshwar Temple A local Kumaoni
woman with her granddaughter in tow smiles enigmatically putting Mona Lisa to shame and
poses with her granddaughter for a picture. She sells souvenirs and trinkets at a shop near the
arch.

The arch has been erected in memory of Maj. Sameer Katwal of the 21 Kumaon regiment who
sacrificed his life while raiding a militant camp in Assam in the year 1999. The arch is named
as Sameer Dwar in memory of the valiant braveheart. A bust of the Major along with a plaque
stands by the side of the arch.

7
We descend a few steps and stare at a board which proclaims ominously that it is compulsory
to visit the Varadh Bhuvaneshwar temple before entering the Patal Bhuvaneshwar temple. We
see the top of an ancient looking temple in the distance and enquire about it and the ominous
cautionary note on the board with our guide who shrugs it off saying that it is some old belief.

We continue on our way to the Patal Bhuvaneshwar cave temple. A narrow path snakes
through the rim of the hill towards the temple. The valley stretches out languorously below.
mesmerizing with greenery and full of Deodhar and Pine trees. The mountains in the distance
and the clouds flitting across the blue skies create a mystical aura as we walk expectantly
towards the temple.

Soon we reach another small arch which has a lockable grill gate, which is open now, this is the
entrance to the Patal Bhuvaneshwari temple.

Patal Bhuvaneshwar Cave Temple Uttarakhand

Another board by the side of this gate has a stanza from the Skanda Purana written in
Sanskrit along with its meaning in Hindi. It alludes to a person named Valkal who would re-
discover this temple and make it accessible to Man, till then it would not be accessible to
humans. The guide later informs us in the temple that the person named Valkal being referred
to is Adi Shankaracharya.

The heavenly peal of temple bells strung across the periphery of the narrow path welcomed us
to the precincts of the Patal Bhuvaneshwar temple. There is a counter at the temple which gives
information and also provides the guide to visit the temple. Visitors are not allowed to enter
without a guide. A board warns that the oxygen level inside the cave temple in the rainy season
between the months of July and October is very low. Persons with heart disease and other
allied conditions are also advised not to enter the temple and so also senior citizens and kids
below the age of 5 years

8
Photography is prohibited inside the cave temple and all mobile phones and cameras need to be
deposited at the counter.
However, our group got special permission from ASI (Archaeological Survey of India) based
on a recent order that allowed photography at all Indian monuments under the ASI except three
namely the inside of the mausoleum of the Taj Mahal, Ajanta Caves, and Leh Palace.
The pictures and the videos of the inside of the cave temple used here are exclusive and taken
by us during our visit and probably one of the first look at the inside of the Patal
Bhuvaneshwar cave temple in recent times

Entering The Patal Bhuvaneshwar Cave Temple

A narrow opening tapers down in the form of a tunnel. A door is now framed against this
opening. There are heavy iron chains hanging from the opening that disappear into the darkness
of the orifice below.

This is the only way to enter and also the only way to exit. Only one person can squeeze
through at a time.
We entered the cave gingerly, probing the ground for a safe footing in single file, the guide
leading the way. We bolstered our somewhat waning confidence with loud chants of “Om
Namah Shivaya” as we gripped the iron chains by the side which were literally a godsend. We
slid down the underground tunnel feet first. The descent is about 90 feet with the tunnel
narrowing down at portions. At one point one needs to squeeze through a small awning
between the rocks. The good part is that there is lighting available. We could only imagine how
it would have been if it were pitch dark!

We finally saw the tunnel widen and reached an embankment of rough rock steps that led to the
ground.

We were finally on terra firma and looked around in amazement at the unique underground
world that spread out in front of us.

The Inside Of The Patal Bhuvaneshwar Cave Temple

9
The feet of Airavat / The Hood of Adishesha

As soon as we touched the ground, the first thing we saw inside the Patal Bhuvaneshwar
temple in front of us was a strange rock formation that almost touched the ground. They looked
like hooves. Our guide explained that these rock formations symbolized the 100 legs of
Airavata, the mythical elephant which is the vehicle of Lord Indra according to Hindu
Mythology.

The guide gestured for us to turn towards the direction from which we had emerged and look
upwards. Above us covering us like a colossal hood was a formation that uncannily looked like
the hood of a King Cobra. The guide asked us to bow down to Adishesha who according to
Hindu mythology holds the universe on his hood and proceed further into the cave.

The Moksha Dwar// The matted locks of Shiva

The Patal Bhuvaneshwar cave temple is not one cave but a series of interconnected caves
which hold unknown mysteries. There are four entrances inside the cave and these are known
as Randwar, Paapdwar, Dharamdwar, and Mokshdwar. Of these, it is believed that the
Paapdwar was closed after the death of the demon King Ravana and the Randwar was closed
after the end of the Kurukshetra war. Currently, only two doors are open inside the cave, the
Dharamdwar, and the Mokshadwar.
We continued our fascinating journey inside this strange subterranean world of the limestone
cave temple walking carefully as the floor was slippery. Soon we came upon a magnificent
sight that took our breath away.

A colossal and silvery stalactites formation rose before our eyes. It indeed looked like the
tresses of a giant being. The guide informed us that these symbolized the matted hair of Lord
Shiva.

10
Eight petaled lotus formation inside

As we move forward the guide pointed out to a beautiful stalactite formation on the roof of the
cave from which water dripped onto a rock which was probably a stalagmite formation on the
ground.

A rock formation symbolizing the headless body of Ganesh ins

The guide explained that the rock symbolized the headless Ganesh on whom water dripped
perpetually from the eight-petaled lotus formation above. This was obviously a reference to the
birth of Ganesh and how he got an elephant’s head according to Hindu mythology.

There were many other formations which included the Saptarishi Mandal, Shiva’s Kamandal,
Kamadhenu, Kalpavriksha, the symbolism of the four yugas, Bhagirath and the descent of the
Ganga and much more

The Kund that was made for the Pandavas by Vishwakarma at Patal Bhuvaneshwar Cave
Temple Uttarakhand
In fact, the shapes of Gods and Goddesses of the Hindu pantheon and characters and incidents
from Hindu mythology fill the cavernous paths of the cave city that is Patal Bhuvaneshwar. We
followed the guide along the slippery path, a little out of breath and feeling the scarcity of
oxygen to reach the sanctum sanctorum.

Three different stone formations are worshipped here as representing the trinity of the Hindu
pantheon, Brahma, Vishnu, and Maheshwar. Water drips on these stones as if in perpetual
benediction. It is believed that the copper plate that covers the deities were installed by Adi
Shankaracharya. This place is considered very holy and sacred and a visit here is considered as
equal to doing the Chardham Yatra that is a sacred pilgrimage for the Hindus and is a visit to
Kedarnath, Badrinath, Gangotri, and Yamunotri. A visit to the shrine at the Patal
Bhuvaneshwari cave temple is also considered as meritorious if not more than visiting Kashi
also known as Varanasi, the holiest place for Hindus.

The Priest from the Bhandari clan at the Patal Bhuvaneshwar cave temple Uttarakhand

11
It is interesting to note that the priest of the Patal Bhuvaneshwari cave temple is from the
Bhandari family who have been taking care of the worship at the temple since 18 generations,
ever since Adi Shankaracharya re-discovered the temple.
We slowly made our way up the narrow tunnel, hoisting ourselves up by means of the iron
chains. Our minds awed by what we had experienced. Thoughts swam in our minds like a
billion whirlpools. The myths mingled with facts, natural wrested with the supernatural, and
known confronted the unknown as we emerged from the darkness of the subterranean cave to
the brightness of the world above the ground.
As we took the narrow path that led away from the Patal Bhubaneshwar cave temple, the white
clouds in the distance seemed to take on strange and mythical forms and we felt a strange rush
of euphoria. The Kumaon region of Uttarakhand and in fact the entire region of Uttarakhand is
not only an indulgence for the visual senses with its ravishing natural beauty but touches one in
the different dimensions of mysticism and spirituality too.
How To Reach Patal Bhuvaneshwar Uttarakhand
Patal Bhuvaneshwar is situated in the Pithoragarh district of the Kumaon region of Uttarakhand
state in the north of India. It lies at an altitude of 1350 meters above sea level.
 Patal Bhuvaneshwar distance from Delhi, the capital of India is about 506 kilometers
 The nearest railway station to Patal Bhuvaneshwar is Tanakpur at a distance of 154
kilometers
 Kathgodam to Patal Bhuvaneshwar distance is about 191 kilometers and there is a
railway station here too
 Haldwani to Patal Bhuvaneshwar distance is about 198 kilometers
 Patal Bhuvaneshwar is about 14 kilometers from Gangolihat in the Pithoragarh district
 The nearest airport to Patal Bhuvaneshwar is Pantnagar Airport at a distance of about
226 kilometers

Naraka

Naraka (Sanskrit: नरक) is the Hindu equivalent of Hell, where sinners are tormented after
death. It is also the abode of Yama, the god of Death. It is described as located in the south of
the universe and beneath the earth.

The number and names of hells, as well as the type of sinners sent to a particular hell, varies
from text to text; however, many scriptures describe 28 hells. After death, messengers of Yama
called Yamadutas bring all beings to the court of Yama, where he weighs the virtues and the
vices of the being and passes a judgement, sending the virtuous to Svarga (heaven) and the
sinners to one of the hells. The stay in Svarga or Naraka is generally described as temporary.
After the quantum of punishment is over, the souls are reborn as lower or higher beings as per
their merits (the exception being Hindu philosopher Madhva, who believes in
eternal damnation of the Tamo-yogyas in Andhatamas).
The Bhagavata Purana describes Naraka as beneath the earth: between the seven realms of the
underworld (Patala) and the Garbhodaka Ocean, which is the bottom of the universe. It is
located in the South of the universe. Pitrloka, where the dead ancestors (Pitrs) headed by
Agniṣvāttā reside, is also located in this region. Yama, the Lord of Naraka, resides in this realm
with his assistants. southern part of universe, below the earth but above Patal. The Vishnu
Purana mentions that it is located below the cosmic waters at the bottom of the
universe.The Hindu epics too agree that Naraka is located in the South, the direction which is
governed by Yama and is often associated with Death. Pitrloka is considered as the capital of
Yama, from where Yama delivers his justice.

Administration of Hell:

The god of Death, Yama, employs Yama-dutas (messengers of Yama) or Yama-purushas, who
bring souls of all beings to Yama for judgement. [3] Generally, all living beings, including
humans and beasts, go to Yama's abode upon death where they are judged. However, very
virtuous beings are taken directly to Svarga (heaven). People devoted to charity, especially
donors of food, and eternal truth speakers are spared the justice of Yama's court. War-heroes
who sacrifice their life and people dying in holy places like Kurukshetra are also described as
avoiding Yama.[6] Those who get moksha (salvation) also escape from the clutches of
yamadutas. Those who are generous and ascetics are given preferential treatment when
entering Naraka for judgement. The way is lighted for those who donated lamps, while those
who underwent religious fasting are carried by peacocks and geese.

12
Court of Yama, c. 1800

Yama, as Lord of Justice, is called Dharma-raja. Yama sends the virtuous to Svarga to
enjoy the luxuries of paradise. He also assesses the vices of the dead and accords judgement,
assigning them to appropriate hells as punishment commensurate with the severity and nature
of their sins.[3][4] A person is not freed of samsara (the cycle of birth-death-rebirth) and must
take birth again after his prescribed pleasure in Svarga or punishment in Naraka is over. [3]
Yama is aided by his minister Chitragupta, who maintains a record of all good and evil actions
of every living being. Yama-dhutas are also assigned the job of executing the punishments on
sinners in the various hells.

Naraka, as a whole, is known by many names conveying that it is the realm of Yama.
Yamālaya, Yamaloka, Yamasādana and Yamalokāya mean the abode of Yama. Yamakṣaya
(the akṣaya of Yama) and its equivalents like Vaivasvatakṣaya use pun for the word kṣaya,
which can be mean abode or destruction. It is also called Saṃyamanī, "where only truth is
spoken, and the weak torment the strong", Mṛtyulokāya – the world of Death or of the dead and
the "city of the king of ghosts", Pretarājapura.

The Agni Purana mentions only 4 hells. Some texts mention 7 hells: Put ("childless", for the
childless), Avichi ("waveless", for those waiting for reincarnation), Samhata ("abandoned", for
evil beings), Tamisra ("darkness", where darkness of hells begin), Rijisha ("expelled", where

13
torments of hell begin), Kudmala ("leprous", the worst hell for those who are going to be
reincarnated) and Kakola ("black poison", the bottomless pit, for those who are eternally
condemned to hell and have no chance of reincarnation).

