Practical No.

1
Measurement of Soil moisture by gravimetric method

Aim: To determine soil moisture content

Apparatus: soil auger, aluminum container, weighting balance, Oven, hammer.
Procedure:
1. In the gravimetric method, basic measurement of soil moisture are made on
soil samples of known weight or volume.
2. Soil samples are collected with a soil auger or sampling tube from desire
depth.
3. The soil samples are weighed and they are dried in an oven at 105 0c for
about 24 hours, until all the moisture is driven off.
4. After removing from oven they are cooled slowly to room temperature and
weighed again.
5. The difference in weight is the amount of moisture in the soil.

Formula:

Soil moisture content, per cent by weight

(Weight of moist sample – weight of oven dry sample) × 100
=
Weight of oven dry sample

Soil moisture content, per cent by volume

= Moisture content, per cent by weight ×bulk density

1
Example:
Undisturbed soil sample was collected from a field two days after irrigation, when
the soil moisture was near field capacity. The inside dimensions of the core sampler
were 7.5 cm diameter and 15 cm deep. Weight of the core sampling cylinder with
moist soil was 2.76 kg and the weight with oven dry soil was 2.61kg. The weight
of the core sampling cylinder was 1.56 kg. Determine the water depth in centimeters
per meter depth of soil.

2
 Practical No: - 2

Determination of Bulk Density of Soil

Aim: To determine the Bulk Density of given soil sample using Core cutter
method

Principle:
Bulk density of soil is defined as mass of oven dry soil per unit bulk volume
of soil in undistributed condition. The bulk volume includes the volume of soil
particles & pore space. It is determined by core cutter method and core cutting
method. It is expressed gm/cm3

Material required:-
1] Core cutter 2] Container 3] Dolly 4] Weighing balance 5]
Hammer 6] Hot air oven

Procedure:-
1. Weigh the empty core cutter as m1
2. In the field chose proper area &place the core cutter at one place.
3. The place the dolly on it & press it down with the help of hammer fill the
appear rim of core cutter comes at the level of soil surface.
4. Then dig the soil present on the outer side of core cutter fill core cutter is
Completely exposed.
5. Take out the core cutter &weigh again with soil as m2
6. Then calculate mass & density of soil
Observation:-
1. Weight of empty core cutter (m1) =
2. Weight of core cutter + soil sample(m2) =
3. Mass of soil (m2 - m1 ) =
4. Volume of core cutter = d2h =
4

3
 Where l = Length of core cutter
d = Diameter of the core cutter
Calculation:-
B.D of soil = Mass of soil
Volume

Result:-The bulk density of given soil sample is gm/cm3

4
 Practical No. 3
Measurement of Soil moisture by Tensiometer

Tensiometer:

Tensiometer provide a direct measure of the tenacity with which water

is held by soils. They measure the metric or capillary potential, they can also
be used to estimate the soil moisture content.
The tensiometer consist of a ceramic cup filled with water which is
buried in the soil at any desired depth and connected to a water filled tube
with a manometer or vacuum gauge. The scales are generally calibrated in
either hundredth of an atmosphere or in centimeter of water. When the
tensiometer is placed in the soil where the tension measurement is to be
made, the bulk water inside the porous cup comes into hydraulic contact
and tends to equilibrate with soil water through the pores in the ceramic
cup. When initially placed in the soil, water contained in the tensiometer
is generally at atmospheric pressure. Soil water, being generally at sub-
atmospheric pressure, exercises a suction which draws out a certain
amount of water from the airtight tensiometer, thus causing a drop in its
hydrostatic pressure. This pressure is indicated by the manometer or
vacuum gauge.

5
Any increase in tension that occurs as the soil dries causes the gauge or
manometer reading to increase, which can be read above ground.
Conversely an increase in soil water content reduces tension and lowers
the reading.
Tension measurement by tensiometers are generally limited to
metric suction values of below 1 atmosphere. Tensiometer readings reflect
soil moisture tension only that is they indicate the relative wetness of the
soil surrounding the porous cup. They do not provide direct information
on the amount of water held in the soil. Tension measurements are useful
in deciding when to irrigate but not indicate how much to irrigate. A special
moisture characteristics curve for the particular soil type is needed to
convert moisture – tension into available moisture percent.
Care is needed in installing the tensiometer properly. For good
installation, part of the tensiometer containing the ceramic cup and tubeis
inserted into a prepared hole with a near close fit so that the walls ofthe
ceramic cup are in close contact with undisturbed soil and roots. Thehole
can be made by driving a steel rod of diameter equal to thetensiometer and
provided with a tapered driving point. At the ground surface the soil is
pressed around the tensiometer and it is piled slightlyso that water does
will not collect and seep down along the tube of the tensiometer.

