Boiling Heat Transfer

❑Boiling
✓ Pool Boiling
✓ Flow Boiling
❑ Boiling
✓ Subcooled Boiling
✓ Saturated Boiling
❑ Boiling
✓ Nucleate Boiling
✓ Transition Boiling
✓ Film Boiling
 BOOKS
Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer 7th Edition - T. L. Bergman, A.
S. Lavine, F.P. Incropera, D. P. Dewitt

Heat Transfer – A Practical Approach – Yunus A. Cengel

Boiling Heat Transfer and Two-Phase Flow - Tong L. S. and Tang Y.S.

Convective Boiling and Condensation - Collier J. G. and Thome J. R.

Liquid-Vapour Phase-Change Phenomenon-An Introduction to the

Thermophysics of Vapourisation and Condensation Process in Heat
Transfer Equipment - Carey V. P.,
Typical values of the convection heat transfer coefficient

Process h
W/m2.K

Free convection
Gases 2-25
Liquids 20-1000

Forced convection
Gases 25-250
Liquids 50-20,000

Convection with phase change 2500-100,000

Boiling and Condensation

3
 Two-Phase Flow and Heat Transfer
Phase:
Macroscopic state of matter which is homogeneous
in chemical composition and physical structure

Ex: Gas, Liquid and solid

Two-Phase:
Gas-Liquid – Steam and Water
Air and Water
Liquid-Solid- Plasma and Platelets (Blood)
Liquid-Liquid – Oil and Water

4
 Convection vs. Boiling
Qboiling = h (Tw – Tsat) W/m2

Free and Forced convection depends on

o Density, specific heat, viscosity and thermal
conductivity of the fluid

Boiling Heat Transfer depends on

o Density, specific heat, viscosity and thermal
conductivity of liquid + Vapour
o Latent heat of vaporization
o Surface tension at the liquid-vapor interface
5
 Condensation vs. Boiling

Liquid-Vapor transformation – BOILING

TS,L > Tsat at a given pressure

Vapor-Liquid transformation – CONDENSATION

TS,V < Tsat at a given pressure

Boiling and Condensation (Convection)

▪ Latent Heat of Vaporization
▪ Surface Tension of the liquid-vapor interface
▪ Properties of the fluid in each phase
6
Typical values of the convection heat transfer coefficient

Process h
W/m2.K

Free convection
Gases 2-25
Liquids 20-1000

Forced convection
Gases 25-250
Liquids 50-20,000

Convection with phase change 2500-100,000

Boiling and Condensation

7
 Evaporation vs. Boiling
Boiling:
The process of addition of heat to a liquid
such a way that generation of vapor occurs.

Evaporation Air

Evaporation
Occurs at the liquid-vapor interface

Water Pv < Psat of the liquid at a given temp

20° C
evaporation involves no bubble
formation or bubble motion

8
Boiling
Water
100°C Boiling occurs at a solid-liquid
interface

Heating

P = 1 atm

Boiling occurs when a liquid

is brought into contact with
Water
Tsat = 100°C
Bubbles a surface at a temperature
110°C

Heating element
above the saturation
temperature of the liquid

9
 Surface Tension
Bubbles exist because of the surface tension at the
liquid vapor interface due to the attraction force on
molecules at the interface toward the liquid phase.

Surface tension   Temperature

Surface tension = 0 at critical temperature
No bubbles at supercritical pressures and temperatures

10
 Types of Boiling
BOILING
• Pool Boiling
• Flow Boiling (Forced Convection Boiling

POOL BOILING:
The fluid is stationary
Motion of the fluid is due to
natural convection currents

Heating Motion of the bubbles under the

influence of buoyancy.
Pool Boiling
11
 Flow boiling
Fluid is forced to move in a heated
pipe or surface by external means such
as pump

Heating
Flow boiling is always accompanied by
other convection effects.