The Manu Smriti mentions 21 hells: Tamisra, Andhatamisra, Maharaurava, Raurava, Kalasutra,
Mahanaraka, Samjivana, Mahavichi, Tapana, Sampratapana, Samhata, Sakakola, Kudmala,
Putimrittika, Lohasanku, Rijisha, Pathana, Vaitarani, Salmali, Asipatravana and Lohadaraka.
The Yajnavalkya Smriti also lists twenty-one: Tamisra, Lohasanku, Mahaniraya, Salamali,
Raurava, Kudmala, Putimrittika, Kalasutraka, Sanghata, Lohitoda, Savisha, Sampratapana,
Mahanaraka, Kakola, Sanjivana, Mahapatha, Avichi, Andhatamisra, Kumbhipaka,
Asipatravana and Tapana.

The Bhagavata Purana, the Vishnu Purana and the Devi Bhagavata Purana enlist and describe
28 hells; however, they end the description by stating that there are hundreds and thousands of
hells. The Bhagavata Purana enumerates the following 28: Tamisra, Andhatamisra, Raurava,
Maharaurava, Kumbhipaka, Kalasutra, Asipatravana, Sukaramukha, Andhakupa,
Krimibhojana, Samdamsa, Taptasurmi, Vajrakantaka-salmali, Vaitarani, Puyoda, Pranarodha,
Visasana, Lalabhaksa, Sarameyadana, Avichi, Ayahpana, Ksharakardama, Raksogana-bhojana,
Sulaprota, Dandasuka, Avata-nirodhana, Paryavartana and Suchimukha. The Devi Bhagavata
14
Purana agrees with the Bhagavata Purana in most of names; however, a few names are
slightly different. Taptasurmi, Ayahpana, Raksogana-bhojana, Avata-nirodhana, Paryavartana
are replaced by Taptamurti, Apahpana, Raksogana-sambhoja, Avatarodha, Paryavartanataka
respectively. The Vishnu Purana mentions the 28 in the following order: Raurava, Shukara,
Rodha, Tala, Visasana, Mahajwala, Taptakumbha, Lavana, Vimohana, Rudhirandha, Vaitaraní,
Krimiśa, Krimibhojana, Asipatravana, Krishna, Lalabhaksa, Dáruńa, Púyaváha, Pápa,
Vahnijwála, Adhośiras, Sandansa, Kalasutra, Tamas, Avichi, Śwabhojana, Apratisht́ha, and
another Avichi.

Descriptions:

Various sins and corresponding punishments in hells.

Early texts like the Rigveda do not have a detailed description of Naraka. It is simply a place of
evil and a dark bottomless pit. The Atharvaveda describes a realm of darkness, where
murderers are confined after death.
The Shatapatha Brahmana is the first text to mention the pain and suffering of Naraka in
detail, while the Manu Smriti begins naming the multiple hells.The epics also describe Hell in
general terms as a dense jungle without shade, where there is no water and no rest. The
Yamadutas torment souls on the orders of their master.
The names of many of hells is common in Hindu texts; however, the nature of sinners
tormented in particular hells varies from text to text.
Bhagavata Purana are as follows:

1. Tamisra (darkness): It is intended for a person who grabs another's wealth, wife or
children. In this dark realm, he is bound with ropes and starved without food or water.
He is beaten and reproached by Yamadutas till he faints.
2. Andhatamisra (blind-darkness): Here, a man – who deceives another man and enjoys
his wife or children – is tormented to the extent he loses his intelligence and sight. The
torture is described as cutting the tree at its roots.

The summary of twenty-eight hells described in the Bhagavata Purana and the Devi
Raurava (fearful or hell of rurus): As per the Bhagavata Purana and the Devi Bhagavata
Purana, it is assigned for a person who cares about his own and his family's good, but harms
other living beings and is always envious of others. The living beings hurt by such a man take
the form of savage serpent-like beasts called rurus and torture this person. The Vishnu
Purana deems this hell fit for a false witness or one who lies
3. Maharaurava (great-fearful): A person who indulges at the expense of other beings is
afflicted with pain by fierce rurus called kravyadas, who eat his flesh.
4. Kumbhipaka (cooked in a pot): A person who cooks beasts and birds alive is cooked
alive in boiling oil by Yamadutas here, for as many years as there were hairs on the
bodies of their animal victims.
5. Kalasutra (thread of Time/Death): The Bhagavata Purana assigns this hell to a
murderer of a brahmin, while the Devi Bhagavata Purana allocates it for a person who
15
 disrespects his parents, elders, ancestors or Brahmins. This realm is made entirely of
copper and extremely hot, heated by fire from below and the red hot sun from above.
Here, the sinner burns from within by hunger and thirst and the smouldering heat
outside, whether he sleeps, sits, stands or runs.
6. Asipatravana/Asipatrakanana (forest of sword leaves): The Bhagavata Purana and
the Devi Bhagavata Purana reserve this hell for a person who digresses from the
religious teachings of the Vedas and indulges in heresy. The Vishnu Purana states that
wanton tree-felling leads to this hell.[5] Yamadutas beat them with whips as they try to
run away in the forest where palm trees have swords as leaves. Afflicted with injury of
whips and swords, they faint and cry out for help in vain.
7. Shukaramukha (hog's mouth): It houses kings or government officials who punish the
innocent or grant corporal punishment to a Brahmin. Yamadutas crush him as sugar
cane is crushed to extract juice. He will yell and scream in agony, just as the guiltless
suffered.
8. Andhakupa (well with its mouth hidden): It is the hell where a person who harms others
with the intention of malice and harms insects is confined. He is attacked by birds,
mammals, reptiles, mosquitoes, lice, worms, flies and others, who deprive him of rest
and compel him to run hither and thither.
9. Krimibhojana/Krimibhaksha (worm-food): As per the Bhagavata Purana and the Devi
Bhagavata Purana, it is where a person who does not share his food with guests, elders,
children or the gods, and selfishly eats it alone, and he who eats without performing the
five yajnas (panchayajna) is chastised. The Vishnu Purana states that one who loathes
his father, Brahmins or the gods and who destroys jewels is punished here. [5] This hell
is a 100,000 yojana lake filled with worms. The sinful person is reduced to a worm,
who feeds on other worms, who in turn devour his body for 100,000 years.
10. Sandansa/Sandamsa (hell of pincers): The Bhagavata Purana and the Devi Bhagavata
Purana state that a person who robs a Brahmin or steals jewels or gold from someone,
when not in dire need, is confined to this hell. [3][4] However, the Vishnu Purana tells the
violators of vows or rules endure pain here. His body is torn by red-hot iron balls and
tongs.
11. Taptasurmi/Taptamurti (red-hot iron statue): A man or woman who indulges in illicit
sexual relations with a woman or man is beaten by whips and forced to embrace red-hot
iron figurines of the opposite sex.
12. Vajrakantaka-salmali (the silk-cotton tree with thorns like thunderbolts/vajras): A
person who has sexual intercourse with non-humans or who has excessive coitus is tied
to the Vajrakantaka-salmali tree and pulled by Yamadutas so that the thorns tear his
body.
13. Vaitarni/Vaitarna (to be crossed): It is a river that is believed to lie between Naraka and
the earth. This river, which forms the boundary of Naraka, is filled with excreta, urine,
pus, blood, hair, nails, bones, marrow, flesh and fat, where fierce aquatic beings eat the
person's flesh. As per the Bhagavata Purana and the Devi Bhagavata Purana, a person
born in a respectable family – kshatriya (warrior-caste), royal family or government
official – who neglects his duty is thrown into this river of hell. The Vishnu
Purana assigns it to the destroyer of a bee-hive or a town.
14. Puyoda (water of pus): Shudras (workmen-caste) and husbands or sexual partners of
lowly women and prostitutes – who live like beasts devoid of cleanliness and good
behaviour – fall in Puyoda, the ocean of pus, excreta, urine, mucus, saliva and other
repugnant things. Here, they are forced to eat these disgusting things.
15. Pranarodha (obstruction to life): Some Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas (merchant
caste) indulge in the sport of hunting with their dogs and donkeys in the forest, resulting
in wanton killing of beasts. Yamadutas play archery sport with them as the targets in
this hell
16. Visashana (murderous): The Bhagavata Purana and the Devi Bhagavata
Purana mention that Yamadutas whip a person, who has pride of his rank and wealth
and sacrifices beasts as a status symbol, and finally kill him. [3][4] The Vishnu
Purana associates it with the maker of spears, swords, and other weapons.
17. Lalabhaksa (saliva as food): As per the Bhagavata Purana and the Devi Bhagavata
Purana, a Brahmin, a Ksahtriya or a Vaishya husband, who forces his wife to drink his
semen out of lust and to enforce his control, is thrown in a river of semen, which he is
forced to drink. The Vishnu Purana disagrees stating that one who eats before offering
food to the gods, the ancestors or guests is brought to this hell. [5]
18. Sarameyadana (hell of the sons of Sarama): Plunderers who burn houses and poison
people for wealth, and kings and other government officials who grab money of
merchants, mass murder or ruin the nation, are cast into this hell. Seven hundred and

16
 twenty ferocious dogs, the sons of Sarama, with razor-sharp teeth, prey on them at the
behest of Yamadutas.
19.

20. Avici/Avicimat (waterless/waveless): A person, who lies on oath or in business, is

repeatedly thrown head-first from a 100 yojana high mountain whose sides are stone
waves, but without water. His body is continuously broken, but it is made sure that he
does not die.
21. Ayahpana (iron-drink): Anybody else under oath or a Brahmin who drinks alcohol is
punished here. Yamadutas stand on their chests and force them to drink molten-iron.
22. Ksarakardama (acidic/saline mud/filth): One who in false pride, does not honour a
person higher than him by birth, austerity, knowledge, behaviour, caste or spiritual
order, is tortured in this hell. Yamadutas throw him head-first and torment him
23. Raksogana-bhojana (food of Rakshasas): Those who practise human-sacrifice and
cannibalism are condemned to this hell. Their victims, in the form of Rakshasas, cut
them with sharp knives and swords. The Rakshasas feast on their blood and sing and
dance in joy, just as the sinners slaughtered their victims.
24. Shulaprota (pierced by sharp pointed spear/dart): Some people give shelter to birds or
animals pretending to be their saviours, but then harass them poking with threads,
needles or using them like lifeless toys. Also, some people behave the same way to
humans, winning their confidence and then killing them with sharp tridents or lances.
The bodies of such sinners, fatigued with hunger and thirst, are pierced with sharp,
needle-like spears. Ferocious carnivorous birds like vultures and herons tear and gorge
their flesh.
25. Dandasuka (snakes): Filled with envy and fury, some people harm others like snakes.
These are destined to be devoured by five or seven hooded serpents in this hell.
26. Avata-nirodhana (confined in a hole): People who imprison others in dark wells,
crannies or mountain caves are pushed into this hell, a dark well engulfed with
poisonous fumes and smoke that suffocates them.
27. Paryavartana (returning): A householder who welcomes guests with cruel glances and
abuses them is restrained in this hell. Hard-eyed vultures, herons, crows and similar
birds gaze on them and suddenly fly and pluck his eyes.
28. Sucimukha (needle-face): An ever-suspicious man is always wary of people trying to
grab his wealth. Proud of his money, he sins to gain and to retain it. Yamadutas stitch
thread through his whole body in this hell.
17
 29. Though the Vishnu Purana mentions 28 hells, it gives information only about sinners
condemned in 21 hells and does not give details about the punishments. The hells
described in the Vishnu Purana, but not in the Bhagavata Purana and the Devi
Bhagavata Purana are as follows:
30. Rodha (obstruction): A causer of abortion, a murderer of a cow, a plunderer or one who
strangles a man is cast here.
31. Sukara (hog): A murderer of a Brahmin, a stealer of gold or an alcoholic and those all
associated with them fall into this hell.
32. Tala (padlock): Murder of a Kshatriya or a Vaishya and adultery with wife of a
religious leader leads here.
33. Taptakumbha (hot pots): Incest with sister and murderer of an ambassador results in
torment in this hell.
34. Taptaloha (hot iron): A wife-seller, a jailer and one who abandons his followers is
tortured here.
35. Mahajwala (great-fire): Incest with daughter or daughter-in-law brings one here.
36. Lavana (salt): One who vilifies his guru, people superior to them or the Vedas go to this
hell.
37. Vimohana (the place of bewildering): A thief or those who despise prescribed
observances are tormented here.
38. Krimisha (hell of insects): One who uses magic to harm others is condemned here.
39. Vedhaka (piercing): The maker of arrows is damned to this hell.
40. Adhomukha (head-inverted): He who takes bribes, an astrologer and he who worships
improper objects is cast here.
41. Púyaváha (where matter falls): A Brahmin who sells lac, meat, alcohol, salt; he who
commits violence and he who eats sweets without sharing falls in this hell.
42. Rudhirándha (wells of blood): Wrestlers or boxers who commit violence for
entertainment, fishermen, followers of bastards, arsonists, poisoners, informants,
fortune-tellers, traitors, those who have coitus on sacred taboo days and those who live
off their wives' prostitution are cast here.
43. Krishna (dark/black): A fraudster, a trespasser and one who causes impotence is cast
into this hell.
44. Vahnijwala (fiery flame): Potters, hunters and shepherds and others are punished here.
45. Shwabhojana (food of dogs): A religious student who sleeps in the day and one who
does not have spiritual knowledge and learns it from children are damned here.
46. The Hindu religion regards Hell not as a place of lasting permanence, but as an alternate
domain from which an individual can return to the present world after crimes in the
previous life have been compensated for. These crimes are eventually nullified through
an equal punishment in the next life. The concept of Hell has provided many different
opportunities for the Hindu religion including narrative, social and economic functions.

