Question and answer of boiling and condensation

1.Explain the terms: superheated liquid, superheated vapour, quality of a vapour, subcooled boiling,
nucleate boiling, film boiling, pool boiling, transition boiling, homogeneous and heterogeneous
nucleation.

2. What are the different boiling regimes? Define critical heat flux and boiling crisis. What is the
range of excess temperature over which nucleate pool boiling of an organic liquid occurs?

1. Terms and Concepts:

● Superheated Liquid: A liquid is said to be superheated when its temperature is

above its boiling point at a given pressure but it has not yet started boiling. In other
words, the liquid remains in the liquid phase even though its temperature exceeds
the boiling point.

● Superheated Vapour: A vapour is termed as superheated when its temperature is

above its saturation temperature corresponding to its pressure. It means the vapour
has been heated to a temperature higher than its boiling point at that specific
pressure.

● Quality of a Vapour: The quality of a vapour, often denoted as �x, is the mass
fraction of vapour in a saturated mixture of liquid and vapour. It represents the
fraction of the total mixture that is in the vapour phase. A quality of 0 indicates a
saturated liquid, while a quality of 1 indicates saturated vapour.

● Subcooled Boiling: This occurs when a liquid is heated above its boiling point at a
given pressure but the temperature is still below the saturation temperature
corresponding to the pressure. Boiling starts at this elevated temperature.

● Nucleate Boiling: Nucleate boiling occurs when small bubbles of vapour form at
nucleation sites on a heated surface. These bubbles grow due to the heat
transferred to the liquid. This is the most common form of boiling encountered in
everyday applications.

● Film Boiling: Film boiling, also known as film-wise boiling or transition boiling,
happens when a continuous film of vapour forms on a heated surface without the
formation of distinct bubbles. This type of boiling is less efficient at heat transfer
compared to nucleate boiling.

● Pool Boiling: Pool boiling refers to the boiling of a liquid in a pool or container,
usually at atmospheric pressure. It is commonly observed when heating water in a
pot on a stove.
 ● Transition Boiling: Transition boiling occurs between nucleate and film boiling. It is
characterized by the formation of a vapor film on the heated surface, which can lead
to reduced heat transfer rates compared to nucleate boiling but higher rates than
film boiling.

● Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Nucleation:

● Homogeneous Nucleation: In homogeneous nucleation, bubbles form in a

pure liquid due to spontaneous fluctuations in temperature and pressure,
without the presence of any foreign particles or cavities.

● Heterogeneous Nucleation: Heterogeneous nucleation occurs when bubbles

form at nucleation sites, such as surface imperfections, cavities, or foreign
particles in the liquid.

2. Boiling Regimes and Definitions:

● Different Boiling Regimes: The primary boiling regimes are:

0. Nucleate Boiling: As described above, bubbles form at nucleation sites on a heated surface.

1. Transition Boiling: The regime between nucleate and film boiling, where a vapor film starts
to form.

2. Film Boiling: A continuous vapor film covers the heated surface.

● Critical Heat Flux (CHF): Critical heat flux is the maximum heat flux at which a
surface can be cooled by a boiling liquid before the onset of film boiling. Beyond this
point, the formation of a vapor film reduces the heat transfer efficiency significantly.

● Boiling Crisis (or Departure from Nucleate Boiling, DNB): Boiling crisis occurs when
the heat flux exceeds the critical heat flux, leading to the rapid formation of a vapor
film and a sharp increase in the surface temperature.

● Excess Temperature Range for Nucleate Pool Boiling: The excess temperature is the
difference between the surface temperature and the saturation temperature
corresponding to the pressure of the liquid. For organic liquids, nucleate pool boiling
typically occurs in a range of 10°C to 30°C excess temperature.

3. When does radiation play a role in boiling heat transfer? What is Leidenfrost phenomenon?

4. Discuss the occurrence of hysteresis in a boiling curve.

5. What is forced convection boiling'! Is it common in industrial boilers and vaporizers'!

6. Give the criterion for the collapse of a vapour bubble in a liquid. Can a bubble collapse in a
superheated liquid?

3. Radiation in Boiling Heat Transfer and Leidenfrost Phenomenon:

 ● Radiation in Boiling Heat Transfer: Radiation typically plays a significant role in
boiling heat transfer when the temperatures involved are very high, such as in the
case of molten metals or at extremely high temperatures. In such cases, the radiant
heat transfer can contribute significantly to the overall heat transfer process along
with conduction and convection.

● Leidenfrost Phenomenon: The Leidenfrost phenomenon occurs when a liquid,

typically water, comes into contact with a surface much hotter than its boiling point.
Instead of immediate boiling and rapid evaporation, the liquid forms a vapor layer
between the hot surface and itself. This vapor layer insulates the liquid from the hot
surface, significantly reducing heat transfer and preventing the liquid from boiling
away quickly. As a result, droplets can skitter around on the hot surface for an
extended period, which is often observed when dropping water onto a hot pan.

