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Waterways
& Wetlands
a practicai handbook

Alan Brooks and

Elizabeth Agate
From production of the first edition of Waterways and Wetlands in 1976, to this edition,
BTCV would like to thank all the individuals and organisations who have contributed
their advice and experience.

IMPORTANT: Invasive, notvnative plants can have massive impacts on ecosystems.

Both marginal and submerged wetland plants can spread very quickly along
watercourses. if you have ANY doubt about introducîng a wetland plant, please don’t.

NOTE: In April 2012, BTCV changed its name to The Conservation

Volunteers. References to BTCV in the text of this publication refer to the
organisation now known as The Conservation Volunteers £ ■

i
DISCLAIMER: The information given in this publication on behalf of
The Conservation Volunteers is believed to be correct, but accuracy is not guaranteed and the
t

e
1
■
information does not obviate the need to make further enquiries as appropriate. This publication
i
is not a comprehensive statement on all safety procedures and the reader must take all reasonable
steps to ensure the health and safety of all users and to take all necessary steps to implement a i
health and safety policy. This publication is issued without responsibility on the part of
The Conservation Volunteers for accidents or damage as a result of its use. I
ISBN 0 946752 30 3
I■
€
Written by Alan Brooks and Elizabeth Agate
i
niustrations by Linda Francis, based on original
illustrations by Arme Roper
€
i
i
Cover photograph by David Mansell

First published May 1976

i
Revised and newly illustrated April 1997
This edition with revised appendices,
new cover and binding published June 2001
Appendices revised May 2007. Cover redesigned and
current references to BTCV in the text changed to
The Conservation Volunteers 2012.
<r
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1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
fr
© BTCV 1976-2012

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
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without the prior permission of The Conservation Volunteers.

Typeset in Palatino and Franklin Gothic

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Printed by Severnprint Ltd, Gloucester, on recycled paper (?
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Published by The Conservation Volunteers,
Sedum House, Mallard Way, Doncaster DN4 8DB <?
Telephone: 01302 388883
Registered Charity, England 261009, Scotland SC039302
&
 Contents
Introduction..................
1 A look at ponds and
waterways.......................
Springs, ponds and lakes............................................. 3
W etlands.......................................................................... 6
Streams and rivers......................................................... 6
Leats, ditches and canals............................................. 6
2 Waterway and wetland
ecology.............................
Chemical and physical factors....................................9
Pond and waterway life ............................................ 10
The productivity sca le ................................................11
Swamps and m arshes.......................................... 14
Wet grasslands............................................................. 15
Mires............................................................................... 16
3 Management for
conservation & amenity 21
Threats and opportunities.........................................21
Management problems and principles.................. 24
Invertebrates................................................................. 27
F ish ................................................................................. 27
Amphibians...................................................................29
Birds................................................................................ 30
M am m als.......................................................................34
4 Waterways, wetlands
and the law ......................35
Environmental regulation.........................................35
Pond creation............................................................... 36
Water supply and abstraction.................................. 36
Statutory wildlife protection.....................................36
F ish ................................................................................. 37
Maintenance of ditches.............................................. 37
Other relevant statutes...............................................37
"3 5 Safety, equipment
and organisation............ 39
' 3 Safety precautions.......................................................39
Tools and accessories................................................. 40
Tool and equipment maintenance...........................43
3 Plankw ays.....................................................................43
Organising group w ork............................................. 44
I
3
1 6 New ponds..................... 45
Factors to consider...................................................... 45
General principles...................................................... 45
Requirements and siting............................................46
^ D esign............................................................................48
Water supply................................................................ 49
Dew p o n d s................................................................... 53
Scrapes and marshes.................................................. 54
7 Artificial linings............. 55
Measuring..................................................................... 55
Puddled c la y ................................................................ 56
9 Concrete linings...........................................................57
Flexible linings.............................................................60
Bentonite....................................................................... 62
Leaks...............................................................................62
8 The planting and
management of new
ponds................................ 65
Preparing for planting............................................... 65
Pond plants................................................................... 65
Marsh and buffer zone plants.................................. 68
Pond fau n a................................................................... 69
A lg ae..............................................................................69
Pond management plan............................................. 71
9 Pond and waterway
restoration........................ 73
Factors to consider.......................................................73
Clearing rubbish..........................................................75
Digging out muck........................................................75
Pumping water and sludge...................................... 76
Mechanical excavation...............................................78
10 Banks, revetments
and access........................ 79
Bank creation and stabilisation................................ 79
Bank diversification................................................... 87
Wave barriers............................................................... 88
Dipping platforms and boardwalks.......................90
Causeway s .................... 91
11 Islands & r a f t s ..............93
Islands............................................................................93
Rafts................................................................................95