Narrative
A narrative rationale for the concept of Hell can be found in the Hindu epic Mahabharata. This
narrative ends with Yudhishthira's visit to hell after being offered acceptance into heaven. This
journey creates a scene for the audience that helps illustrate the importance of understanding
hell as well as heaven before accepting either extreme. This idea provides an essential lesson
regarding Dharma, a primary theme within the Mahabharata. Dharma is not a black and white
concept, and all people are not entirely good or entirely evil. As such, tolerance is essential in
order to truly understand the “right way of living”. We all must understand the worst to truly
understand and appreciate the best just as we must experience the best before we can
experience the worst. This narrative utilizes the Hindu religion in order to teach lessons on
tolerance and acceptance of one another's faults as well as virtues.

Social
A social rationale for the Hindu concept of rebirth in Hell is evident in the metric work of
the Manusmrti: a written discourse focused on the “law of the social classes”. A large portion
of it is designed to help people of the Hindu faith understand evil deeds (pätaka) and
their karmic consequences in various hellish rebirths. The Manusmrti, however, does not go
into explicit detail of each hell. For this we turn to the Bhagavata Purana. The Manusmrti lists
multiple levels of hell in which a person can be reborn into. The punishments in each of these
consecutive hells is directly related to the crimes (pätaka) of the current life and how these
deeds will affect the next reincarnation during the cycle of Saṃsāra This concept provides
structure to society in which crimes have exacting consequences. An opposite social facet to
these hellish rebirths is the precise way in which a person can redeem himself/herself from a
particular crime through a series of vows (such as fasting, water purification rituals, chanting,

18
and even sacrifices). These vows must take place during the same life cycle that the crimes
were committed in. These religious lessons assist the societal structure by defining approved
and unapproved social behavior.

Economic
The last Hindu function for Hell-based reincarnations is the text Preta khanda in the Garuda
Purana used by Hindu priests during Śrāddha rituals. During these rituals, the soul of a dying or
deceased individual is given safe passage into the next life. This ritual is directly related to the
economic prosperity of Hindu priests and their ability to “save” the dying soul from a hellish
reincarnation through gifts given on behalf of the deceased to the priest performing the ritual.
With each gift given, crimes committed during the deceased's life are forgiven and the next life
is progressively improved.

The Garuda Purana is one of 18 Mahāpurāṇ of texts in Hinduism. It is a part

of Vaishnavism literature corpus primarily centering around Hindu god Vishnu praises all
gods. Composed in Sanskrit, the earliest version of the text may have been composed in the
first millennium BCE but it was likely expanded and changed over a long period of time.
The Garuda Purana text is known in many versions, contains 16000 verses. Its chapters
encyclopedically deal with a highly diverse collection of topicsThe text
contains cosmology, mythology, relationship between gods, ethics, good versus evil, various
schools of Hindu philosophies, the theory of Yoga, the theory of "heaven and hell" with "karma
and rebirth", ancestral rites and soteriology, rivers and geography, types of minerals and stones,
testing methods for gems for their quality, listing of plants and herbs various diseases and their
symptoms, various medicines, aphrodisiacs, prophylactics, Hindu calendar and its basis,
astronomy, moon, planets, astrology, architecture, building home, essential features of a Hindu
temple, rites of passage, charity and gift making, economy, thrift, duties of a king, politics,
state officials and their roles and how to appoint them, genre of literature, rules of grammar,
and other topics. The final chapters discuss how to practice Yoga (Samkhya and Advaita
types), personal development and the benefits of self-knowledge.
The Padma Purana categorizes the Purana, along with itself, Bhagavata Purana and Vishnu
Purana, as a Sattva Purana (a purana which represents goodness and purity). The text, like all
Mahapuranas, is attributed to sage Veda Vyāsa in the Hindu tradition.
History: It was composed in according to Pintchman estimates that the text was composed
sometime in the first millennium of the common era, but it was likely compiled and changed
over a long period of time. Gietz et al. place the first version of the text only between the
fourth century CE and the eleventh century.
Leadbeater states that the text is likely from about 900 CE, given that it includes chapters
on Yoga and Tantra techniques that likely developed later. Other scholars suggest that the
earliest core of the text may be from the first centuries of the common era, and additional
chapters were added thereafter through the sixth century or later
The version of Garuda Purana that survives into the modern era, states Dalal, is likely from 800
to 1000 CE with sections added in the 2nd-millennium. Pintchman suggests 850 to 1000 CE.
Chaudhuri and Banerjee, as well as Hazra, on the other hand, state it cannot be from before
about the tenth or eleventh century CE.
The text exists in many versions, with varying numbers of chapters, and considerably different
content. Some Garuda Purana manuscripts have been known by the title of Sauparna
Purana (mentioned in Bhagavata Purana section 12.13), Tarksya Purana (the Persian scholar
Al-Biruni who visited India mentions this name), and Vainateya Purana (mentioned in Vayu
Purana section 2.42 and 104.8).

In the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, a text

called Garudapuranasaroddhara was published, then translated by Ernest Wood and SV
Subrahmanyam. This, states Ludo Rocher, created major confusion because it was mistaken for
Garuda Purana, when it is not, a misidentification first discovered by Albrecht Weber.Garuda-
purana-saroddhara actually is the original bhasya work of Naunidhirama, that cites a section
of now non-existent version of Garuda Purana as well as other Indian texts. The earliest
translation of one version of Garuda Purana, by Manmatha Nath Dutt, was published in the
early twentieth century.

19
The text revolves around Vishnu, as recited by Garuda. Above: Vishnu and Lakshmi on Garuda
(Delhi National Museum).

The Garuda Purana is a Vaishnava Purana and has, according to the tradition, 19,000 shlokas
(verses). However, the manuscripts that have survived into the modern era have preserved
about eight thousand verses. These are divided into two parts, a Purva Khanda (early section)
and an Uttara Khanda (later section). The Purva Khanda contains about 229 chapters, but in
some versions of the text this section has between 240–243 chapters.The Uttara Khanda varies
between 34 and 49 chaptersThe Uttara Khanda is more often known
as Pretakhanda or Pretakalpa.

The Garuda Purana was likely fashioned after the Agni Purana, the other major medieval India
encyclopedia that has survived. The text's structure is idiosyncratic, in that it is a medley, and
does not follow the theoretical structure expected in a historic Puranic genre of Indian
literature.[6] It is presented as information learned from Vishnu by Garuda (the man-bird
vehicle of Vishnu), and then narrated by Garuda to sage Kashyapa, which then spread in the
mythical forest of Naimisha reaching sage Vyasa

The largest section (90%) of the text is Purva Khanda that discusses a wide range of topics
associated with life and living. The remaining is Pretakhanda, which deals primarily with
rituals associated with death and cremation.
Cosmology
The cosmology presented in Garuda Purana revolves around Vishnu and Lakshmi, and it is
their union that created the universe. Vishnu is the unchanging reality called Brahman, while
Lakshmi is the changing reality called Maya. The goddess is the material cause of the universe,
the god acts to begin the process

The cosmogenesis in Garuda Purana, like other Puranas, weaves the Samkhya theory of two
realities, the Purusha (spirit) and Prakriti (matter), the masculine and feminine presented as
interdependent, each playing a different but essential role to create the observed
universe. Goddess Lakshmi is the creative power of Prakriti, cosmic seed and the source of
creation. God Vishnu is the substance of Purusha, the soul and the constant. The masculine and
the feminine are presented by the Garuda Purana, states Pintchman, as an inseparable aspect of
the same divine, metaphysical truth Brahman
.
The Garuda Purana, states Madan, elaborates the repeatedly found theme in Hindu religious
thought that the living body is a microcosm of the universe, governed by the same laws and
made out of the same substances.[20] All the gods are inside the human body, what is outside
the body is present within it as well. Body and cosmos, states Madan, are equated in this
theme. Vishnu is presented by the text as the supreme soul within the body.

Worship of Vishnu, Lakshmi, Shiva, Surya, Ganesha, Durga and others

The text describes Vishnu, Vaishnava festivals and Puja (worship), and offers Mahatmya—a
pilgrimage tour guide[23] to Vishnu-related sacred places. However, the Garuda Purana also

20
includes significant sections with reverence for Shaiva, Shakti and Smarta traditions, including
the Panchayatana puja of Vishnu, Shiva, Durga, Surya (Sun) and Ganesha.
Features of a temple

The Garuda Purana describes a 8x8 (64) grid Hindu Temple Floor Plan in chapter 47 of
Purvakhanda.

The Garuda Purana includes chapters on the architecture and design of a temple It
recommends that a plot of ground should be divided into 64 squares, with the four innermost
squares forming the Chatuskon (adytum). The core of the temple, states the text, should be
reachable through 12 entrances, and the walls of the temple raised touching the 48 of the
squares.[26] The height of the temple plinth should be based on the length of the platform, the
vault in the inner sanctum should be co-extensive with adytum's length with the indents therein
set at a third and a fifth ratio of the inner vault's chord The arc should be half the height of
pinnacle, and the text describes various ratios of the temple's exterior to the adytum, those
within adytum and then that of the floor plan to the Vimana (spire).
The second design details presented in the Garuda Purana is for a 16 square grid, with four
inner squares (pada) for the adytum.[26] The text thereafter presents the various ratios for the
temple design.[26] The dimensions of the carvings and images on the walls, edifices, pillars and
the murti are recommended by the text to be certain harmonic proportions of the layout (length
of a pada), the adytum and the spire.
Temples, asserts the text, exist in many thematic forms. These include the Bairaja (rectangle
themed), Puspakaksa (quadrilateral themed), Kailasha (circular
themed), Malikahvaya (segments of sphere themed) and the Tripistapam (octagon themed).
These five themes, claims Garuda Purana, have created 45 different styles of temples, from the
Meru style to Shrivatsa style. Each thematic form of temple architecture permits nine styles of
temples, and the Purana lists all 45 styles. The inner edifice of a temple is best in five shapes, in
these various styles of temples, and the edifice can be triangle, lotus-shaped, crescent,
rectangular and octagonal, asserts the text. The text thereafter describes the design guidelines
for the Mandapa and the Garbha Griha.
The temple design, states Jonathan Parry, follows the homology at the foundation of Hindu
thought, that the cosmos and body are harmonious correspondence of each other, the temple is
a model and reminder of this cosmic homology.

Gemology

The Garuda Purana describes 14 gems, their varieties and how to test their quality. The gems
discussed include ruby, pearl, yellow sapphire, hessonite, emerald, diamond, cats eye, Blue
Sapphire, coral, red garnet, jade, colorless quartz, and bloodstone. The technical discussion of
gems in the text is woven with its theories on the mythical creation of each gem, astrological
significance and talisman benefits.

Gems: how to buy them?

First the shape, color, defects or excellences of a gem should be carefully tested and then its
price should be ascertained in consultation with a gem expert who has studied all the books
dealing with the precious stones.
—Garuda Purana, Purvakhanda, Chapter 68-(Translator: MN Dutt)

The text describes the characteristics of the gems, how to clean and make jewelry from them,
cautioning that gem experts should be consulted before buying them. For pearl, for example, it
describes using Jamvera fruit juice (contains lime) mixed with boiled rice starch in order to
clean and soften pearls, then pierced to make holes for jewelry.