4. Hysteresis in a Boiling Curve:

● Hysteresis in a boiling curve refers to the phenomenon where the boiling process
follows a different path during heating compared to cooling for the same liquid and
surface conditions. This means that the heat flux required to maintain a certain
surface temperature during boiling is different when heating up compared to when
cooling down. Hysteresis can be observed in the nucleate boiling regime and is often
attributed to the different mechanisms of bubble formation and detachment during
heating and cooling.

5. Forced Convection Boiling:

● Forced Convection Boiling: Forced convection boiling occurs when a fluid is forced
to flow over a heated surface, enhancing the heat transfer rate due to the
convective flow of the fluid. This is in contrast to natural convection boiling, where
the fluid motion is driven by buoyancy forces.

● Commonality in Industrial Boilers and Vaporizers: Forced convection boiling is

indeed common in industrial boilers and vaporizers where high heat transfer rates
are required. The forced flow of the fluid ensures efficient heat transfer and helps in
preventing the formation of vapor film, thereby avoiding the boiling crisis.

6. Criterion for the Collapse of a Vapour Bubble and Bubble Collapse in Superheated Liquid:

● Criterion for Bubble Collapse: A vapor bubble can collapse when the pressure inside
the bubble decreases below the external liquid pressure due to the inertia of the
surrounding liquid. The collapse of the bubble can lead to the formation of a high-
speed liquid jet and shock waves, which can cause damage to nearby surfaces.

● Bubble Collapse in Superheated Liquid: Yes, a bubble can collapse in a superheated

liquid. In fact, the collapse of a vapor bubble in a superheated liquid can result in a
phenomenon known as superheat-induced flashing or cavitation. The collapse of the
bubble generates high temperatures and pressures, leading to rapid vaporization of
 the liquid and the formation of additional bubbles. This can result in a violent and
rapid boiling process, which can be particularly damaging in certain applications.

7. What are the different flow regimes in forced convection boiling of a liquid in a vertical tube? In
which regime is the boiling heat transfer coefficient the largest?

8. Which boiling regime is preferred in industrial boilers and vaporizers?

9. Explain the terms: homogeneous condensation, surface condensation, filmwise condensation,

dropwise condensation, and condensation promoters. Give the approximate ranges of values of heat
transfer coefficients for fiimwise and dropwise condensation on different types of surfaces.

7. Flow Regimes in Forced Convection Boiling in a Vertical Tube:

In forced convection boiling in a vertical tube, the following flow regimes are typically observed:

● Single-phase Convection: This is the regime where the fluid is in a single-phase

(liquid) and is being heated. No boiling occurs in this regime.

● Subcooled Boiling: As the temperature of the fluid increases, it reaches its

saturation temperature, and boiling starts to occur at the wall of the tube while the
bulk fluid remains subcooled.

● Nucleate Boiling: As the heat flux increases further, more bubbles are formed on the
wall of the tube, and the boiling becomes more vigorous.

● Transition Boiling: At higher heat fluxes, the bubble formation becomes more
sporadic, and a vapor film starts to form on the wall of the tube.

● Film Boiling: In this regime, a continuous vapor film covers the wall of the tube, and
the boiling becomes less efficient due to the insulating effect of the vapor film.

● Forced Convection: This is the regime where the convective heat transfer due to the
forced flow of the fluid dominates the heat transfer process.

The boiling heat transfer coefficient is typically the largest in the nucleate boiling regime, where the
heat transfer is enhanced due to the formation and detachment of bubbles on the wall of the tube.

8. Preferred Boiling Regime in Industrial Boilers and Vaporizers:

In industrial boilers and vaporizers, nucleate boiling is often the preferred regime due to its high
heat transfer coefficient and efficient heat transfer. Nucleate boiling provides a balance between
heat transfer rate and surface protection against overheating, making it suitable for industrial
applications.
 9. Terms and Ranges of Heat Transfer Coefficients for Condensation:

● Homogeneous Condensation: In homogeneous condensation, the condensation

occurs in a pure vapor without the presence of non-condensable gases. This type of
condensation typically occurs in clean environments and can result in high heat
transfer rates.

● Surface Condensation: Surface condensation occurs when vapor condenses directly

on a solid surface. This is the most common form of condensation encountered in
practical applications.

● Filmwise Condensation: In filmwise condensation, a thin film of liquid is formed on

the condensing surface, and the condensate flows down due to gravity. The heat
transfer coefficient for filmwise condensation is typically in the range of 5000-15000
W/m^2K for clean horizontal tubes.