6
 Practical No. 4
Measurement of Irrigation water using Weirs, Parshall flumes
and Orifices

Weirs:
Weirs are used to measure the flow in an irrigation channel, or the discharge of
a well or canal outlet at the source. A weir is a notch of regular form through which
the irrigation stream is made to flow. In its simplest form, a weir consistsof a weir
wall of concrete, timber or sheet metal. In most case, a sheet metal weir plate fixed
to the weir notch on the upstream side. Weirs may be built as stationary structures
or they may be made portable. The notch may be rectangular, trapezoidal or
triangular. Rectangular weirs and 90V notch weirsare commonly used on the
farm. It is desirable to install the weir at a point where there is a drop in the elevation
of the channel bed. This will make the flow through the weir to fall freely to the
downstream channel.

Weir pond –portion of the channel immediately upstream from the weir

Weir crest- the bottom of the weir notch

Head- the depth of water flowing over the weir crest measured at some point in the
weir pond

Sharp crested weir- a weir having thin-edged crest such that the over-flowing
sheet of water has the minimum surface contact with the crest.

End contraction- The horizontal distance from the ends of the weir crest to the
weir pond.

Weir scale or gauge- The scale fastened on the side of weir or on a stake in the
weir pond to measure the head on the weir crest.

7
Rectangular weir
The rectangular weir takes its name from the shape of the notch. They are used
to measure comparatively large discharges. It has a horizontal crest and vertical
sides. They may be either contracted rectangular weirs or suppressed rectangular
weirs. They have a sharp crest and are beveled on the downstream side only. The
sides are not beveled.
The discharge through rectangular weirs may be computed by the
Francis formula
1) suppressed rectangular weir

Q=0.0184LH3/2
In which,
Q= discharge, lit/sec
L= length of crest, cm
H=head over the weir, cm
2) contracted rectangular weir (with end contraction at both ends)

Q=0.0184(L-0.2H) H3/2

Example:
Using Francis formula compute the discharge of rectangular weir 45cm long with
ahead of 12 cm, under the following conditions.
1] With no end contraction
2] With one end contraction
3] With two end contraction
Soln.:
1] With no end contraction

8
2] one end contraction

3] With two end contraction

Cipoletti Weir:
The cipoletti weir is a contracted trapezoidal weir, in which each side of the
notch has a slope of 1 horizontal to 4 vertical. It is named after its inventor cesare
cipoletti, an Italian engineer. Its popularity rests largely upon the belief that side
slops of 1 to 4 are just sufficient to correct for the end contractions of the nappe
and that the flow is proportional to the length of the weir crest. It does not require
corrections for each contraction. The weir has sharp crest and sharp side beveled
from the downstream side only. It is commonly used to measure medium
discharges.
The discharge through the cipoletti weir is computed by the following
formula:
Q=0.0186LH3/2
In which,
Q=discharge, lit/sec
L=length of crest, cm
H=head over the crest, cm.
V notch weir

The 90 v notch weir is commonly used to measure small and medium size
streams. The advantage of the V notch weir is its ability to measure small flows
accurately. It has sides sharp, beveled from the downstream side only.