21
A sequential Vitanapatti method of cleaning, states the text, wherein the pearls are cleaned with
hot water, wine and milk gives the best results. [33] A pearl, asserts the text, should be examined
by friction test which it describes. Similar procedures and tests are described for emerald, jade,
diamonds and all 14 gems the text includes.
Laws of virtue

Chapter 93 of the Garuda Purvakhanda presents sage Yajnavalkya's theory on laws of virtue.
The text asserts that knowledge is condensed in the Vedas, in texts of different schools of
philosophy such as Nyaya and Mimamsa, the Shastras on Dharma, on making money and
temporal sciences written by 14 holy sages. Thereafter, through Yajnavalkya, the text presents
its laws of virtue. The first one, it lists, is charity (Dāna), which it defines as follows,
A gift, made at a proper time and place, to a deserving person, in a true spirit of compassionate
sympathy, carries the merit of all sorts of pious acts.
— Garuda Purana, Chapter 93
The text similarly discusses the following virtues—right conduct, damah (self-
restraint), ahimsa (non-killing, non-violence in actions, words and thoughts), studying
the Vedas, and performing rites of passage. The text presents different set of diet and rites of
passage rules based on the varna (social class) of a person.[36] The Brahmin, for example, is
advised to forgo killing animals and eating meat, while it is suggested to
undertake Upanayana (holy thread ceremony) at the youngest age. No dietary rules are advised
for Shudra, nor is the thread ceremony discussed. These chapters on laws of virtue, in one
version of the Garuda Purana, are borrowed and a duplicate of nearly 500 verses found in
the Yajnavalkya Smriti. The various versions of Garuda Purana show significant variations.
The Garuda Purana asserts that the highest and most imperative religious duty is to introspect
into one's own soul, seeking self-communion.
Nithichara

The chapter 108 and thereafter, present Garuda Purana's theories on Nithichara (नित्याचार,
ethics and right conduct) towards others.
Quit the country where you can find neither friends nor pleasures, nor in which is there any
knowledge to be gained.
— Garuda Purana, Chapter 109
Ethics
Little by little a man should acquire learning.
Little by little a mountain should be climbed.
Little by little desires should be gratified.
—Garuda Purana, Purvakhanda, Chapter 109

Save money for times of distress, asserts Garuda Purana, but be willing to give it up all to save
your wife. It is prudent to save a family if that requires sacrificing oneself, and it is prudent to
save a village if that requires sacrificing one family, states the Purana. It is prudent to save a
country if left with a choice to save the country or a village. Yet, in verses that follow, the
Garuda Purana asserts that a man should renounce that country whose inhabitants champion
prejudice, and forgo the friend who he discovers to be deceitful.
The text rhetorically cautions against application of knowledge which is wedded to meanness,
cautions against pursuit of physical beauty without ennobling mind, and cautions against
making friends with those who abandon their dear ones in adversity. It is the nature of all living
beings, asserts the Garuda Purana, to pursue one's own self-interest. Yet, do not acquire wealth,
states the text, through vicious means or by bowing down to your enemies.
Men of excellence, asserts the Purana, live with honest means, are true to their wives, pass their
time in intellectual pursuits and are hospitable to newcomers. Eternal are the rewards when one
weds one's knowledge with noble nature, deep is the friendship roused by connection of the
soul, states Garuda Purana The discussion on ethics is mixed in other chapters of Garuda
Purana.

The good government

Governance is part of the Nitisastra section of the Garuda Purana, and this section influenced
later Indian texts on politics and economy.
The Purvakhanda, from chapter 111 onwards describes the characteristics of a good king and
good government. Dharma should guide the king, the rule should be based on truth and justice,
and he must protect the country from foreign invaders. Taxation should be bearable, never
cause hardship on the merchants or taxpayers, and should be similar in style to one used by the
florist who harvests a few flowers without uprooting the plants and while sustaining the future
crops. A good government, claims Garuda Purana, advances order and prosperity for all.

22
A stable king is one whose kingdom is prosperous, whose treasury is full, and who never
chastises his ministers or servants. He secures services from the qualified, honest and virtuous,
rejects the incapable, wicked and malicious, states chapter 113 of the text. A good government,
states the Purana, collects taxes like a bee collecting honey from all the flowers when ready and
without draining any flower.

Dhanvantari Samhita and medicine

The chapters 146 to 218 of the Garuda Purana's Purvakhanda present the Dhanvantari Samhita,
its treatise on medicine. The opening verses assert that the text will now describe pathology,
pathogeny and symptoms of all diseases studied by ancient sages, in terms of its causes,
incubative stage, manifestation in full form, amelioration, location, diagnosis and treatment.
Parts of the pathology and medicine-related chapters of Garuda Purana, states Ludo Rocher, are
similar to Nidanasthana of Vagbhata's Astangahridaya, and these two may be different
manuscript recensions of the same underlying but now lost text. [13] Other chapters of Garuda
Purana, such as those on nutrition and diet to prevent diseases, states Susmita Pande, are
similar to those found in the more ancient Hindu text Sushruta Samhita.
The text includes various lists of diseases, agricultural products, herbs, formulations with
claims to medicinal value and such information. In chapters 202 and 227 of the Purvakhanda,
for example, Sanskrit names of over 450 plants and herbs are listed with claims to nutritional or
medicinal value.

Veterinary science
The chapter 226 of the text presents veterinary diseases of horse and their treatment. The verses
describe various types of ulcers and cutaneous infections in horses, and 42 herbs for veterinary
care formulations.
Moksha is Oneness
The Yogins, through Yoga,
realise their being with the supreme Brahman.
Realization of this is called Mukti.
—Garuda Purana, Purvakhanda, Chapter 235
(Abridged, Translator: MN Dutt)

Yoga, Brahma Gita

The last ten chapters of the Purvakhanda is dedicated to Yoga, and is sometimes referred to as
the Brahma Gita.This section is notable for references to Hindu deity Dattatreya as the Guru of
eight limb Yoga.
The text describes a variety of Asanas (postures), then adds that the postures are means, not the
goal. The goal of yoga is meditation, samadhi and self-knowledge.
The Garuda Purana in chapter 229, states Ian Whicher, recommends using saguna Vishnu
(with form like a murti) in the early stages of Yoga meditation to help concentration and draw
in one's attention with the help of the gross form of the object. After this has been mastered,
states the text, the meditation should shift from saguna to nirguna, unto the subtle, abstract
formless Vishnu within, with the help of a guru (teacher). These ideas of Garuda Purana were
influential, and were cited by later texts such as in verse 3.3 of the 17th-century Arthabodhini

The Last Goodbye

Go forth, go forth upon those ancient pathways,
By which your former fathers have departed.
Thou shalt behold god Varuna, and Yama,
both kings, in funeral offerings rejoicing.
Unite thou with the Fathers and with Yama,
with istapurta in the highest heaven.
Leaving behind all blemish homeward return,
United with thine own body, full of vigor.
— Rigveda 10.14, Yama Suktam (Abridged)
(The cremation hymn in Garuda Purana

The second section of the text, also known as Uttara Khanda and Pretakalpa, includes chapters
on funeral rites and life after death. This section was commented upon by Navanidhirama in his
publication Garuda Purana Saroddhara and translated by Wood and Subramanyam in 1911.
The text specifies the following for last rites:

A dead child, who died before completing his second year, should be buried instead of being
cremated, and no sort of Sraddha or Udaka-kriya is necessary. The friends or relatives of a

23
child, dead after completing its second year of life, shall carry its corpse to the cremation
ground and exhume it in fire by mentally reciting the Yama Suktam (Rigveda 10.14).
— Garuda Purana,

The Pretakhanda is the second and minor part of Garuda Purana. It is, states Rocher,
"entirely unsystematic work" presented with motley confusion and many repetitions in the
Purana, dealing with "death, the dead and beyond". Monier Monier-Williams wrote in 1891,
that portions of verses recited at cremation funerals are perhaps based on this relatively modern
section of the Garuda Purana, but added that Hindu funeral practices do not always agree with
guidance in the Garuda Purana. Three quite different versions of Pretakhanda of Garuda
Purana are known, and the variation between the chapters, states Jonathan Parry, is enormous.

Every year, the festival of Diwali in India is celebrated with great pomp. In such a situation,
Chaturdashi of Kartik Krishna Paksha is called Naraka Chaturdashi which is today. Yes, this
day is also known as Chhoti Diwali, Roop Chaudas and Kali Chaudas and during this Yama
Puja, Krishna Puja and Kali Puja takes place, but very few people know that Vamana Puja is
also practiced on this day. In such a situation, it is said that on this day Vamana worship is
done in South India. Yes, on this day, King Bali (Mahabali) was blessed by Lord Vishnu in
Vamana avatar to reach him every year. For this reason, Vamana is worshiped. Let's know its
story.

Worship Maa Lakshmi in this good Muhurat on Diwali, financial prosperity will come at
home
Story- When Lord Vamana took the entire tri-measure in two steps, he told King Bali that
where should I put my third step, then King Bali said that the Lord now it is my head. God was
pleased to hear this and said that demand whatever you wish like. Then Anusaraja sacrificed, O
Lord! You have measured my entire earth during the period of Kartik Krishna Trayodashi to
Amavasya, so the person who will donate a lamp for Yamraj on Chaturdashi in my state,
should not suffer Yama and the person who celebrates the festival of Deepawali in these three
days.
Laxmiji never leaves his house. Give such a boon. Hearing this prayer, Lord Vaman said -
Rajan! This will be the case. After this boon given by Lord Vamana to King Bali, on the day of
Narak Chaturdashi, fasting, worshiping and lamp donation started for Yamraj.

24
Naraka Chaturdashi – Diwali of South India

NARAKA CHATURDASHI – DIWALI OF SOUTH INDIA

Though Diwali is celebrated throughout India, however there are differences in the ways in
which it is celebrated in different regions of the country. Often there is one day difference in
the North and South Indian celebrations. Lighting of Diya’s and bursting crackers is all same,
the only difference is South Indians celebrate a day earlier than North Indians and celebrate it
early in the morning where as North Indians celebrate the Diwali on No moon day (Amavasya)
and in the evening with Lakshmi Pooja.
In South India, Diwali is being celebrated as Naraka Chaturdashi. Festivities are on in Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. However in the last two states
Diwali is celebrated as a two-day festival with Naraka Chaturdasi being the day where the men
are given the victory bathe and the amavasya as the Lakshmi Pooja and Diwali day.
In the South, Diwali festival often commemorates the conquering of the Asura Naraka, a
powerful king of Assam, who imprisoned tens of thousands of inhabitants. It was Krishna who
finally subdued Naraka and freed the prisoners.
Legends
According to Hindu legend, this day commemorates the victory of Kali, Satyabhama and
Krishna over Narakasura the demon-king. Naraka Chaturdashi is also celebrated as ‘Chhoti
Diwali’ or ‘Kali Puja’ in some places. It is believed that the day is auspicious to get rid of a
hex, curse, black magic or bad luck.
According to Hindu literature, Narakasura was a demon-king who had imprisoned 16,000
women which included the daughters of the Gods. He had also defeated the king of the Gods,
Lord Indra and stolen the earrings from Aditi, the mother of the Gods. Goddess Kali, Goddess
Satyabhama and Lord Krishna thus fought the battle with the demon and defeated him with
Krishna’s Sudarshana Chakra and Lord Krishna smeared his forehead with Naraka’s blood.
Chhoti Diwali
The day before Diwali is generally termed as ‘Chhoti Diwali’ or ‘Kali Puja’ in various parts of
India. A thorough Pre-Diwali cleaning is done throughout the house to welcome Goddess
Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth. Decorations are also put up at home and colourful Rangoli
patterns are drawn at the doorstep and are lit with diyas to welcome the goddess on Diwali.
Firecrackers are brought out in the evening and are burst by children and adults alike, spreading
light across neighbourhoods. This particular custom is mostly followed in the northern and
western parts of the country, though it is celebrated in the other parts as well.