12 Ditches and pipes....... 101
Design ........................................................................ 101
Ditching and drainage procedures...................... 102
Ditches......................................................................... 102
P ipes.............................................................................104
Maintenance and repair...........................................107
13 Dams, weirs & sluices..l09
Factors to consider................................................... 109
Dams............................................................................111
Weirs............................................................................120
Sluices..........................................................................122
Repair..........................................................................126
14 Vegetation
management................. 129
Aquatic vegetation control.................................... 129
Cutting, digging and raking.................................. 130
Chemical control........................................................132
Environmental and biological control..................132
Bankside vegetation management........................135
Wetland vegetation management.........................139
Reedbeds......................................................................141
Osiers............................................................................143
Wetlands for water treatment................................ 145
Appendices
A: Vegetation tables............................................... 147
B: Conservation and the volunteer worker...... 157
C: Contacts.............................................................. 159
D: Specialist suppliers........................................... 163
E: Site studies and surveys................................. 165
Glossary.....................................................................166
Bibliography............................................................. 167
Index....................................169
6 r:
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< ST
Introduction
T his is a h an d b o o k o f w ate rw ay s and w etlan d s
management. It is intended to be used by conservation
volunteers and others interested in m aintaining or
im proving valuable natural and sem i-natural habitats.
"Waterways' includes bodies of fresh water, springs,
ponds, lak es, stream s, riv ers, canals and ditches.
'W etlands' describes sites w hich are waterlogged or
w ater-covered for a significant part of the year, including
swamps, marshes, bogs, fens and wet grasslands. Such
categories of ten overlap. Ponds m ay be temporary,
marshes m ay flood. Fens m ay contain open pools, lake
shores may be swamp-fringed. In the same w ay wetlands
grade into damp scrub, heath or moorland. But in every
habitat covered by this H andbook you are likely to get
your feet wet.
Of all parts of the natural environm ent, w aterw ays
and w etlan d s are am o n g st th e m o st th reaten ed .
Causes of their progressive, som etim es irreversible,
degradation include eutrophication from farm, factory
and dom estic w aste; drainage and abstraction;pollution
from herbicides, p esticides and industrial effluent;
afforestation of upland w atersheds; canalisation and
dam m ing of stream s; infilling of ponds and increased
recreaţional pressure.
This H andbook first introduces basic problem s and
ecological and m anagem ent principles of w aterways
and w etlands conservation. It then goes into detail on
w hy and how to create new ponds, rehabilitate existing
waterways, regulate w ater tables and control ecological
succession in aquatic and wetland habitats. Subsidiary
topics include m ethods of landscaping and reinforcing
banks, constructing rafts and islands, ere ating and
repairing puddled clay, concrete and flexible linings,
laying out, installing and repairing drains and ditches,
building dams, w eirs and sluices and planting and
controlling aquatic and bank vegetation.
Not covered in detail are specialist wildlife management
programmes, complex regimes of grazing, flooding or
cutting and tasks requiring heavy machinery, subjects
which require volum es in themselves. This Handbook
does indicate som e of the connections betw een more
complex m anagem ent programmes and those which
volunteers can organise, lead and carry out. It also
evaluates various management techniques so that they
canbe matched more easily to available funds, manpower
and machinery.
Throughout the text, im portant points and lists of items
of equipm ent etc. are set out in a, b, c order. Sequential
operations and procedures are given in 1, 2, 3 order.
Scientific terms and words used in a technical sense are
defined in the Glossary. References to published source
material are incorporated in the text, and give the author
first, followed by publishing date. Full listings of these
and other useful works are given in the Bibliography.
Measurements are given first in metric units, followed
in brackets by the imperial equivalent. Occasionally a