Pool and Flow Boiling is classified as

• Subcooled Boiling
• Saturated Boiling

12
 P = 1 atm

Subcooled Boiling
Subcooled water 80° C Tbulk of liquid < Tsat
107° C Bubble

Heating

Saturated Boiling
Tbulk of liquid = Tsat
Saturated water 100° C

107° C Bubble

Heating 13
 Boiling Regimes and Boiling Curve

Nukiyama – 1934
Boiling Regimes
▪ Natural Convection Boiling
▪ Nucleate Boiling
▪ Transition Boiling
▪ Film Boiling

14
 Natural convection Boiling
Governed by natural convection currents
Heat transfer from the heating surface to the
100° C fluid is by natural convection
103° C

Heating

Natural convection Nucleate Boiling

boiling
The stirring and agitation caused by the entrainment of
the liquid to the heater surface is primarily responsible
for the increased heat transfer coefficient and heat flux
100° C in the region of nucleate boiling.
110° C
High heat transfer rates are achieved in
Heating nucleate boiling
Nucleate boiling

15
 Transition Boiling (Unstable film boiling)
Heat flux decreases because of larger fraction
100° C of heater surface is covered by a vapor film
180° C which acts as a insulation because of the low
thermal conductivity of the vapor relative to
Heating
Vapour pockets the liquid

Film Boiling
The presence of a vapor film between the
heater surface and the liquid is responsible for
the low heat transfer rates
100° C

400° C
Heat transfer rate increases with increasing
excess temperature as a result of heat transfer
Heating from the heated surface to the liquid through
Vapour film
the vapor film by radiation, which becomes
significant at higher temperatures. 16
 Typical Boiling Curve for water at 1 atm pressure

Natural convection Nucleate Transition Film

boiling boiling boiling boiling

Bubbles Maximum .
(critical) heat flux q max
Collapse
in the C
106 liquid E

.
q boiling W m 2
105
B

104 D
A Bubbles rise
to the free Leidenfrost point,
surface

103
~5 10 ~30 100 ~120 1000

T = Ts − Tsat C
Discussion on Nukiyama (1934) Paper
 Pool Boiling Experimental Set-up

1 - Glass tank, 2 - Heater strip, 3 - Copper electrodes, 4 -

Single core wire, 5 - DC power supply, 6 - Wooden stand,
7(a) & 7(b)-Thermocouple
 Discussion on Nukiyama (1934) Paper
Pool Boiling
𝑽×𝑰 𝑊ൗ
𝑸= o Heat Flux Control Experiments Set Up
𝝅𝒅𝒍 𝑚2
Wheatstone bridge

𝑻𝑾 = 𝑻𝒂𝒃
Figure: Equipment for metal wire experiments, Nukiyama (1934)
Discussion on Nukiyama (1934) Paper
Various boiling regimes during boiling of methanol on a
horizontal 1-cm-diameter steam-heated copper tube

a. Nucleate boiling
b. Transition boiling
c. Film boiling

Various boiling regimes during boiling of methanol on a

horizontal 1-cm-diameter Electric Heater

a. Nucleate boiling
b. Transition boiling
c. Film boiling
22
 Pool Boiling Regimes

1. Natural convection Onset of boiling

2. Individual bubble regime 3. Regime of slugs and bubble

4. Transition film boiling 5. Stable film boiling 23

 Boiling Inception - Bubble Nucleation
The process of bubble formation is called nucleation

Trapped pockets of gas

Liquid

Rough wall

Enlarged view of a boiling surface

The cracks and crevices do not, of themselves, constitute nucleation

sites for the bubbles: they must also contain pockets of gas, probably
air trapped when the vessel was filled with the liquid. It is from these
pockets of trapped air that the vapor bubbles begin to grow during
nucleate boiling 24
25
When a liquid contacts the surface, surface tension forces prevent the
liquid from entering the smaller cavities in which air or other gases are
trapped. These cavities are the sites at which bubble nucleation occurs.
r radius of the bubble
 surface tension
PB pressure inside the bubble
P pressure in the liquid or the
ambient pressure

For static equilibrium, the surface tension force balances

the net pressure force
  (
2 r = PB − P r )
2

2
PB = P + Young-Laplace equation
26
r
 PB is maximum when r = R (the cavity
radius)
The wall temperature Tw must be high
enough to vaporize the liquid at a
pressure of PB
For the bubble to grow, the required condition

Tw  Tsat +
dT
( PB − P )
dp
Vapor pressure curve: superheat
required for nucleation

Slope of the vapor pressure curve found from the Clausius-Clapeyron eqn

dp h fg hfg latent heat of vaporization

=
( )
Tsat saturation temperature
dT v g − v f Tsat vg
vf
specific volume of the gas
specific volume of the liquid
27
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clausius-Clapeyron_relation
Then, if vg>> vf and, since vg = 1/g
dp h fg
=  dT = Tsat
( )
dT v g − v f Tsat dP  g h fg

Tsat 2
Tw  Tsat +
dT
(PB − P )  Tw  Tsat +
dp  g h fg R

If Tsat is the value of (Tw – Tsat) at which nucleation starts, then

the cavity radius is given by

2 Tsat
R=
 g h fg Tsat

Tsat = Tw − Tsat
28
For water at 1 bar, is commonly about 5 K so, putting
Tsat = 373 K ;  = 0.059 N/m ; hfg = 2.256  106 J/kg ;
g = 0.598 kg/m3

R is found to be about 6.5 m, and typically cavity sizes are in the
micron range. If the cavity size is known, then clearly the wall
superheat required to start nucleate boiling can be calculated.