25
Kali Puja
The literal meaning of ‘Kali Chaudas’ is dark and fourteenth, the day when Kali Puja or Shakti
Puja is done. Kali Puja is usually celebrated in the eastern part of the country, where people
pray for protection against spiritual, emotional and physical adversities. Children seem to the
most excited as they go shopping for firecrackers and Diwali bombs for the next evening.
Rituals
Festival is celebrated in Tamil month of aipasi (thula month) ‘naraka chaturdasi’ thithi,
preceding amavasya. The preparations begin the day before, when the oven is cleaned, smeared
with lime, four or five kumkum dots are applied, and then it is filled with water for the next
day’s oil bath. The house is washed and decorated with kolam (rangoli) patterns with kavi (red
oxide). In the pooja room, betel leaves, betel nuts, plaintain fruits, flowers, sandal paste,
kumkum, gingelly oil, turmeric powder, scented powder are kept. Crackers and new dresses are
placed in a plate after smearing a little kumkum or sandal paste.
The house is lit up with oil lamps and the ladies of the house perform aarti of the men. New
clothes are worn by the family members and sweets are offered to God. Special sweets and
savouries are distributed to family and friends such as Laddus, Chaklis, Sakkaparas,
Badamhalwa and Poha.

Narak Chaturdashi is celebrated in a special way in Goa, where paper-made effigies stuffed
with grass and firecrackers are burst at four in the morning. Men take scented oil baths, while
the women perform aarti for them. A bitter berry called the Kareeta is crushed under the feet
which symbolises the killing of Narakasura, and the removal of evil and ignorance.
Gifts are exchanged and the atmosphere is filled with a mood of celebration and festivity.
Different kinds of poha and sweets are prepared, offered to the God and enjoyed with family
and friends. Diwali is usually celebrated on Narak Chaturdashi in south India, while others
celebrate it on new moon night.

The Lord of death

What is Yama, the red Yama? Commonly speaking, we known him as the ‘Lord of Death.’
But, it is not really a correct kind of translation. In Buddhism, its real meaning is that
enlightenment can happen only when ignorance ends.

What is Yama, the red Yama? Commonly speaking, we known him as the ‘Lord of Death.’
But, it is not really a correct kind of translation. In Buddhism, its real meaning is that
enlightenment can happen only when ignorance ends.
It signals the end of ignorance and the beginning of light. For example, tomorrow can happen
when today ends. One can’t have today and tomorrow together on the same day! Today
happened because yesterday has ended.
Similary, this life has happened because the past life has ended. And the next life will happen
as soon as this life comes to an end. One can’t have this life as well as the past life, together.
And that defines the very meaning and essence of Yama.
The death of ignorance is the manifestation of primordial wisdom itself, but it is not a true
event. The end of yesterday and the beginning of today too is not a true event. Where do you
draw the fine line? Is that the Greenwich meantime, 12 O'clock, that you know? Which one is
the end of yesterday and the beginning of today? It depends where you are, of course. If you
are in the Greenwich meantime area, then yes, that is the end of yesterday and the beginning of
tomorrow. But you can’t really pinpoint because it would be a split moment, and that split
moment nobody can comprehend; we can only talk about it.
That is the way transformation takes place: Yesterday has transformed into today, the past life
has transformed into this life. It is exactly like that that ignorance transforms into wisdom.
So, one has to understand the real and the deeper definition of Yama, in that sense. The literary
meaning of Yama is quite scary, though. But actually, there is nothing like that. Our ignorance
is our Lord of Death!
Fundraiser: Mesopotamia Teaching Materials
Please help us create teaching materials on Mesopotamia (including several complete lessons
with worksheets, activities, answers, essay questions, and more), which will be free to
download for teachers all over the world.

Yama is the Hindu god of death, king of ancestors, and final judge on the destination of
souls. He is also known as the ‘Restrainer’, Pretaraja or ‘King of Ghosts’, Dharmaraja or ‘King
of Justice’, and as Daksinasapati is considered the regent of the South Quarter. Yama may also
be referred to simply as ‘Death’ – Antaka, Kala or Mrtyu. Due to his responsibility for good
decision-making based on records of a person’s deeds, the god is particularly associated with

26
the rule of law. Yama is also present in Iranian mythology, traditional Chinese and Japanese
mythology, and elements of Buddhism.
Yama’s Family Relations
Yama is the son of the sun god Vivasvat (or Visvavasu in other versions) and his mother is
Saranyu-Samjna (Conscience). He is the brother of Manu or Vaivasvata and he also has a twin
sister, Yami (or Yamuna). Yama and Yami are, in some myths, the first humans and creators of
the human race but in other versions Yama is the first human to die and so the first to pass into
the next world. Yama is considered the father of Yudhisthira, one of the five Pandu princes.
His wives are Hemamala, Vijaya, and Susila.

Yama as Judge of Souls

Unlike the god of the dead or the underworld in other cultures, Yama is not always described as
a punisher of the wicked. The god is feared by some, though, especially because of his two
great hounds. These fearsome creatures have four eyes and they guard the path which the dead
must take to reach Yama. The dogs are sometimes sent to the world of the living in order to
beckon souls to Yama. In other versions, a bird performs this duty, calling the dead to the
god’s city of Yamapura, deep in the murky underworld. In yet another version, Agni (the
Hindu god of fire and son of Yama and Yami) leads the dead to Yama.
When souls arrive in Yama’s Kalici palace, they are first met by Yama’s porter Vaidhyata and
then two attendants Kalapurusa and Chanda (or Mahachanda) usher them to an audience with
the great god. First, their worldly deeds are read out by Yama’s scribe Citragupta, who consults
a massive register, the Agrasandhani. Based on this evidence Yama sits on his throne of
judgement (Vicarabhu) and considers the three options he has at his disposal. The first and best
is to be given immortality by drinking soma and sent to live forevermore with the wise and
saintly pitrs or Manes, to whom Yama is king. Here the good will enjoy eternal happiness and
shine as stars in the celestial heavens. The second option is to be sent back into the world and
be reborn in order to, as it were, have another go at leading a good life, although not
necessarily as a human. The third and worst option is to be sent down into the 21 levels of hell;
the lower the level, the worse the punishment.

Yama’s Curse
Yama appears in an unflattering episode in the Puranas. Attempting to kick his mother
Samjna (or in another version Chaya, one of his father’s maids), Yama succeeded only in
receiving a curse from his would-be victim. He was condemned to have a terribly wounded leg
which never healed and became infested with maggots. Fortunately for Yama, his father gave
him a cock which ate all the vermin in his leg and eventually he recovered, even if his
permanently damaged leg thereafter gained him the name of Sirnapada or ‘shrivelled foot’.
Yama in Art
In Hindu art, Yama is often portrayed with green or blue skin and wearing red robes. His
vehicle is a buffalo (or elephant) and he often carries a mace or rod --which was made from a
part of the sun-- and a noose, the latter symbolic of his role as a catcher of souls. Indeed, he is
sometimes known as Pasi, ‘the noose-carrier’.
In Tibet, where Yama is known as Gsin-rje, the god is often represented with a demonic face
and viciously stamping on somebody. Yama appears in similar pose on reliefs at Angkor Wat,
Cambodia. Finally, he is a familiar statue figure in many Chinese temples where he is known as
Yen-lo wang.

Mark Cartwright.
https://www.ancient.eu/Yama/#:~:text=Yama%20is%20the%20Hindu%20god,regent%20of%2
0the%20South%20Quarter.
In East Asian and Buddhist mythology, Yama (sometimes known as the King of Hell, King
Yan (Yam) or Yanluo (Yamla) ) is a dharmapala (wrathful god) said to judge the dead and
preside over the Narakas ("Hells", "Hell Realm" or "Purgatories") and the cycle of
afterlife saṃsāra.
Although based on the god Yama of the Hindu Vedas, the Buddhist Yama has spread and
developed different myths and different functions from the Hindu deity. He has also spread far
more widely and is known in most countries where Buddhism is practiced,
including China, Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Vietnam, Bhutan, Mongolia, Thailand, Sri
Lanka, Cambodia, Myanmar and Laos.

In the Pali canon, the Buddha states that a person who has ill-treated their parents, ascetics,
holy persons, or elders is taken upon his death to Yama. [1] Yama then asks the ignoble person if
he ever considered his own ill conduct in light of birth, deterioration, sickness, worldly
retribution and death. In response to Yama's questions, such an ignoble person repeatedly

27
answers that he failed to consider the karmic consequences of his reprehensible actions and as a
result is sent to a brutal hell "so long as that evil action has not exhausted its result." [2]
In the Pali commentarial tradition, the scholar Buddhaghosa's commentary to the Majjhima
Nikaya describes Yama as a vimānapeta (विमानपेत), a "being in a mixed state", sometimes
enjoying celestial comforts and at other times punished for the fruits of his karma. However,
Buddhaghosa considered his rule as a king to be just. [3]
Modern Theravādin countries portray Yama sending old age, disease, punishments, and other
calamities among humans as warnings to behave well. At death, they are summoned before
Yama, who examines their character and dispatches them to their appropriate rebirth, whether
to earth or to one of the heavens or hells. Sometimes there are thought to be two or four Yamas,
each presiding over a distinct Hell. [4]
Yama in Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese and Japanese mythology[edit]
Main article: Yanluo Wang

Miyazu, Kyoto Prefecture, Japan. Statue of Yama (Enma) at Nariai-ji

In Chinese mythology, King Yan (simplified Chinese: 阎王; traditional
Chinese: 閻王; pinyin: Yánwáng) is the god of death and the ruler of Diyu, overseeing the "Ten
Kings of Hell". He is also known as Yanluo (阎罗王; 閻羅王; Yánluówáng), a transcription of
the Sanskrit for King Yama (यम राज, Yama Rājā). In both ancient and modern times, Yan is
portrayed as a large man with a scowling red face, bulging eyes, and a long beard. He wears
traditional robes and a judge's cap or a crown which bears the character for "king" (王). He
typically appears on Chinese hell money in the position reserved for political figures on
regular currency.

Yan is not only the ruler but also the judge of the underworld and passes judgment on all the
dead. He always appears in a male form, and his minions include a judge who holds in his
hands a brush and a book listing every soul and the allotted death date for every life. Ox-Head
and Horse-Face, the fearsome guardians of hell, bring the newly dead, one by one, before Yan
for judgement. Men or women with merit will be rewarded good future lives or even revival in
their previous life. Men or women who committed misdeeds will be sentenced to suffering or
miserable future lives. In some versions, Yan divides Diyu into eight, ten, or eighteen courts
each ruled by a Yan King, such as King Chujiang, who rules the court reserved for thieves and
murderers.

The spirits of the dead, on being judged by Yan, are supposed to either pass through a term of
enjoyment in a region midway between the earth and the heaven of the gods or to undergo their
measure of punishment in the nether world. Neither location is permanent and after a time, they
return to Earth in new bodies.

"Yan" was sometimes considered to be a position in the celestial hierarchy, rather than
an individual. There were said to be cases in which an honest mortal was rewarded the post of
Yan and served as the judge and ruler of the underworld. [citation needed]
Some said common people like Bao Zheng, Fan Zhongyan, Zhang Binglin became the Yan at
night or after death

These Chinese beliefs subsequently spread to Korea and Japan. In Japan, he is called Enma
(閻魔, prev. "Yenma"), King Enma (閻魔王, Enma-ō), and Great King Enma (閻魔大王,
Enma Dai-Ō). In Korea, Yan is known as Yeom-ra (염라) and Great King Yeom-ra'
(염라대왕, Yŏm-ra Daewang). In Vietnam, these Buddhist deities are known as Diêm La or
28
Diêm Vương and are venerated as a council of all ten kings who oversee underworld realm
of địa ngục.

"If you lie, Lord Enma will pull out your tongue" (嘘をつけば閻魔様に舌を抜かれる, Uso o
tsukeba enmasama ni shita o nukareru) is a superstition in Japan often told to scare children
into telling the truth.[citation needed]
A Japanese proverb states "When borrowing, the face of a jizō; when repaying (a loan), the
face of Enma" (借りる時の地蔵顔、返す時の閻魔顔). Jizō is typically portrayed with a
serene, happy expression whereas Enma is typically portrayed with a thunderous, furious
expression. The kotowaza alludes to changes in people's behaviour for selfish reasons
depending on their circumstances.
Tibet:

Yama, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

In Tibetan Buddhism, Shinje (Tibetan: གཤིན་རྗེ་, Gshin.rje) is both regarded with horror as the
prime mover of the cycle of death and rebirth and revered as a guardian of spiritual practice. In
the popular mandala of the Bhavachakra, all of the realms of life are depicted between the jaws
or in the arms of a monstrous Shinje. Shinje is sometimes shown with a consort, Yami, and
sometimes pursued by Yamantaka (conqueror of death).