9
 The discharge through a 90 V notch weir may be computed by the following
formula:
Q=0.0138H5/2
In which,
Q=discharge, lit/sec
H=head, cm
For heads lower than 5 cm, the weir should preferably be calibrated to obtain
the discharge.
Parshall flume:
The Parshall flume is an open channel type measuring device that operates
with a small drop in head, adopting the venture principle. The loss of head
for free flow limit is only about 25 percent of that for weir. It is a self-
cleaning device. Sand or silt in the flowing water does not affect its
operation or accuracy. Parshall flumes allow reasonably accurate
measurement even when partially submerged. The velocity of the
approaching stream has very little influence on its operation.
A Parshall flume consists of 3 principle sections :(a) A converging or
contracting section at its upstream end leading to (b)a constricted section or
throat and (c)a diverging or expanding section downstream.
The floor of the upstream section of the flume is level & the walls converge
toward the throat section. The walls of the throat section are parallel & the
floor is inclined upward.
Large size flumes have an approach section& wing walls at the upstream
end. Small flumes are made of sheet metal, while large ones are made of
concrete. The size of the flume is determined by the width of its throat. Sizes
ranging from 7.5 cm to several meters in throat width have been calibrated &
formulas & tables developed. Discharge through the flume can occur under
either free or submerged flow conditions. When the elevation of the water
surface downstream from the flume is high enoughto retard the rate of
discharge, the flow is considered submerged. To determine the discharge,
two scales, Ha & Hb are provided at the upstream & downstream sections of
the flume. Only Ha needs to be measured under free flow conditions.
Free flow conditions are satisfied if the degree or percentage of
submergence, as represented by the ratio Hb/Ha, is within the following
limits:
Width of throat free flow limit
2.5 to 7.5cm 0.5

10
 1.5 to 22.5cm 0.6
3.0 to 24.0cm 0.7
It is desirable to develop calibration curves of the flume to avoid the risk
of inaccuracies in the dimensions of the flume. One of the important
characteristics of the Parshall flume is its ability to withstand a relatively
high degree of submergence over a wide range of backwater conditions
downstream from the structure & still maintain flow conditions.
ORIFICES
Orifices in open channel are usually circular or rectangular openings in a vertical
bulkhead through which water flows. The edges of the openings are sharp and
often constructed of metal. The cross sectional area of the orifice is small in
relation to stream cross section. These conditions allow complete construction
of the steam flow and the velocity of approach become negligible.
Orifices may operate under free flow and submerged conditions. Under free flow
conditions, the flow from the orifice discharges entirely into air. In submerged flow
orifices, the downstream water level is above the top of the opening and the flow
discharges into water. Partial submergence occurs when the downstream water
surface is between the elevations of the top and bottom of the orifice.

Free flow orifice

Free flow orifice plates can be used to measure comparatively small streams like the
flow into border strips, furrows or check basins. The details of constructionof
orifice plates are given in fig. They consist of sheet iron, steel or aluminum
plates that contain accurately machined circular openings or orifices usually ranging
in diameter from 2.5 cm to 7.5 cm. The edge of the orifice need not be sharpened in
case of thin walled orifice plates. A plastic scale may be fixed directly on the
upstream face of the orifice plate with it’s zero reading coinciding with the centre of
the orifice. Orifice plate can be used on relatively level channels and on stilling
ponds are required on its upstream end as in weirs.
The discharge through an orifice is calculated by the formula

Q=0.16×10-3 a√2𝑔𝐻

Where,
Q=discharge through orifice, lit/sec.
a=area of cross section of the orifice, cm2
g=acceleration due to gravity, cm/sec2

11
H=depth of water over the center of the orifice (on the upstream side) in case of free
flow orifice, or the difference in elevation between the water surface at the upstream
and downstream faces plate in case of submerge orifice, cm.

Submerged orifice:-
Submerged orifices may be of two types: - (1) those which have orifices of fixed
dimensions, and (2) those in which the height of opening may be varied. A
standard submerged orifice has fixed dimensions. The opening is sharp edge and
usually rectangular, with the width being 2 to 6 times the height. The discharge
through a standard submerged orifice may be obtained using equation. The
standard submerged orifice is one in which the height of opening and head may
be varied to suit the requirements. The ordinary form is a simple head gate used
to control flow one channel to another. Adjustable submerge orifices should be
calibrated to obtain the discharge under varying head conditions.