Hence, the wall temperature to start nucleation can be found if the

size of the cavities is known. Real surfaces, of course, can contain a
range of cavity sizes. As the wall superheat is increased, cavities of
smaller and smaller radius are able to become active and initiate
nucleation.

29
 Derive the Condition for Bubble Nucleation

Find the superheat require to start the nucleate boiling in water on

surface with roughness 10 m at 10 bar pressure

Take properties from NIST Table at 10 Bar Pressure

30
 Plot a Graph of Bubble Nucleation Temperature
against Surface Roughness at 1 bar pressure

1* 10^(-6) micro m – Tw or (Tw – Tsat)

1*10^(-5)
to
1 mm

31
32
Nucleate Boiling

33
 HEAT TRANSFER IN NUCLEATE BOILING

Nu = f (Re, Pr)
hL  f uL  f C Pf
Nu = ; Re = ; Pr =
kf f kf
Velocity is taken as the liquid velocity in towards the surface which is
to supply the vapour which is being produced, so
q
u~
h fg  f
Length scale is taken to be
1
  2
L~ 
 g (  f −  g )  34
During boiling, disturbances of all wavelengths are present, there will
be some disturbances at small wavelength and long wavelength that
will amplify and cause the interface to be unstable.
Condition for the interface instability of a motionless liquid overlaying
a motionless vapour region

1
(  f − g )g  2
  c =  
  
This condition is called Rayleigh-Taylor Instability
CRITICAL WAVENUMBER
p = 1 bar;  = 0.058988 N/m
1
  2 f = 958.63; g = 0.59034 kg/m3
Lc = 2  
 g (  f −  g ) 
Lc ≈ 16 mm 35
 1 1
hL h   2  f uL  f q   2  f C Pf
Nu = =   ; Re = =   ; Pr =
k f k f  g(  f −  g )  f  f h fg  f  g (  f −  g )  kf

1 1− a −b
Nu = Re Pr
C sf
C pf (Tw − Tsat )
a 1+ b
 q    C pf  f 
= C sf    
h fg   f h fg g (  f −  g )   k f 
a = 0.33 and 1+b = 1 for water and 1.7 for other fluids
Csf is the surface-fluid constant. It depends on both the surface and the fluid.
Typical values are between 0.0025 and 0.015.
For a given Tsat, the heat flux is proportional to (Csf )-3. Since Csf can vary by a
factor of 10, the heat flux can vary by a factor of 1000

APPLICABLE ONLY FOR CLEAN SURFACES 36

Nucleate Boiling

37
Derive the Equation for Heat Flux in Nucleate Boiling Region
for Water

38
Values of the coefficient Csf and n for various liquid-surface combinations
Fluid-heating Surface Combination Csf n
Water on Scored copper 0.0068 1
Water on emery-polished copper 0.0128 1
Water-copper 0.0130 1
Water-brass 0.0060 1
Water on Teflon coated stainless steel 0.0058 1
Water- platinum 0.0130 1
n-Pentane on lapped copper 0.0049 1.7
n-Pentane on emery-rubbed copper 0.0074 1.7
n-Pentane - chromium 0.0150 1.7
Isopropyl alcohol-copper 0.00225 1.7
Ethyl alcohol-copper 0.00305 1.7
Carbon tetrachloride-copper 0.0130 1.7
Benzene - chromium 0.0100 1.7
50% k2CO3-copper 0.00275 1.7
35% k2CO3-copper 0.0054 1.7 39
 100

101 kPa
80
2600 kPa
5300 kPa

 q   8300 kPa

  11000 kPa

  f h fg g (  f −  g )  60 17000 kPa

40
X = 0.013Y 0.33
C sf = 0.013

20

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
C pf (Tw − Tsat )
h fg Pr
Correlation of pool boiling heat transfer data for water by the method of Rohsenow

40
The most important variables affecting Csf are
o Surface roughness of the heater which determines the number
of nucleation sites at a given temperature
o Angle of contact between the bubble and heating surface which
is a measure of measure of wettability of a surface with a
particular fluid.