19th century kagamibuta netsuke depicting Enma

In popular culture[edit]
 In the anime series Hell Girl, the titular protagonist is called Ai Enma.
 In the One Piece manga series, a legendary Katana was named Enma after the Buddhist
King of Hell.
 In the 2012 video game, Spelunky, he is the secret Final Boss, located in 5-4 of Hell. Along
with him spawn Horse Head and Ox-Face, named after, and inspired by their mythological
counterparts.
 In the franchise Yokai Watch, which contains video games among other things, Lord Enma
is the young ruler who presides over the Yo-kai World. He is a humanoid Yo-kai and
became ruler once his grandfather Ancient Enma passed away.
 In Naruto Shippuden, the summoned demon by the Naraka Path of Pain is based off of
Enma.

STUDIES IN YAMA AND MĀRA,ALEX WAYMAN,Indo-Iranian JournalVol. 3, No. 1 (1959), pp.

44-73 (30 pages),Published By: Brill,https://www.jstor.org/stable/24648529

Buddhist Wheel of Life Text

1: The Wheel of Life: Samsara, Birth, Rebirth, Liberation
The Wheel of Life is one of the most common subjects of Tibetan Buddhist art. The
detailed symbolism of the Wheel can be interpreted on many levels.

29
The Bhavachakra is a Tibetan Buddhist representation of the "wheel of life," or cycle of
existence.
The Wheel of Life (called the Bhavachakra in Sanskrit) represents the cycle of birth and
rebirth and existence in samsara.
This gallery looks at different parts of the Wheel and explains what they mean. The main
sections are the hub and the six "pie wedges" depicting the Six Realms. The gallery also
looks at the Buddha figures in the corners and at Yama, the fearsome creature holding the
Wheel in his hooves.
Many Buddhists understand the Wheel in an allegorical, not literal, way. As you
examine the parts of the wheel you might find yourself relating to some of it personally
or recognizing people you know as Jealous Gods or Hell Beings or Hungry Ghosts.
The outer circle of the Wheel (not shown in detail in this gallery) is the Paticca
Samuppada, the Links of Dependent Origination. Traditionally, the outer wheel depicts a
blind man or woman (representing ignorance); potters (formation); a monkey
(consciousness); two men in a boat (mind and body); a house with six windows (the
senses); an embracing couple (contact); an eye pieced by an arrow (sensation); a person
drinking (thirst); a man gathering fruit (grasping); a couple making love (becoming); a
woman giving birth (birth); and a man carrying a corpse (death).
2: The Wheel of Life: Yama, Lord of the Underworld: The Wrathful Dharmapala of Hell

The creature holding the Wheel of Life in his hooves is Yama, the wrathful
dharmapala who is Lord of the Hell Realm.

30
Yama, Lord of the Underworld, represents death and holds the wheel in his hooves.

The terrible face of Yama, who represents death, peers over the top of the Wheel. In spite of
his appearance, Yama is not evil. He is a wrathful dharmapala, a creature devoted to
protecting Buddhism and Buddhists. Although we may be frightened of death, it is not evil;
just inevitable.
In legend, Yama was a holy man who believed he would realize enlightenment if he
meditated in a cave for 50 years. In the 11th month of the 49th year, robbers entered the cave
with a stolen bull and cut off the bull's head. When they realized the holy man had seen them,
the robbers cut off his head also.
But the holy man put on the bull's head and assumed the terrible form of Yama. He killed the
robbers, drank their blood, and threatened all of Tibet. He could not be stopped until
Manjushri, Bodhisattva of Wisdom, manifested as the even more terrible dharmapala
Yamantaka and defeated Yama. Yama then became a protector of Buddhism.

The Realm of the Gods (Devas) is the highest realm of the Wheel of Life and is always
depicted at the top of the Wheel.

The Realm of the Gods of the Bhavachakra.

The Realm of the Gods (Devas) sounds like a nice place to live. And, no question, you can
do a lot worse. But even the Realm of the Gods isn't perfect. Those born in the God Realm
31
live long and pleasure-filled lives. They have wealth and power and happiness. So what's
the catch?
The catch is that because the Devas have such rich and happy lives they don't recognize the
truth of suffering. Their happiness is, in a way, a curse, because they have no motivation to
seek liberation from the Wheel. Eventually their happy lives end, and they must face rebirth
in another, less happy, realm.
The Devas are perpetually at war with their neighbors on the Wheel, the Asuras. This
depiction of the Wheel shows the Devas charging the Asuras.

The Asura (Jealous God) Realm is marked by paranoia.

The Realm of Asuras, also called Jealous Gods or Titans.

Asuras are hyper-competitive and paranoid. They are driven by a desire to beat their
competition, and everyone is competition. They have power and resources and sometimes
accomplish good things with them. But, always, their first priority is getting to the top. I
think of powerful politicians or corporate leaders when I think of Asuras.
Chih-i (538-597), a patriarch of the T'ien-t'ai school, described the Asura this way:
"Always desiring to be superior to others, having no patience for inferiors and belittling
strangers; like a hawk, flying high above and looking down on others, and yet outwardly
displaying justice, worship, wisdom, and faith -- this is raising up the lowest order of good
and walking the way of the Asuras."
Asuras, who are also called "anti-gods," are perpetually at war with the Devas of the God
Realm. Auras think they belong in the God Realm and fight to get in, although here it seems
the Asuras have formed a line of defense and are fighting the attacking Devas with bows and
arrows. Some depictions of the Wheel of Life combine the Asura and God realms into one.
Sometimes there is a beautiful tree growing between the two realms, with its roots and
trunk in the Asura Realm. But its branches and fruit are in the God Realm.

32
 Satisfied

Hungry Ghosts have huge, empty stomachs, but their thin necks don't allow
nourishment to pass. Food turns to fire and ash in their mouths.

The Realm of Hungry Ghosts

Hungry Ghosts (Pretas) are pitable things. They are wasted creatures with huge, empty
stomachs. Their necks are too thin to allow food to pass. So, they are constantly hungry.
Greed and jealousy lead to rebirth as a Hungry Ghost. The Hungry Ghost Realm often, but not
always, is depicted between the Asura Realm and the Hell Realm. It is thought the karma of
their lives was not quite bad enough for a rebirth in the Hell Realm but not good enough for
the Asura Realm.
Psychologically, Hungry Ghosts are associated with addictions, compulsions and
obsessions. People who have everything but always want more may be Hungry Ghosts.

The Hell Realm is marked by anger, terror and claustrophobia.

33
The Hell Realm of the Wheel of Life

The Hell Realm is depicted as a place partly of fire and partly of ice. In the fiery part of the
realm, Hell Beings (Narakas) are subjected to pain and torment. In the icy part, they are
frozen.
Interpreted psychologically, Hell Beings are recognized by their acute aggression. Fiery Hell
Beings are angry and abusive, and they drive away anyone who would befriend or love
them. Icy Hell Beings shove others away with their unfeeling coldness. Then, in the torment
of their isolation, their aggression increasingly turns inward, and they become self-
destructive.

Animal Beings (Tiryakas) are solid, regular and predictable. They cling to what is familiar
and are disinterested, even fearful, of anything unfamiliar.

34
The Animal Realm of the Wheel of Life
The Animal Realm is marked by ignorance and complacency. Animal Beings are stolidly un-
curious and are repelled by anything unfamiliar. They go through life seeking comfort and
avoiding discomfort. They have no sense of humor.
Animal Beings may find contentment, but they easily become fearful when placed in a new
situation. Naturally, they are bigoted and likely to remain so. At the same time, they are subject
to oppression by other beings -- animals do devour each other, you know.

Liberation from the Wheel is possible only from the Human Realm.

The human realm of the Wheel of Life

The Human Realm is marked by questioning and curiosity. It is also a realm of passion;
human beings (Manushyas) want to strive, consume, acquire, enjoy, explore. Here the
Dharma is openly available, yet only a few seek it. The rest become caught up in striving,
consuming and acquiring, and miss the opportunity.

35
At the center of the Wheel of Life are the forces that keep it turning -- greed, anger and
ignorance.

The center of the Wheel of Life

At the center of every Wheel of Life are a cock, a snake and a pig, which represent greed,
anger and ignorance. In Buddhism, greed, anger (or hate) and ignorance are called the "Three
Poisons" because they poison whoever harbors them. These are the forces that keep the Wheel
of Life turning, according to the Buddha's teaching of the Second Noble Truth.
The circle outside the center, which is sometimes missing in depictions of the Wheel, is called
the Sidpa Bardo, or intermediate state. It is also sometimes called the White Path and the Dark
Path. On one side, bodhisattvas guide beings to rebirths in the higher realms of Devas, Gods
and Humans. On the other, demons lead beings to the lower realms of Hungry Ghosts, Hell
Beings and Animals.

In the upper right-hand corner of the Wheel of Life, the Buddha appears,
representing hope for liberation.

36
The Buddha

In many depictions of the Wheel of Life, the figure in the upper right-hand corner is a
Dharmakaya Buddha. The dharmakaya is sometimes called the Truth Body or the Dharma
Body and is identified with shunyata. Dharmakaya is everything, unmanifested, free of
characteristics and distinctions.
Often this Buddha is shown pointing to the moon, which represents enlightenment. However, in
this ver

This depiction of the Wheel of Life shows the entry to Nirvana in the upper left-hand corner.

The upper left-hand corner of a Bhavachakra is filled with a scene or symbol

representing liberation from the Wheel.

In the upper left-hand corner of this depiction of the Wheel of Life is a temple with a seated
Buddha. A stream of beings rise from the Human Realms toward the temple, which represents
Nirvana. Artists creating a Wheel of Life fill this corner in various ways. Sometimes the upper
left-hand figure is a Nirmanakaya Buddha, representing bliss. Sometimes the artist paints a
moon, which symbolizes liberation. sion the Buddha stands with his hands raised, as if in
blessing.

37
What does Hinduism teach about life after death?
Introduction
Life after death is a fundamental belief in most religions. What form life after death takes is
different in each religion and sometimes there is a difference of belief between members of the
same religion. Some people without a religious belief also believe in life after death and some
believe that there is no sort of existence after death.
Ways of thinking about life after death include:
 reincarnation
 resurrection
 rebirth
 immortality as a legacy
 immortality as a memory of others
 nothing
Most Hindus believe that humans are in a cycle of death and rebirth called samsara. When a
person dies, their atman is reborn in a different body.
Some believe rebirth happens directly at death, others believe that an atman may exist in other
realms. Hindus believe that an atman may enter swarg or narak for a period before rebirth.
Hindus believe in karma or 'intentional action'. Many believe good or bad actions in life leading
to positive or negative merit, determines the atman's rebirth.
Some Hindus believe that humans may be reborn in animal form, and that rebirth from human to
animal form only occurs if an atman has repeatedly failed to learn lessons in human form.
Living life according to teachings in the scriptures will eventually lead to moksha. Some Hindu
scriptures describe moksha as the atman becoming absorbed with Brahman, from where each
atman is believed to originate. Other Hindu scriptures describe moksha as living in the realm of a
personal God. The Maitri Upanishad states:
Evidence of life after death
There is no scientific evidence for life after death, but the belief in an afterlife is strong among
religious and also some non-religious people.
Belief in life after death in religions
For most religious people, belief in life after death is based on teachings in their scriptures or
traditions. The sacred texts in Christianity, Judaism and Islam talk of an afterlife, so for followers
of these faiths life after death has been promised by God. For Buddhists, belief in reincarnation is
based on the tradition that the Buddha remembered his past lives when he
reached enlightenment.
Belief in life after death among non-religious people
Not all people who believe in life after death would call themselves 'religious'. For example,
some people believe in the concept of reincarnation but are not necessarily Buddhist, Hindu or
Sikh. Others feel natural justice requires good to be rewarded and evil punished but do not hold
one of the traditional faiths that promise an afterlife.
For some people, near-death experiences (NDEs) a sense of déjà vu or witnessing ghosts,
perhaps through a medium, convince them there is life beyond death.
What does Hinduism teach about life after death?
Most Hindus believe that humans are in a cycle of death and rebirth called samsara. When a
person dies, their atman is reborn in a different body.
Some believe rebirth happens directly at death, others believe that an atman may exist in other
realms. Hindus believe that an atman may enter swarg or narak for a period before rebirth.

38
 Hindus believe in karma or 'intentional action'. Many believe good or bad actions in life leading
to positive or negative merit, determines the atman's rebirth.
Some Hindus believe that humans may be reborn in animal form, and that rebirth from human to
animal form only occurs if an atman has repeatedly failed to learn lessons in human form.
Living life according to teachings in the scriptures will eventually lead to moksha. Some Hindu
scriptures describe moksha as the atman becoming absorbed with Brahman, from where each
atman is believed to originate. Other Hindu scriptures describe moksha as living in the realm of a
personal God. The Maitri Upanishad states:
Even as water becomes one with water, fire with fire, and air with air, so the atman becomes
one with the Infinite Atman (Brahman) and thus attains final freedom.
Maitri Upanoshads 6.24

Why do Hindus believe in life after death?