12
 Practical No: - 5
Measurement of infiltration using double ring infiltrometer

Procedure:-
Three method of estimating infiltration characteristic of soil for the design
of irrigation systems have been recognized .They are (a) the use of cylinder
infiltrometer.(b) measurement of subsidence of a free water in a large basin, and
(c) estimation of accumulated infiltration from the water front advanced data. The
use of cylinder infiltrometer, described below is the most common method.
Infiltration characteristic of soils may be determined by the ponding water
in a metal cylinder installed on the field surface and observing the rate at which
water level is lowered in the cylinder. In the earlier studies only a single cylinder
was used and many of the data indicated high degree variability. The variability was
a mainly due to the uncontrolled lateral movement of water from the cylinder after
the wetting front reached the bottom of the cylinder. After the initiation of
infiltration, while the wetting front is in the cylinder, the water subsidence rate
corresponds to the infiltration rate when the wetting front passes below the cylinder
a more or less divergence flow will occur. The lateral movement of the water from
cylinder is minimized by the ponding water in a guard cylinder buffer area around
the cylinder.
Infiltration rates observed by cylinder infiltrometer are influenced by the
cylinder diameters, Thickness of cylinder, beveling of the cylinder bottom, the
method of driving the cylinder into the soil and installation depth. The variability
of data caused by ring placement could be overcome greatly by the leaving the
cylinders in place over a long period during a series of a measurement.
The experimental setup used infiltration measurement are illustrated in
fig, the cylinders are usually about 25 cm deep and are formed of a 2 mm rolled
steel. The inner cylinders, from which the infiltration measurements are taken,
is usually 30 cm in diameter. The outer cylinder which used to from the buffer
pond is about 60 cm in diameter. The Cylinders are installed about 10 cm deep
in the soil. Care is taken to be kept the installation depth of the cylinders the same
in all experiments. This is accomplished by marking the outside of the cylinders
are the 10 cm level and driving the cylinders up to the mark. The cylinders are
driven to the ground by a falling weight type hammer striking on awooden plank
placed on the top of the cylinders or by light below with an ordinary hammer and
using a hort wooden plank to prevent damage to the edgesof the metal cylinders
.

13
 The water level in the inner cylinders read with the field type point gauge
or hook gauge. The point rod is set at the desired levelled to which water is to be
added. Water is added to inner cylinders from a container of known volume and
a graduated jar. It is added by pouring on to a piece of folded jute matting. The
matting used to prevent puddlling and healing of the surface soil. After the filling the
cylinder to about three – fourths of the described level the matting is removed.
A stopwatch or the second’s hand of a wrist watch is to note the
instant the addition of water begin and the time the water reaches the desired
level. The total quantity of a water added to the inner cylinder is determined by
the counting the number of full containers of water and the fractional volume in
the jar, which is added last. Care is taken to fill the container completely each
time before adding water to the cylinder. The difference between the quantity of
water added and the volume of water in the cylinder at the instant it reaches
desired point is taken as the quantity of water that infiltrates during the time
interval between the start of the filling and the first measurement.

After the initial reading, point gauge measurements are made at frequent
intervals to determine the amount of water that has infiltrated during the time interval.
Water is added quickly after each measurement so that a constant average infiltration
head could be maintained. Point gauge readings are taken before the water level
recedes more than 1 cm. The average depth of water maintained in the cylinder is 7 to
12 cm, which is approximately equal to the water level expected in the irrigation border
or basin during irrigation. The buffer pond is filled with water immediately after filling
the inner cylinder. Water levels in the inner cylinder and the buffer pond are kept
approximately the same. The experiments are continued beyond the estimated time the
water would stand in borders or basins during an irrigation.
It is necessary to conduct replicated tests at suitable locations in the field. The
average values of accumulated. infiltration y and average infiltration rates are plotted
as a function of elapsed time.

Curve fitting :- The functional relationship between y and t is best represented by the
equation y= ata + b. The values of the constant a, α, and b may be determined by the
method of averages using the procedure suggested by Davis ( 1943 ). The first step is to
plot y against x and choose two points ( x1, y1 ) and ( x2, y2 ) on and near the extremities
of the smooth curve representing the data.
Now a point X3 = √𝑥1𝑥2 is chosen, y3 is read against x3.
The value of b is determined by using the following equation :
b=

14
Example :
Using the field data presented in table 9.1 the procedure in determining the
values of a, α, and b, and evaluating the goodness of fit, are described below.
Solution :

15
 Practical No: - 06
Determination of field capacity and wilting point
Theory:

Field Capacity:-
The field capacity of soil is the moisture content after drainage of
gravitational water has become very slow and the moisture content becomes
relatively stable. This situation usually exists one to three days after the soil has been
thoroughly wetted by rain or irrigation. The term field capacity, field- carrying
capacity, normal moisture capacity and capillary capacity are often use
synonymously. At field capacity, the large soil pores filled with air, the micro pores
are filled with water and any further drainage is slow. The field capacity is the upper
limit of available moisture range in soil moisture and plant relation.The soil
moisture tension at field capacity varies from soil to soil, but it generally ranges from
1/10 to 1/3 atmospheres.