Liquid Liquid Liquid

Vapor Vapor Vapor

θ θ
θ

Not wetted Partially wetted Totally wetted

Effect of surface Wettability on the bubble contact angle 

41
Water is to be boiled at atmospheric pressure in a mechanically
polished stainless steel pan placed on top of a heating unit. The
inner surface of the bottom of the pan is maintained at 108°C. If the
diameter of the bottom of the pan is 30 cm,
Determine;
(a) the rate of heat transfer to the water
(b) the rate of evaporation of water.

The properties of water at the saturation temperature

42
Pan Bottom Area = 0.07069 m2

Q = 5097 W

E Rate = 2.26 gm/sec

10 kg of Water is to be boiled in 1 hour at atmospheric pressure in a
mechanically polished stainless steel pan of diameter 30 cm placed
on top of a heating unit.
Determine;
(a) The inner surface temperature of pan
(b) The evaporation rate of water if pan temperature is increase by
1 ⁰C.

The properties of water at the saturation temperature

44
 Plot a Graph of Heat Flux with Increase in ΔT
in Nucleate Boiling Region
at atmospheric pressure in a mechanically polished stainless
steel pan of diameter

Tw1 = 105 ---- q’’

Tw2 = 106 ---------q’’
:
:
Twn = 130 -------q’’

45
Thanks

46
 Nucleate Boiling - Critical Heat Flux
• Rohsenow correlation is restricted to nucleate boiling
• Does not reveal the excess temperature at which the heat flux reaches a maximum or what
value of this flux is when nucleate boiling breaks down and an insulating vapor film forms
• For a heat flux controlled surface, the temperature rise when the critical heat flux is
exceeded can be very large (sometimes more than 1000 K)

qc = C cr h fg  0.5
g  ( f − g g )  0.25

L* = L  g (  l − v  ) 
12
Dimensionless parameter

Heater Geometry Ccr Charac. Dimension of Range of L*

Heater, L
Large horizontal flat plate 0.149 Width or diameter L* >27

Small horizontal flat plate 18.9 K1 Width or diameter 9 < L* <20

Large horizontal cylinder 0.12 Radius L* >1.2

Small horizontal cylinder 0.12L*-0.25 Radius 0.15 < L* <1.2

47
The bottom of a copper pan, 0.3m in diameter, is maintained at
118⁰C by an electric heater.

Estimate
(a) The power required to boil water in this pan.
(b) What is the evaporation rate?
(c) The critical heat flux.

Q = 59.1 kW

E Rate = 26.2 gm/sec

CHF = 1.26 MW/m2

48
 Typical Boiling Curve for water at 1 atm pressure

Natural convection Nucleate Transition Film

boiling boiling boiling boiling

Bubbles Maximum .
(critical) heat flux q max
Collapse
in the C
106 liquid E

.
q boiling W m 2
105
B

104 D
A Bubbles rise
to the free Leidenfrost point,
surface

103
~5 10 ~30 100 ~120 1000

T = Ts − Tsat C
 Leidenfrost Temperature
( ) 
qc = C cr h fg  g0.5   f −  g g
0.25

𝟏
𝟒
𝝈𝒈 𝝆𝒇 − 𝝆𝒈
∅𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑪𝒉𝒇𝒈 𝝆𝒈
(𝝆𝒈 )𝟐

( )
1
ϕc
 g  f −  g 4
ϕ (log scale)

min = C h fg  g  
Film  (  f +  g ) 2

boiling
C is a non-dimensional constant which
ϕmin
lies between 0.09 and 0.18;
ΔTmin
0.13 is sometimes taken as an
ΔTsat (log scale) intermediate value.