Ancient Hindu scriptures refer to the atman being reborn many times. The Bhagavad Gita states:
As a person casts off worn-out clothes and puts on new ones, so does the atman cast off worn out
bodies and enter new ones.Bhagavad Gita 2:22 (Smriti text)
The Bhagavad Gita also explains that death is something that we can neither stop nor grieve
about:
For certain is the death of all that comes to birth, certain is the birth of all that dies. So in a matter
that no one can prevent do not grieve.Bhagavad Gita 2:27
What does this mean in practice?
Most Hindus believe that good merit is achieved by following your dharma. The Bhagavad
Gita details four different ways that moksha can be achieved:
 karma yoga
 bhakti yoga
 jnana yoga
 meditation
What happens after moksha?
There are two main beliefs about what happens after moksha:
 Some Hindus believe that the atman is absorbed into Brahman. This is because the atman
and Brahman are the same.
 Other Hindus believe that the atman and Brahman are different and that after moksha they
remain separate. They believe that the atman will be in the presence of Brahman, as a
personal God, but will remain unique and individual.
What might non-Hindus ask about Hindu ideas on life after death?
 What is the evidence for reincarnation?
 Is a belief in reincarnation compatible with modern scientific views?
 What are the main differences between the different Hindus on beliefs about life after
death?
1. How do the Hindu ideas of reincarnation compare with ideas of reincarnation in other
religions?https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zhxpr82/revision/5
REINCARNATION
The body dies, assert the Hindu traditions, but not the soul, which they assume to be the eternal
reality, indestructible and bliss.[173] Everything and all existence is believed to be connected and
cyclical in many Hinduism-sects, all living beings composed of two things, the soul and the body
or matter.[174] Atman does not change and cannot change by its innate nature in the Hindu

39
belief.[174] Current Karma impacts the future circumstances in this life, as well as the future
forms and realms of lives.[175][176] Good intent and actions lead to good future, bad intent and
actions lead to bad future, impacting how one reincarnates, in the Hindu view of existence. [177]

Hindus believe the self or soul (atman) repeatedly takes on a physical body, until moksha.
There is no permanent heaven or hell in most Hinduism-sects.[178] In the afterlife, based on one's
karma, the soul is reborn as another being in heaven, hell, or a living being on earth (human,
animal).[178] Gods too die once their past karmic merit runs out, as do those in hell, and they
return getting another chance on earth. This reincarnation continues, endlessly in cycles, until
one embarks on a spiritual pursuit, realizes self-knowledge, and thereby gains mokṣa, the final
release out of the reincarnation cycles. [179] This release is believed to be a state of utter bliss,
which Hindu traditions believe is either related or identical to Brahman, the unchanging reality
that existed before the creation of universe, continues to exist, and shall exist after the universe
ends.[180][181][182]
The Upanishads, part of the scriptures of the Hindu traditions, primarily focus on the liberation
from reincarnation.[183][184][185] The Bhagavad Gita discusses various paths to liberation.[173] The
Upanishads, states Harold Coward, offer a "very optimistic view regarding the perfectibility of
human nature", and the goal of human effort in these texts is a continuous journey to self-
perfection and self-knowledge so as to end Saṃsāra – the endless cycle of rebirth and
redeath.[186] The aim of spiritual quest in the Upanishadic traditions is find the true self within
and to know one's soul, a state that they assert leads to blissful state of freedom, moksha. [187]
The Bhagavad Gita states:
Just as in the body childhood, adulthood and old age happen to an embodied being. So also he
(the embodied being) acquires another body. The wise one is not deluded about this. – (2:13)[188]
As, after casting away worn out garments, a man later takes new ones. So after casting away
worn out bodies, the embodied Self encounters other new ones. – (2:22)[189]
When an embodied being transcends, these three qualities which are the source of the body.
Released from birth, death, old age and pain, he attains immortality. – (14:20)[190]
There are internal differences within Hindu traditions on reincarnation and the state of moksha.
For example, the dualistic devotional traditions such as Madhvacharya's Dvaita Vedanta tradition
of Hinduism champion a theistic premise, assert that human soul and Brahman are different,
loving devotion to Brahman (god Vishnu in Madhvacharya's theology) is the means to release
from Samsara, it is the grace of God which leads to moksha, and spiritual liberation is achievable
only in after-life (videhamukti).[191] The nondualistic traditions such as Adi Shankara's Advaita
Vedanta tradition of Hinduism champion a monistic premise, asserting that the individual human

40
soul and Brahman are identical, only ignorance, impulsiveness and inertia leads to suffering
through Saṃsāra, in reality there are no dualities, meditation and self-knowledge is the path to
liberation, the realization that one's soul is identical to Brahman is moksha, and spiritual
liberation is achievable in this life (jivanmukti).[192][193]
According to various Buddhist scriptures, Gautama Buddha believed in the existence of an
afterlife in another world and in reincarnation,
Since there actually is another world (any world other than the present human one, i.e. different
rebirth realms), one who holds the view 'there is no other world' has wrong view...
— Buddha, Majjhima Nikaya i.402, Apannaka Sutta, Translated by Peter Harvey[125]
The Buddha also asserted that karma influences rebirth, and that the cycles of repeated births and
deaths are endless.[125][126] Before the birth of Buddha, ancient Indian scholars had developed
competing theories of afterlife, including the materialistic school such as Charvaka,[127] which
posited that death is the end, there is no afterlife, no soul, no rebirth, no karma, and they
described death to be a state where a living being is completely annihilated,
dissolved.[128] Buddha rejected this theory, adopted the alternate existing theories on rebirth,
criticizing the materialistic schools that denied rebirth and karma, states Damien
Keown.[129] Such beliefs are inappropriate and dangerous, stated Buddha, because such
annihilationism views encourage moral irresponsibility and material hedonism; [130] he tied moral
responsibility to rebirth.[125][129]
The Buddha introduced the concept that there is no permanent self (soul), and this central
concept in Buddhism is called anattā.[131][132][133] Major contemporary Buddhist traditions such as
Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions accept the teachings of Buddha. These teachings
assert there is rebirth, there is no permanent self and no irreducible ātman (soul) moving from
life to another and tying these lives together, there is impermanence, that all compounded things
such as living beings are aggregates dissolve at death, but every being
reincarnates.[134][135][136] The rebirth cycles continue endlessly, states Buddhism, and it is a source
of Dukkha (suffering, pain), but this reincarnation and Dukkha cycle can be stopped through
nirvana. The anattā doctrine of Buddhism is a contrast to Hinduism, the latter asserting that "soul
exists, it is involved in rebirth, and it is through this soul that everything is
connected".[137][138][139]
Different traditions within Buddhism have offered different theories on what reincarnates and
how reincarnation happens. One theory suggests that it occurs
[140][141]
through consciousness (Pali: samvattanika-viññana) or stream of consciousness
(Pali: viññana-sotam,[142] Sanskrit: vijñāna-srotām, vijñāna-santāna, or citta-santāna) upon
death, which reincarnates into a new aggregation. This process, states this theory, is similar to
the flame of a dying candle lighting up another.[143][144] The consciousness in the newly born
being is neither identical to nor entirely different from that in the deceased but the two form a
causal continuum or stream in this Buddhist theory. Transmigration is influenced by a being's
past karma (kamma).[145][146] The root cause of rebirth, states Buddhism, is the abiding of
consciousness in ignorance (Pali: avijja, Sanskrit: avidya) about the nature of reality, and when
this ignorance is uprooted, rebirth ceases. [147]

A 12th-century Japanese painting showing one of the six Buddhist realms of reincarnation
(rokudō, 六道)

41
Buddhist traditions also vary in their mechanistic details on rebirth. Theravada Buddhists assert
that rebirth is immediate while the Tibetan schools hold to the notion of a bardo (intermediate
state) that can last up to 49 days.[148][149] The bardo rebirth concept of Tibetan Buddhism, along
with yidam, developed independently in Tibet without Indian influence, and involves 42 peaceful
deities, and 58 wrathful deities.[150] These ideas led to mechanistic maps on karma and what form
of rebirth one takes after death, discussed in texts such as The Tibetan Book of the
Dead.[151][152] The major Buddhist traditions accept that the reincarnation of a being depends on
the past karma and merit (demerit) accumulated, and that there are six realms of existence in
which the rebirth may occur after each death. [153][17][57]
Within Japanese Zen, reincarnation is accepted by some, but rejected by others. A distinction can
be drawn between "folk Zen", as in the Zen practiced by devotional lay people, and
"philosophical Zen". Folk Zen generally accepts the various supernatural elements of Buddhism
such as rebirth. Philosophical Zen, however, places more emphasis on the present
moment.[154][155]
Some schools conclude that karma continues to exist and adhere to the person until it works out
its consequences. For the Sautrantika school, each act "perfumes" the individual or "plants a
seed" that later germinates. Tibetan Buddhism stresses the state of mind at the time of death. To
die with a peaceful mind will stimulate a virtuous seed and a fortunate rebirth; a disturbed mind
will stimulate a non-virtuous seed and an unfortunate rebirth.[156]
Christianity

42
n this 8-meter (25-foot) tall Buddhist relief from the Dazu Rock Carvings in China, built
sometime between the years 1177 and 1249, Mara, Lord of Death and Desire, clutches the
Wheel of Reincarnation, which outlines the Buddhist cycle of reincarnation.

The Concept of Reincarnation in Hinduism and Buddhism In Hinduism, it is believed that a soul
is reincarnated not only to serve negative karma but also to get rewards for the positive July 23,
2016 1 Facebook Twitter Buddhism does not believe in reincarnation but rather in rebirth. The
difference from Hindu ideology is that Buddhism does not believe that the soul is indestructible
or eternal. Pinterest The core values of Buddhism also do not necessitate any deities (including
Gautama Buddha), while Hinduism is known for at least 33 million of them Hinduism does not
teach ideas of rebirth of a physical being, but that of the inner soul, or atma Buddhism does not
believe in reincarnation but rather in rebirth Hinduism and Buddhism are both very popular

43
religious philosophies across India. However, there are a lot of core differences in both. For
instance, Buddhism does not require any priests or rituals of any kind. The core values of
Buddhism also do not necessitate any deities (including Gautama Buddha), while Hinduism is
known for at least 33 million of them. Aside from the differences, there are various ways in
which the two ideologies are also similar. One that resonates the most with the question of
existence is reincarnation, the notion of life after death. But the idea of reincarnation itself is also
different in Hinduism and Buddhism. Hinduism does not teach ideas of rebirth of a physical
being, but that of the inner soul, or atma. Pinterest Reincarnation in Hinduism Hinduism does
not teach ideas of the rebirth of a physical being, but that of the inner soul, or atma. The atma is
the entity that is regenerated, and it can take any form of life – human, animal, plant, or even
mineral. This idea of a universal cycle of birth and death is called samsara and was developed in
India circa 1500BC. It is meant to be an opportunity to work off bad deeds, or karma. This not
only includes visible actions, but also inner thoughts, beliefs and ignorance. The higher the
number of bad deeds worked off during samsara, the higher the probability of the soul
attaining a higher being, or avatar, during rebirth. Please Follow NewsGram on Facebook to Get
Latest Updates From Around The World! Hinduism also says that a soul is reincarnated not only
to serve negative karma but also to get rewards for the positive. Another reason is to achieve the
hearts unfulfilled desires, for example, the attachment, maya, to other humans or animals.
Therefore, to be freed from samsara one needs to let go off all Maya and worldly pleasures and
desire nothing. When a soul is free from desire, it will finally achieve moksha and live in a
transcendent state for eternity. The idea of a universal cycle of birth and death is called samsara
and was developed in India circa 1500BC. It is meant to be an opportunity to work off bad
deeds, or karma. Pinterest Rebirth in Buddhism Buddhism does not believe in reincarnation but
rather in rebirth. The difference from Hindu ideology is that Buddhism does not believe that the
soul is indestructible or eternal. In essence, there is nothing that goes through life, death or
rebirth. Rather, all energy and matter is thought of as universal and returns to the universe after
death. Under the right instances. energy and matter from the universe come together again to
make a new-born. This energy is thought of as the consciousness, or the creative principal, in
beings and is believed to be connected. ALSO READ: Breast Cancer Rapidly Rises Around The
World Like moksha, a transcendent state exists even in Buddhism wherein all being are free
from the cycle of rebirth. This is called Nirvana and is also achieved by freeing oneself from all
material and psychological desires. The more sinless life a being leads, the higher the chances of
being born again with an advanced conscious. The advanced consciousness, by default, provides
the advantage of freeing oneself from desire and attaining Nirvana. – by Varsha Gupta. Twitter:
@VarshaGupta94. Read more at: https://www.newsgram.com/concept-reincarnation-hinduism-
buddhism-read-on/https://www.newsgram.com/concept-reincarnation-hinduism-buddhism-read-
on/#:~:text=Hinduism%20does%20not%20teach%20ideas%20of%20the%20rebirth%20of%20a
,the%20inner%20soul%2C%20or%20atma.&text=This%20idea%20of%20a%20universal,off%2
0bad%20deeds%2C%20or%20karma.