Procedure:-
Field capacity is determined by ponding water on the soil surface
in an area about 2 to 5 sq. m and permitting it to drain for one to three days, with
surface evaporation prevented. Evaporation may be prevented by spreading a
polythene sheet or a thick straw mulch on the ground surface. One to three
days after a soil is thoroughly wetted, soil sample are collected with an auger
from different soil depth at uniform intervals throughout the wetted zone. The
moisture content is determined by gravimetric method.

Permanent wilting point:-

The permanent wilting percentage, also known as permanentwilting
point or wilting coefficient, is the soil moisture content at which plants can no
longer obtained enough moisture to meet transpiration requirements; and remain
wilted unless water is added to the soil. At the permanent wiltingpoint the films of
water around the soil particles are held so tightly that roots in contact with the soil
can not remove the water at the sufficiently rapid rate to prevent wilting of the plant
leaves. It is the soil characteristics, as all plants whose root system thoroughly
permits the soil will wilt at nearly the same soil moisture content when grown in a
particular soil in a humid atmosphere.
The moisture tension of a soil at the permanent wilting point ranges from
7 to 32 atmospheres, depending on the soil texture, on a kind and condition of
16
the plants, on the amount of soluble salts in the soil solution, and to some extent
on the climatic environment. Since this point is reached when a change in a
tension produces little change in moisture content, there is little difference in
moisture percentage regardless of the tension taken as permanent wilting point.
Therefore, 15 atmospheres is the pressure commonly used for this point.

Procedure:-
The most common method of determining the permanent wilting point is
to grow indicator plants in containers, usually in small cans, holding about 600
gm of soil. Sunflower plant is commonly used as the indicator plant. The plants are
allotted to wilt and are then placed in a chamber with an approximately saturated
atmosphere to test them for permanent wilting. The residual soil moisture content
in a container is then calculated which is the permanent wilting percentage. The
determination of moisture content at 15 atmosphere tension which is the usually
assumed valued of permanent wilting point, can be done by the pressure membrane
apparatus.

17
 Practical No.7
Determination of irrigation efficiencies

In evaluating the performance of irrigation system it is useful to examine the

efficiency of each component of the system. This allows identification of the
components which are not performing well and taking suitable measures to improve
them. The following are the various irrigation efficiencies which are used in the
performance evaluation of irrigation system
1. Reservoir storage efficiency (Er):

Ve + Vs
= (1 - ----------) 100
Vi

Where,
Ve = Evaporation volume from the reservoir
Vs = seepage volume from the reservoir
Vi = Inflow to the reservoir during a time interval
Vo = Volume of outflow from the reservoir during a time interval

2. Water conveyance efficiency: This term used to measure the efficiency of

water conveyance systems associated with the canal network, watercourses
and field channel.

Wf
Ec = ------- ×100
Wd

Where,
Ec = water conveyance efficiency (per cent)
Wf = Water delivered to the irrigated plot
Wd = Water diverted from the source

3. Water application efficiency: After the water reaches the field supply
channel, it is important to apply the water on the land as efficiently as
possible.

Ws
Ea =--------- ×100
Wf

18
 Where,
Ea = water application efficiency (per cent)
Wf = Water delivered to the irrigated plot
Ws = Water stored in the root zone of the plant

4. Water Storage efficiency: This concept relates how completely the water
needed prior to irrigation has been stored in the root zone during
irrigation.

Ws
Es = -------- ×100
Wn

Where,
Es = water storage efficiency (per cent)
Wn = Water needed in the root zone prior to irrigation
Ws = Water stored in the root zone during irrigation

5. Water distribution efficiency: It indicates the extent to which water is

uniformly distributed in the field.

Ÿ
Ed = (1------ ) × 100
d
Where,
Ed = water storage efficiency (per cent)
Ÿ = average numerical deviation from d.
d = average depth of water stored along the run during the irrigation.

6. Water use efficiency: It denotes production per unit of water applied. Two
distinct terms are used in expressing water use efficiency.
i) Crop water use efficiency: It is the ratio of crop yield (Y) to the amount
of water depleted by the crop in the process of evapotranspiration (ET).
ii) Field water use efficiency: It is the ratio of crop yield (Y) to the total
amount of water used in the field (WR).