( )
1
hfg = 2256 kJ/kg  g  f −  g  4

kg = 0.046 W/m.K; min = C h fg  g  2 

= 14614 W/m 2
g = 21  10-6 Pa.s;  (  f +  g ) 
g = 0.32 kg/m3;
f = 1000 kg/m3;
1
 g  4
Cpg = 1800 J/kgK min = C h fg  g   = 14618 W/m
2
50
ST = 0.06 N/m   f 
Rewetting of Hot Surfaces
Liquid does not wet hot surface.
Ex: A drop of water on a hot, horizontal plate will ‘run’ around in a chaotic manner and
evaporate only slowly.
This occurs because the liquid is separated from the plate by a thin film of vapor (Fig. ) so
that the friction for sideways motion of the drop is very small and the heat transfer across
the vapor film is poor.
The vapor film, of course moves outwards, and fresh vapor is generated by evaporation at
the underside of the drop due to heat conduction across the film and radiation from the
plate to the drop.
If the plate is allowed to cool down, it will eventually reach a temperature at which the vapor
film collapses, and then very intense boiling takes place which rapidly leads to the
evaporation of all the liquid. The surface temperature at which this sudden wetting of the
plate occurs is the LEIDENFROST TEMPERATURE .

Liquid drop

Vapour film

Hot surface
51
Water is Boiling on copper pan of diameter 20 mm at 1 bar. The
heat is supplying with controlled and uniform heat flux. Take the
emissivity of pan is 0.6 and constant with temperature

• Find the value of heat fluxes when there are sudden jumps in
temperature occur
• Find the value of temperatures before and after the jumps

Solve the above example by changing the surface as a flat plate with
diameter as 0.1 mm

Surface roughness of Pan is 5 m

52
Draw the flow boiling curve for water, Boiling on copper pan of
diameter 20 mm at 1 bar. Take the emissivity of pan is 0.6 and
constant with temperature. Show the value of important points on
the curve

Draw the flow boiling curve for water, Boiling on copper pan of
diameter 20 mm at 100 bar. Take the emissivity of pan is 0.6 and
constant with temperature. Show the value of important points on
the curve

Surface roughness of Pan is 5 m

53
 COMPLETION OF THE BOILING CURVE
B

The transition boiling region is the

main region not yet considered.
Actually comparatively little is
ϕ (log scale)

known, and one assumption made is

C that the transition boiling line (B to
C) is the straight line connecting B
and C when plotted (as above) on a
log-log graph.
(Idealized)
A

ΔTsat (log scale)

Upto A Natural convection heat transfer

A Onset of natural convection boiling
A to B Nucleate boiling heat transfer
B Critical heat flux
B to C Transition boiling
C Minimum film boiling temperature
C onwards Film boiling 54
 Pool boiling curve of Benzene at 1 bar presure
(sat temp = 80 deg C or 353 K)

1000000
A Onset of natural
convection boiling
A to Nucleate boiling heat
B transfer
100000
B Critical heat flux

Heat Flux (W/m2)

B to Transition boiling
C
C Minimum film boiling 10000
temperature
C Film boiling
onwa
rds
1000

100
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
DT(sat) 55
Thanks

56
Natural Convection
Natural convection occurs because of the presence of
a. Density difference
b. Gravity
There is no gravity in space. Therefore, there is no natural convection
heat transfer in a spacecraft, even if the spacecraft is filled with
atmospheric air.
In heat transfer studies, the primary variable is temperature.
Therefore, we need to express net buoyancy force in terms of
temperature differences.

Density difference is to be expressed in terms of temperature

difference, which requires a knowledge of a property that represents
the variation of the density of a fluid with temperature at constant
pressure .

The property which provides this information is volume expansion

coefficient, β
  v 
 T 
 P

 v 
 T 
 P

20°C 21°C 20°C 21°C

100 kPa 100 kPa 100 kPa 100 kPa
1 kg 1 kg 1 kg 1 kg

a) A Substance with a large β b) A Substance with a small β

Coefficient of volume expansion is a measure of change in volume of

the substance with temperature at constant pressure

1  dV  1  d 
=   =−  
V  dT P   dT  P
• The role played by the Reynolds number in forced convection is
played by the Grashoff number in natural convection
• Grashoff number provides the main criterion in determining whether
the fluid flow is laminar or turbulent in natural convection
• For vertical plates, critical Grashoff number is around 109

Gr
 1 Forced convection dominates
2
Re
Gr
 1 Natural convection dominates
2
Re
Gr
1 Both natural convection and
2 forced are important
Re
 NATURAL CONVECTION OVER SURFACES
hLc
= C ( GrL Pr ) = CRa Ln
n
Nu =
k

g  ( Ts − T ) L3c
Ra L = GrL Pr = Pr
 2

Properties of fluid are calculated at mean film

temperature
T f = (Ts + T ) 2
Geometry Character Ra Nu
istic range
length
Ts Nu = 0.59 Ra 1 4
104-109
Nu = 0.1Ra 1 3
L
109-1013
2
L  16 
0.387 Ra
Nu = 0.825 + 8 27 
Entire
Range
 