Since there actually is another world (any world other than the present human one, i.e. different
rebirth realms), one who holds the view 'there is no other world' has wrong view...
— Buddha, Majjhima Nikaya i.402, Apannaka Sutta, Translated by Peter Harve

44
45
 How Reincarnation Works



BY SARAH DOWDEY

A Chinese Buddhist prays at the Lama Temple in Beijing. See more pictures of Beijing.
TEH ENG KOON/AFP/GETTY IMAGES
Natural life is cyclical. Day fades into night and turns back into day as the sun rises. One season
gradually gives way to the next. Over the passage of time, new generations are born and old ones
die. The continuous succession of birth, death and rebirth permeates nature even though our own
lives seem linear. So it's no surprise that some ancient observers looked at the seeming linearity
of human existence and decided that life, like the natural world, might actually be more cyclical
than linear. Multiple religions, philosophies and movements adopted this belief in cyclic life,
or reincarnation.
Religion Image Gallery
Advertisement
Reincarnation, also called transmigration or metempsychosis, is the concept that the soul, or
some aspect of the soul, is reborn into new lives. Depending on the religion or philosophy, the
soul can appear incarnate in humans, animals or plants as it works its way toward an eventual
escape from the cycle of birth, death and rebirth. Most religions that believe in reincarnation
consider it the path to purity and salvation.
Reincarnation is widely accepted by the major Eastern religions -- most prominently Hinduism
and Buddhism. It also has a history in ancient Greek philosophy. However, for people more
familiar with the major monotheistic religions -- Christianity, Judaism and Islam -- the idea of
reincarnation seems foreign and maybe even a little strange. That's because Christianity, Judaism
and Islam conceive of time linearly. Life is simply a short step that determines the quality of an

46
 afterlife. For those who believe in only one life followed by an eternal afterlife, reincarnation is
like an unwieldy marathon run by relay instead of a short, concise sprint.
THE GODDESS LAKSHMI AND THE PARASITIC TWIN
In November 2007, a 2-year-old Indian girl born with four arms and four legs underwent surgery
to remove her extra limbs. As a fetus, the girl absorbed her nondeveloping twin -- taking on its
appendages and kidneys. Some villagers believed the child was a reincarnation of the four-armed
Hindu goddess Lakshmi, after whom she was named [source: AP].
Contents
1. Reincarnation in Hinduism
2. Reincarnation in Buddhism
3. Reincarnation in the Ancient Western World
4. Reincarnation in Science

Reincarnation in Hinduism

Nepalese Hindus celebrate the conclusion of the Chhat festival. Most Hindus believe in
reincarnation.
PRAKASH MATHEMA/AFP/GETTY IMAGES
The Hindu religion is vast and varied. Its adherents worship an array of gods and celebrate
diverse traditions. Yet Hinduism, the world's oldest surviving religion, is unified by its
acceptance of samsara, a chain of births and deaths linked by reincarnation. Controlling samsara
is the law of karma. Hindus believe that all individuals accumulate karma over the course of a
lifetime. Good actions create good karma and evil actions create negative karma. Karma is not
assigned or regulated by any god; it's simply earned by an individual and passed down through
subsequent lives.
But while good karma can eventually earn a person a higher place in the caste system in a future
life, the ultimate goal of any Hindu adherent is moksha, or salvation from samsara. Moksha is
the final of four primary Hindu goals. The first three -- kama, artha and dharma -- concern
earthly pursuits like pleasure, power or well-being and virtue.
Advertisement
Ironically, to achieve moksha, you must make a deliberate effort to not want it. Salvation comes
only after a person has abandoned all pursuits and desires and accepts that the individual soul is

47
the same as Brahman, the universal soul or god. By exiting the cycle, an individual no longer
endures the pain and suffering of earthly existence performed countless times over.
The belief in reincarnation is also predominant in two prevalent religions from India: Jainism and
Sikhism. Jain adherents believe the soul accumulates karma as an actual physical substance,
unlike the conceptual Hindu idea of karmic law. As long as the soul is burdened by karmic
particles, it must bind with a body, initiating a series of rebirths. Only when a soul is free from
all karma can it exit the cycle of reincarnation and join other disembodied souls in a state of
perfection. However, because Jain followers believe that deliverance is currently impossible,
devoted adherents simply pursue purification.
Sikhism also teaches reincarnation. Like Hinduism, the law of karma influences the quality of
Sikh life. For Sikhs to exit the cycle of birth and rebirth, they must achieve complete knowledge
and become one with God.
THE WHEEL IS TURNING
Jains compare time to a wheel with six spokes. The wheel's first three spokes represent Jainism's
golden age; the final three spokes represent the religion's decline and eventual extinction before
rebirth. Because we are currently in the period of decline -- between the fifth and sixth spokes --
Jain adherents believe that it is currently impossible to reach enlightenment.

Reincarnation in Buddhism

Buddhist nuns pray for their spiritual leader.

MANPREET ROMANA/AFP/GETTY IMAGES
When Buddhism was established 2,500 years ago, it incorporated the Hindu belief in
reincarnation. Although Buddhism has two major subdivisions and countless variations in
regional practices, most Buddhists believe in samsara or the cycle of rebirth. Samsara is
governed by the law of karma: Good conduct produces good karma and bad conduct produces
evil karma. Buddhists believe that the soul's karma transmigrates between bodies and becomes a
"germ of consciousness" in the womb [source: Encyclopaedia Britannica]. Periods of afterlife,
sometimes called "the between," punctuate samsara, coming after death and before rebirth
[source: NPR].
Like Hindus, Buddhists see unenlightened samsara as a state of suffering. We suffer because we
desire the transient. Only when we achieve a state of total passiveness and free ourselves from all

48
desire can we escape samsara and achieve nirvana, or salvation. Many Buddhists believe an
individual can end the cycle of reincarnation by following the Eightfold Path, or middle way. An
enlightened being embodies the directives of the Eightfold Path: correct view, correct intention,
correct speech, correct action, correct livelihood, correct effort, correct mindfulness and correct
concentration.
Advertisement
The Buddha Siddhartha Gautama taught the Eightfold Path in his first sermon after attaining
enlightenment. Siddhartha, who was born around 563 B.C. near modern-day Nepal, had an
extravagant and privileged youth. As a young man, he began to question his spiritual state amid
such luxury and reverted to the life of an extreme ascetic. When his hermitic life brought him no
closer to enlightenment, Siddhartha decided to pursue the middle way -- a state of existence
between excess and self-deprivation. Shortly thereafter, Siddhartha reached enlightenment.
MIND GAMES

Reincarnation in the Ancient Western World

Plato, on the left, potentially discussing his belief in reincarnation with Aristotle.
PICTURE POST/GETTY IMAGES
Although belief in reincarnation is a predominant element of many Eastern religions, it also was
taught in the ancient Western world. Mystery religions, which sometimes transformed into
secularized social clubs or fraternities, espoused a wide range of reincarnation ceremonies and
beliefs. Some of these early Greco-Roman religions eventually influenced the philosophy of
famous thinkers like Plato.
Orphism was a popular mystery religion beginning in the sixth or seventh century B.C. Its
followers studied the supposed writings of Orpheus, a legendary musical figure. They believed in
a soul that withstood death and could appear incarnate in human or mammalian form. Orphics
thought the soul was divine and was imprisoned by the body. By leading a correct life and
abstaining from meat, wine and sex, a soul could go to Elysium, a paradise after death; an evil
soul would suffer punishments in hell. But neither afterlife was eternal and after a time, the soul
would be reborn into a new body. Only after passing through three good Orphic lives could a
soul end the cycle of reincarnation.
Advertisement

49
The Orphic interest in death and the afterlife influenced the Pythagorean brotherhood, another
mystery society based in southern Italy. The philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras, who is
associated with the brotherhood, believed the soul could appear incarnate in a human or animal's
body. This belief led to his espousal of vegetarianism. The fraternity taught that the soul
originated among the stars but fell to earth and joined with the human body. Pythagorean
followers combined their religious theorizing with the studies of astronomy, music and, of
course, geometry.
The philosopher Plato also believed that the soul was repeatedly reincarnated. Plato suspected
that seven planetary spheres and an eighth sphere of fixed stars surrounded the Earth. The divine
lay beyond the eighth sphere and set the universe into motion. Souls came from the planets,
descended to earth, united with bodies and then tried to free themselves and reascend to the stars.
DON'T LOOK BACK
The mythological figure of Orpheus possessed immense musical talent. His poems and songs
could charm people, animals and even trees and other inanimate objects. But when his wife
Eurydice was killed by a snake, Orpheus's desire to bring her back from the dead made him set
out to charm a god. He descended into the underworld, played for Hades and pleased the god
with his music. Hades allowed Eurydice to return to life but set one condition: As Orpheus led
Eurydice out of the underworld, he could not look back. As the couple reached the surface,
Orpheus turned for a glimpse of his wife, only to see her tumbling back into the world of the
dead.

Reincarnation in Science

The Division of Perceptual Studies at the University of Virginia studies reincarnation and other
seemingly paranormal events.
© PHOTOGRAPHER: DAVID COLEMAN | AGENCY: DREAMSTIME.COM
Although reincarnation seems conventional to the more than 1.25 billion practitioners of
Hinduism and Buddhism, it's not widely accepted by those outside of Eastern religion. The
Western skepticism of reincarnation is tied to monotheistic religions' focus on a single life, a
single soul and an active God who does not rely on karmic law. And with sporadic believers
announcing they're Cleopatra or Elvis reincarnate, it's not surprising many people remain
extremely skeptical of the soul's ability to return repeatedly.

50
However, this general skepticism has not prevented researchers from exploring the potential for
reincarnation. Dr. Ian Stevenson, an academic psychiatrist, led the study of reincarnation in the
United States until his death in 2007. Stevenson founded the Division of Personality Studies
under the University of Virginia's department of psychiatry and neurobehavioral sciences. The
lab, which later became known as the Division of Perceptual Studies, focuses on examining
children who remember former lives, near-death experiences, apparitions and after-death
communications, out-of-body experiences and deathbed visions.
Advertisement
Stevenson, who often called reincarnation the "survival of personality after death," saw the
existence of past lives as a potential explanation for the differences in human condition
[source: New York Times]. He believed past experiences plus genetics and the environment
could help elucidate gender dysphoria, phobias and other unexplained personality traits.
Stevenson's reincarnation studies focused on young children, usually between the ages of 2 and
5, who had inexplicable phobias or detailed memories about a previous life. Stevenson would
attempt to corroborate the facts the child presented with the details of a deceased person's life.
He sometimes made startling connections between memories and lives. One Lebanese boy
studied by Stevenson not only knew where a deceased stranger tied his dog but also that the man
had been quarantined in his room -- a fact the family attributed to his pulmonary tuberculosis.
Stevenson studied 2,500 cases over the course of about four decades and published technical
books and articles. He claimed he merely wanted to suggest reincarnation was plausible, not to
prove it absolutely. Despite Stevenson's caveat, his work was largely rejected by the scientific
community. The potential for piecing two lives together with coincidences rather than facts and
the inability to perform control experiments opened his research to criticism.
A CHALLENGE FROM BEYOND
Although Stevenson never publicly stated a personal belief in reincarnation, he did express his
desire to communicate after death. Nearly 40 years ago, the psychiatrist purchased a combination
lock and set the code himself with a mnemonic device. He sequestered the lock in a file cabinet
and placed it in the Division of Perceptual Studies. He reportedly told colleagues that after death,
he would attempt to pass on the mnemonic device. Since Stevenson's death in February 2007, the
lock has not been opened.

51