19
Example:
A stream of 135 litres per second was diverted from a canal and 100
litres per second were delivered to the field. An area of 1.6 hectares was
irrigated in eight hours. The effective depth of root zone was 1.8 m. The
runoff loss in the field was 432 cu m. The depth of water penetration
varied linearly from 1.8 at the head end of the field to 1.2 m at the tail
end. Available moisture holding capacity of the soil is 20 cm per meter
depth of soil. Determine the various efficiencies. Irrigation was started
at a moisture extraction level of 50 per cent of the available moisture.

20
 Practical No.8
Design of open irrigation channel

Wetted perimeter: wetted perimeter is the sum of the lengths of that part of the
channel sides and bottom which are in contact with water
P=b+c+c
Area of cross section: cross sectional area refers to the area of the wetted
section of the channel.
(b + t)d
A=
2
Hydraulic radius: It is the ratio between the cross sectional area of the stream
and its wetted perimeter.
A
R = ---
P
Hydraulic slope: It is the ratio of its vertical drop h for a length l of the channel
H
S = ----
L
Free board: It is the vertical distance between the highest water level anticipated
in the design and the top of the retaining banks.
Angle of repose: If a mass of loose dry soil is allowed to fall freely to the ground, the
soil heap formed by it will attain a conical shape. The maximum angle of the sloping
side of the cone, measured from the horizontal is called the angle of repose.
Velocity of the flow:
By mannings formula,

21
 R2/3 s1/2
V=
n

Example 1: An earth channel on a grade of 0.10 % depth of water 40 cm bottom

width 60 cm and side slopes 11/2 to 1. Calculate the velocity of flow and carrying
capacity of the channel.

22
 Practical No.9
Design of underground pipeline system
An underground pipeline system consist of buried pipes for conveying water to
different points on the farms and allied structures required for the efficient
functioning of the system.
Pipes for underground pipeline system:
It usually constructed of concrete or PVC pipes. Vitrified clay pipes and cement
asbestos pipes are used in small size landholdings
Non- reinforced concrete pipes
These are commonly used when the pipe is not subject to high pressure. They
are suitable for operating heads not exceeding 6 meters. Non- reinforced concrete
pipes are cheaper than reinforced pipes and could be used in small to medium size
farms.
Reinforced type pipes:
The majority of RCC pipe in India are manufactured accordingly to Indian
standard IS 458.They are available in sizes 15 cm, 22.5 cm, 30 cm, and 60 cm.
Their lengths vary from 2 to 2.5 meters.
The reinforcement consist of woven steel wire conforming to standard specification.
Concrete pipes are available with faucet and spigot ends, tongue and grooved ends
with collars for jointing.

High density polyethylene pipes:

The PVC is the thermoplastic material produced by the polymerization of
vinyl chloride as a sole or principle monomer. The PVC pipes are produced by
extrusion of thermoplastic in which the PVC content are between 85 to 90 % and
rest are the stabilizer in the form of lubricants, fillers impact strength modifiers
and pigments. PVC pipe fittings are produced by injection moulding methods up
to 110 mm diameter. For large diameters, the fittings are fabricated.

Asbestos cement pipes:

Two types of asbestos cement pipes are used for irrigation pipelines. One
type is pressure pipelines made according to IS: 1592. The other is non- pressure
pipe manufactured according to IS: 1626.

23
Discharge capacity of pipeline:
The discharge through the pipeline can be determined by applying Darcy’s
equation,
V = √Hdg/2fl
Where,
V = velocity of flow of water through the pipe cm/sec
H = available head causing flow, cm
d = diameter of pipe, cm
g = acceleration due to gravity, cm/sec2
l = length of pipe, cm
f = Darcy’s roughness coefficient

Example:
Determine the discharge capacity of an underground concrete pipeline from the
following data: Diameter of pipe 15 cm, length of pipeline 150 meters, difference
in elevation between water levels at pump stand and discharge point 2 meters.

24
 Practical No.10
Study of land grading and land levelling
Land grading is the reshaping of the field surface to a planned grade. It is
necessary in making a suitable field surface to control the flow of water, to check
soil erosion and provide for surface drainage.
Land levelling operations may be grouped into three phases: rough grading, is
the removal of abrupt irregularities such as mounds, dunes and ridges. Land
levelling which reshapes the land to a planned grade. It requires moving large
quantities of earth over considerable distances. These irregularities are removed
and plane surface are obtained is called land smoothing.