1 + (0.492 Pr )
9 16
 

a) Vertical plate
Complex but more accurate

Ts
L
Replace g by gcosθ for Ra<109
θ

b) Inclined plate
 Geometry Characte Ra Nu
ristic range
length

Horizontal plate
Surface are A and Nu = 0.54 Ra 1 4
Perimeter P 104-107
a)upper surface of hot plate As/P
(lower surface of cold plate)
107-1011 Nu = 0.15 Ra 1 3
Hot surface Ts

a)Lower surface of hot plate

(Upper surface of cold plate)
As/P 105-1011 Nu = 0.27 Ra 1 4

Hot surface Ts
 Ts A vertical cylinder can be treated
as a vertical plate when
35 L
D
L GrL1 4

Ts
2
 0.387 Ra 1 6 
RaD  1012 Nu = 0.6 + 8 27 
D
 
1 + (0.559 Pr )
9 16
 

Ts 0.589 Ra 1 4
Ra D  10 11
Nu = 2 +
D ( Pr  0.7 ) 1 + (0.469 Pr ) 
9 16 4 9
 Criteria for forced and natural convection

Forced convection dominates

Gr
 0. 1
2
Re
Natural convection dominates
Gr
 10
Re 2
Both Natural and Forced convection dominate

Gr
0 .1   10
Re 2
Natural convection can inhibit or enhance heat transfer depending on
the directions of buoyancy induced flow and forced convection motion
Hot plate Cold plate
Buoyant flow

Forced
flow

Forced
Forced
flow
flow
Assisting flow Opposing flow Transverse flow
 ( )
1
Nucombined = Nu n
forced  Nu n
natural
n

+ is for assisted flow

-is for opposing flow
n = 3 for vertical surfaces
For other geometries, n = 3 - 4
 Assignment Problem
Water is flowing in a Pipe of inner diameter 18 mm and 2 m length.
The inlet temperature is 30 °C and outlet temperature is 60 °C. Inlet
Reynold number is 800. The pipe is under uniform heat flux boundary
condition.
Calculate below at 0.5 m, 1m, 1.5m and 2m of pipe locations
(1) Reynold Number
(2) Combine Heat Transfer Coefficient
(3) Wall Temperature if Nature Convection is neglected
(4) Actual wall Temperature
(5) Draw the Graphs of above parameters
Calculate
(1) Rate of Heat Transfer Due to Forced Convection
(2) Total Rate of Heat Transfer

Note: Consider variation in properties with temperature

Note: Consider Natural convection in a pipe same as upper surface of
hot plate
THANKS

13
Internal Flow

1
 Internal Flow

Circular pipes can

withstand large pressure
differences between the
inside and the outside
without undergoing any
distortion, but the
noncircular pipes
cannot.

2
 Flow Profiles

Velocity profiles Temperature profiles

The mass flow rate of The rate of energy transport
the fluid is the same with the fluid is the same

3
 Fully Developed Flow

Hydrodynamically fully developed

Thermally fully developed

4
 Entrance Length
Variation of the friction factor and the convection heat transfer coefficient
h in the flow direction for flow in a tube (Pr > 1)
or
f
hx
fx L h,laminar  0.05 Re D

Entrance Fully
L t ,laminar  0.05 Re Pr D = Pr L h,laminar
region developed
region [Kays and Crawford (1993) and Shah and Bhatti (1987)]

Lh
L1
L h, turbulent  L t , turbulent  10D
Fully developed
flow [Bhatti and Shah (1987) and Zhi-qing (1982)]

Thermal boundary layer 5

Velocity boundary layer
 Thermal Analysis

The thermal conditions at the surface can usually be approximated with

reasonable accuracy to be constant surface temperature or constant
surface heat flux
For examples:
The constant surface temperature - boiling or condensation occurs at
the outer surface of a tube.
The constant surface heat flux - tube is subjected to radiation or
electric resistance heating uniformly from all directions. 6
Constant Surface Heat Flux
Assumption:
Thermophysical Properties are
constant
8
 Constant Surface Temperature

Arithmetic mean temperature difference - average of the

temperature differences between the surface and the fluid at
the inlet and the exit of the tube.