● Dropwise Condensation: In dropwise condensation, the condensate forms droplets

on the surface, which then fall off due to gravity. Dropwise condensation can result
in higher heat transfer coefficients compared to filmwise condensation and is
typically in the range of 15000-30000 W/m^2K for clean surfaces.

● Condensation Promoters: Condensation promoters are substances or coatings

applied to the condensing surface to enhance the condensation process. They can
improve the heat transfer coefficients by promoting dropwise condensation and
reducing the formation of a continuous liquid film.

10. What are the basic assumptions of Nusselt's theory of film condensation? What is the nature of
temperature distribution in the condensate film according to this theory?

11. Defme Jacob number and condensation number.

12. How does the average condensation heat transfer coefficient on an inclined plate depend upon
the length of the plate?

13. How is the film Reynolds number defined? At what Reynolds number does the flow in a film tum
turbulent?

10. Assumptions of Nusselt's Theory of Film Condensation:

Nusselt's theory of film condensation is based on the following assumptions:

● The condensate film is thin and flows in a laminar manner over a vertical plate.

● The vapor side resistance is negligible compared to the condensate side resistance.

● The condensate film is fully developed and has a constant thickness along the length
of the plate.
 ● The effect of surface tension is neglected.

According to Nusselt's theory, the temperature distribution in the condensate film is assumed to be
linear, i.e., the temperature of the condensate varies linearly from the surface temperature at the
wall to the saturation temperature at the interface with the vapor.

Answe11, 12 & 13
 11. Dependence of Average Condensation Heat Transfer Coefficient on Plate Length:

The average condensation heat transfer coefficient on an inclined plate depends on the length of the
plate through the effect of gravity. As the length of the plate increases, the gravitational force acting
on the condensate increases, leading to a higher flow rate of the condensate and a higher heat
transfer coefficient. Therefore, the average condensation heat transfer coefficient increases with
increasing length of the plate.

14. Consider a vertical tier of three horizontal tubes on which condensation of a vapour is taking
place. On which of the tubes is the rate of condensation maximum? On which is it minimum? Give
explanations.

15. How does the presence of non-condensable gases affect the rate of condensation of a vapour?

16. Will the rate of condensation on a surface be more at 'zero gravity'? Explain. How will the rate of
condensation be affected by enhanced gravity?

17. At what kind of site on a surface does the nucJeus of a bubble (in boiling) or a drop (in
condensation) originate?

Let's address each of the questions:

14. Rate of Condensation on a Vertical Tier of Three Horizontal Tubes:

● Maximum Rate of Condensation: The rate of condensation will be maximum on the

tube that has the highest surface temperature, as the rate of condensation is
directly proportional to the temperature difference between the wall and the
saturation temperature. Therefore, the tube with the highest surface temperature
will have the maximum rate of condensation.

● Minimum Rate of Condensation: Conversely, the tube with the lowest surface
temperature will have the minimum rate of condensation since the temperature
difference between the wall and the saturation temperature will be the smallest.

15. Effect of Non-Condensable Gases on the Rate of Condensation:

The presence of non-condensable gases can significantly affect the rate of condensation of a vapor.
Non-condensable gases act as an insulating layer between the condensing vapor and the condensing
surface, reducing the effective heat transfer area and increasing the resistance to heat transfer. As a
result, the rate of condensation is decreased in the presence of non-condensable gases.

16. Rate of Condensation at Zero Gravity and Enhanced Gravity:

● Zero Gravity: At zero gravity, the rate of condensation will be significantly reduced
due to the absence of buoyancy-driven flow in the condensate film. Without gravity,
there will be no natural convection to remove the condensate from the condensing
surface, leading to a decrease in the rate of condensation.
 ● Enhanced Gravity: On the other hand, in the presence of enhanced gravity, the rate
of condensation will increase due to the increased gravitational force acting on the
condensate, leading to a higher flow rate of the condensate and a higher heat
transfer coefficient. Therefore, the rate of condensation will be higher under
enhanced gravity conditions compared to normal gravity conditions.

17. Origin of Nuclei for Bubble Formation in Boiling and Drop Formation in Condensation:

● Boiling: The nucleus of a bubble in boiling originates at a nucleation site on the

heating surface. These nucleation sites can be surface imperfections, cavities, or
foreign particles on the surface. Once a nucleus is formed, it grows due to the heat
transferred to the liquid until it reaches a critical size and detaches from the surface
as a bubble.

● Condensation: Similarly, the nucleus of a drop in condensation also originates at a

nucleation site on the condensing surface. These nucleation sites can be surface
imperfections, cavities, or foreign particles on the surface. Once a nucleus is formed,
it grows due to the condensation of vapor onto the surface until it reaches a critical
size and detaches from the surface as a drop.