Criteria for land levelling:

Criteria for land grading are influenced by the characteristics of the soil
profile, prevailing land slope, rainfall characteristics, cropping pattern, methods
of irrigation, and other special features of the site, including the preference of
the farmers.
Soil profile Condition
A soil survey of the area to be levelled is necessary before undertaking the
levelling work. The soil survey map will show the nature of the top soil, the sub
soil and the materials under the sub soil. The information will aid in planning the
best possible layout for land levelling.
Land slope
If the land is very steep and undulating, and the soil are shallow, it may not
be possible to shape the surface to uniform slope on good irrigation grades. The
development of a uniform non-erosive grade in the direction of irrigation and the
removal of excess slopes should be the aim of a high quality levelling job. A good
land grade, designed in accordance with the infiltration characteristics of the
soil, the size of the irrigation stream available, the crops to be grown and the
erosion hazard from rainfall, permits uniform water distribution and high
irrigation efficiencies.
Rainfall characteristics
It is important in determining the maximum and minimum grades allowable
for the field. Minimum grade must meet the drainage requirements which are
substantially influenced by the amount of rainfall and its intensity, frequency and
season of occurrence.

25
Cropping pattern
The kind of crop to be grown should be considered in selecting the irrigation or
drainage method and the resulting land grading criteria. A high value crop may
justify a high degree of levelling to reduce labor and production cost.
Irrigation methods
Each methods of irrigation has its own limitations as to the permissible
cross slope and downfield slope. The criteria for land grading must specify slopes
within these limits.
Other considerations
Field subdivision, based on natural topographical boundaries, should be
considered for the entire farm in the initial plane itself, even though only a part
of the farm may be levelled in the first year. Each strip will be considered as a
separate field for land levelling design. As far as possible, the irrigation and drainage
systems for a particular field should be constructed at the same timeas the
adjustment areas are levelled.

26
 Practical No. 11
Study of advanced, recession and infiltration opportunity time

After the irrigation stream is cut off, the tail water recedes downstream. The
rate of recession of the tail water is determine by noting the times at which water
just disappears from the upstream end and recedes downstream past the border
strips. An accurate description of flow involves the use of unsteady state flow
equations. Rational formulae to predict the recession flow under field situations are
not known to have been developed.
In plotting advance and recession curves, the distance down the borders
or furrow is plotted on the x-axis and the elapsed time on the y-axis. Both the
advanced and recession curve are plotted on the same graph. Parallelism of
advance and recession curves ensures uniform distribution of water throughout
the border.
The difference between the time the water front reaches a particular point
along the border or furrow and the time at which the tail water recedes from the
same point is the ‘infiltration opportunity time’. This is at any point along the border
or furrow is the vertical distance between the advance and recession curve at the
point.

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 Practical No.12
Evaluation of Furrow Irrigation method.

In Flow-Out Flow Method:-

1) In the inflow out flow method, the furrow is divided into a number of sections
and parshall flumes or other suitable water measuring devices are installed
at each section to measure the flow rate.
2) The furrow cross-section profile is determine representative location in the test
section with a point gauge before admitting water.
3) The furrow spacing is measure from the center of furrow to the center of
adjacent furrow.
4) The rate of advance of water in the test section and the depth of flow atdifferent
point at definite time intervals are also reckoned.
5) From the above measurement it is possible to obtain furrow cross-sectional
area and wetted perimeter.
6) The average value of the wetted perimeter multiplied by the length of the test
section gives the wetted area.
7) Furrow infiltration is determine from the following relationships:

Accumulated infiltration (volume) = Accumulated inflow – Accumulated storage

Accumulated infiltration (volume)

Accumulated infiltration (depth) =
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

EXAMPLE:-
The data obtained from a test furrow in a sandy loam soil are given below:

Stream size Distance Advance time Wetted Furrow cross-

perimeter sectional area
(Litres/min) (metres) (minutes)
corresponding
(cm)
to depth offlow
(cm2)
92 20 1.75 25.39 60.00
40 5.75 25.82 93.00
60 10.91 26.39 103.00

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 80 17.83 26.70 108.40
100 23.67 27.11 111.65
110 27.75 27.42 112.28
Compute the furrow infiltration.
SOLUTION:

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Instructions to the students
1.Draw a diagram in
practical no. 3 ---------- fig. 9.19 and 9.21
Practical no. 5 ----- fig. 9.9
Practical no. 11 ----- fig. 11.8

2.solve all problems given in each practical from book .

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