Assumption: The mean fluid temperature varies linearly along

the tube, which is hardly ever the case when wall temperature
is constant.

This simple approximation often gives acceptable results, but

9
not always. Therefore, we need a better way to evaluate .
Constant Surface Temperature

10
Variation of the mean fluid temperature along the tube for the case of constant temperature
T
Ts = constant
Ts

Tm

Ti

(Tm approaches Ts asymptotically)

0
L1 x

Ti Te

Ts = constant

temperature difference between the fluid and the surface decays exponentially in
the flow direction, and the rate of decay depends on the magnitude of the
exponent −hA mC
s p
 −hA s mC p
This is dimensionless parameter is called the number of transfer units,
denoted by NTU, and is a measure of the effectiveness of the heat
transfer systems. Ts = 100oC

Ti = 20oC
m, Cp Te

As, h
• NTU of about 5 indicates that the limit is
reached for heat transfer, and the heat transfer NTU = hAs /mCp Te ,oC
will not increase no matter how much we
0.01 20.8
extend the length of the tube. 0.05 23.9
• A large NTU and thus a large heat transfer 0.10 27.6
surface area (which means a large tube) may be 0.50 51.5
desirable from a heat transfer point of view, but 1.00 70.6
it may be unacceptable from an economic point 5.00 99.5
of view. 10.00 100.0
 Ts − Te h As h As
ln =− mC p = −
Ts − Ti mC p ln (Ts − Te ) (Ts − Ti ) 

Q = qs A s = mC p (Te − Ti ) (W)
Q = hA s Tln
Logarithmic mean temperature difference
Ti − Te Te − Ti
Tln = =
ln (Ts − Te ) (Ts − Ti ) ln ( Te Ti )
Ti = Ts − Ti Te = Ts − Te
The logarithmic mean temperature difference Tln is obtained by
tracing the actual temperature profile of the fluid along the tube, and
is an exact representation of the average temperature difference
between the fluid and the surface.

It truly reflects the exponential decay of the local temperature

difference.

When Te differs from Ti by no more than 40 percent, the error in
using the arithmetic temperature difference is less than 1 percent. But
the error increases to undesirable levels when Te differs from Ti
differs by greater amounts.

Therefore, we should always use the logarithmic mean temperature

difference when determining the convection heat transfer in a tube
whose surface is maintained at a constant temperature .
 Hydraulic Diameter
Circular tube:
Dh =
(
4  D2 4 )=D
D
4 Ac
Dh =
D

P
Square duct:
4a 2
Dh = =a
4a
a
a

Rectangular duct:
4ab 2ab
Dh = =
2 ( a + b) a + b

a
b
 Laminar Re < 2300

Transitional Turbulent
Re < 2300 - 4000

Osborne Reynolds, 1883 Re > 4000

x uA
Turbulent

Transitional

Laminar

t
 Homework / In-class Problem
Represent the Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Water and
Steam as a Function of Temperature – At least 5 properties

Represent the Saturation Temperature as a Function of Pressure

Min Require Output – Equations, Temp Range, min/max deviation
o Open NIST Properties Page (https://webbook.nist.gov/chemistry/fluid/)
o Keep Units as SI Unit
o Choose - Saturation properties — temperature increments
o Choose Specific Min and Max Temp – Take Increment as 0.1 or 1
o View data in HTML table or Download data
o Copy the data into excel sheet / Matlab
o Plot the respective graphs
o Give best curve fit to the graph
o Copy the Curve Fit Equation into Word File
o Use the equation in excel file to calculate properties at specific temperature
o Measure the deviation between given properties and calculated properties
Maximum allowable deviation is ± 3%
17
You can select temperature range as per your choice. However, the range should be more than 70 deg C.
 Friction Factor
and
Heat Transfer Coefficient

18
 Friction Coefficient

V 2 dl
P = f C
Fanning friction factor 2 d 2 4
1 d
f C = P
2 V 2 l
 Friction Coefficient
V 2 dl
P = f C
Fanning friction factor 2 d 2 4
1 d
f C = P
2 V 2 l

Darcy friction factor (fD) = 4 × Fanning friction factor (fc)

Darcy friction factor V 2 l

P = f D
2 d

16 64
Laminar flow  f c = Laminar flow  f D =
Re Re

Pipe flow  f D = f = Fritction Factor 20

Pressure Drop – Friction Factor
PRANDTL’S UNIVERSAL LAW OF FRICTION

– verified Nikuradse’s expmts upto Re = 3.4 × 106

Theoretical Derivation with

Experimental Turbulence Data

Blasius Equation

COLEBROOK’S FRICTION FACTOR CORRELATION

21
(-4.2 %)
(0.5 %)
(2.3 %)
(2.7 %)
(1.4 %)
(-1.1 %)
(-3.8 %)

22
 VD
Re =


23
 24
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moody_chart
 Equivalent Roughness for New Pipes
[From Moody and Colebrook ]

Pipe Equivalent Roughness (mm)

Riveted steel 0.9–9.0

Concrete 0.3–3.0

Wood stave 0.18–0.9

Cast iron 0.26

Galvanized iron 0.15

Commercial steel or wrought iron 0.045

Drawn tubing 0.0015

Plastic, glass 0.0 (smooth)

 Heat Transfer – Nusselt Number
Laminar flow - Constant Surface Temperature
Ts = constant

f = 64 Vmax
Re D

Nu = 3.66 Vm

Fully developed laminar flow

hD
Nu = = 3.66
k

Theoretical Derivation from Energy Equation

 Heat Transfer – Nusselt Number
Laminar Flow

Constant Surface Heat Flux

Theoretical Derivation from Energy Equation
Constant Surface Temperature

Turbulent Flow
Dittus - Boelter Correlation
n = 0.4 for heating and 0.3 for cooling

Properties are evaluated at bulk mean fluid temperature

Petukhov equation
( f 8) Re Pr  0.5  Pr  2000 
Nu =  4 6
1.07 + 12.7 ( f 8 ) ( Pr 2 3 − 1)

10  Re  5  10 
0.5

Gnielinski equation

( f 8)( Re − 1000 ) Pr  0.5  Pr  2000 

Nu =  6
1 + 12.7 ( f 8 ) ( Pr 2 3 − 1)

 3  10  Re  5  10 
0.5 3

Properties are evaluated at bulk mean fluid temperature

For liquid metals 0.004  Pr  0.01

Sleicher and Rouse equation

Tw = constant Nu = 4.8 + 0.0156 Re0.85 Prs0.93

q” = constant Nu = 6.3 + 0.0167 Re0.85 Prs0.93

Where the subscript s indicates that the Prandtl number is to be evaluated at the
surface temperature.
Nusselt number and friction factor for fully developed laminar
flow in tubes of various cross sections

D h = 4 Ac p,Re = Vm Dh  ,and Nu = hDh k

29
 a/b or Nusselt Number Friction Factor
Tube Geometry  f
Ts = constant q”= constant
Circle -- 3.66 4.36 64.00/Re
D

Rectangle a/b
1 2.98 3.61 56.92/Re
2 3.39 4.12 62.20/ Re
b
3 3.96 4.79 68.3.6/ Re
a 4 4.44 5.33 72.92/ Re
6 5.14 6.05 78.80/ Re
8 5.60 6.49 82.32/ Re
7.54 8.24 96.00/ Re
Ellipse a/b
1 3.66 4.36 64.00/ Re
b 2 3.74 4.56 67.28/ Re
a
4 3.79 4.88 72.96/ Re
8 3.72 5.09 76.60/ Re
16 3.65 5.18 78.16/ Re
Triangle
10 1.61 2.45 50.80/ Re
30 2.26 2.91 52.28/ Re
60 2.47 3.11 53.32/ Re
90 2.34 2.98 52.60/ Re
120 2.00 2.68 50.96/ Re
 Developing Laminar Flow in the Entrance Region
– constant surface temperature

0.065 ( D L ) Re Pr Edwards et al., 1979

Nu = 3.66 +
1 + 0.04 ( D L ) Re Pr 
23

Average Nusselt number is larger at the entrance region, as expected, and it approaches
asymptotically to the fully developed value of 3.66 as length tends to infinity
Takes into account the property variation
0.14
 b 
13
 Re Pr D 
Nu = 1.86     Sieder and Tate (1936)
 L   s 

The average Nusselt number for the thermal entrance region of flow
between isothermal parallel plates of length L (Re  2800)
0.03 ( Dh L ) Re Pr Edwards et al., 1979
Nu = 7.54 +
1 + 0.016 ( Dh L ) Re Pr 
23
 Assignment Problem

VD
Re =

n = 0.4 for heating

32
Design of
Experimental Set-up

33
34
THANKS

35