dimension or product specification is given in one unit
only according to current manufacturers' listings.
National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs)
This handbook is a key reference for the practicai ways of
managing waterways and wetlands, containing reali stic
advice, including standards of good practice. As such, it
is an invaluable aid to anyone wishing to gain an NVQ
in the subject or in practicai conservation in general. By
following the advice in this book and working to the
standards given, you will generate useful evidence of
levels of competence. Collating this evidence correctly
for your assessor will enable you to get your NVQ.
1 A look at ponds and waterways
This chapter stresses the historical interaction of man and
nature w hichhas produced today's landscape and today's
problems and w hich continues to determine the character
of Britain's waterways and wetlands. Although 'natural'
aquatic and wetlands ecosystem s are often distinguished
from those w hich are 'm an-m ade', the two are in fact
seldom separate. In this country it is their semi-natural
quality which often gives them their most interesting
conservation problems and possibilities.
Springs, ponds and lakes
Natural
Britain's natural springs, ponds and lakes are distributed
very unevenly. The N orth and West are plentifully
endowed w ith a great variety of natural still w ater
bodies while the South and East are impoverished. This
is because of basic geological differences separating
Scotland, the Fennines, the Lake D istrict and the South
Western and Welsh uplands from the rest of the country.
The geologically old and complex rocks of the N orth and
West are hard and impervious, y ielding poor, thin soil and
plentiful runoff accentuated by high rainfall. The South
and East are clothed in relatively young, unconsolidated
and permeable m aterials which absorb and store a higher
proportion of the mo re m odest rainfall. Those small
natural ponds w hich do occur in the South and East are
found on clay, or on the impervious pans w hich form
locally where iron leaches from the upper soil layers.
In the M idlands, ponds fiii hollow s in the great blanket
of glacial till w hich overlays the region's bedrock, but
elsewhere the till is generally too porous to hold much
w ater without m an's help.
Springs are fed purely from ground w ater supplies.
Ground w ater may flow along an impermeable layer to
emerge w here it is cut by a hillside, or may be forced up
by the w ater pressure in surrounding permeable strata
to form natural artesian wells. Some springs are isolated,
but most overflow to feed stream channels while others
occur at the bottom s of larger pools and lakes. Some are
short-lived, as in Snow donia and the Highlands where
many bubble up for a few days after heavy rain but are
otherw ise inactive. Perm anent springs are uniquely
stable since their w ater supply is assured at a constant or
seasonally cy clical rate irrespective of day-to-day rainfall
and variaţions in runoff w hich affect other w ater bodies.
Springs often support a limited but distinctive fauna and
flora adapted to the cool, w ell-oxygenated and often
mineral-enriched water.
Natural ponds and lakes are of many types. In northem
Scotland, where the old mountain blocks have been
severely split by faults, the glaciers which gouged out
valleys along these lines of weakness left lakes w hich are
typically long, narrow, deep and steep-sided. Britain's
deepest at 328m (1,007') is Loch Morar. Loch Ness, also
a fault lake, has a greater m ean depth at 132m (433') and
is over 33km (21 miles) long while averaging less than
1.6km (1 mile) in width.
Glacial ponds and lakes take a number of other forms.
Old river valleys, deepened and reshaped by flowing
ice, contain lakes which conform to the scoured basin.
Usually this is relatively long and deep, as is the case
w ith many Scottish lochs and w ith Lake Windermere in
the Lake District.
Where glacial ice spread over a wide plain its power was
dissipated and it deposited at its foot tons of boulders,
grit and clay brought down from above. These moraines
remained after the melt, backing up fairly shallow bodies
such as Loch Leven, which is 5.8km (3.6 miles) longby 4.3km
(2.7 miles) wide w ith a mean depth of only 4.6m (15').
'C w m s' (Welsh) or 'corries' (Gaelic) formed high on
mountains where ice repeatedly built up and broke off,
pulling the rock face with it. The glacier at the cliff foot
often scoured out a basin behind a lip of hard rocks which
afterwards retained a nearly circular lochan tarn or lake.
Good examples are found at Cwm Idwal and Snowdon.
Glaciers sometimes broke into separate blocks around
which deposits heaped to form steep-sided rings. W hen a
block melted it often burst through one wall and drained
the 'kettle hole', but elsewhere no outlet formed and ponds
remained. Some of the Staffordshire and Cheshire meres
are thought to be kettle hole ponds.
Some Cheshire meres, unlike typical kettle hole ponds,
lie in shallow depressions with gently sloping banks.
These w ereprobably causedby the collapse of underlying
salt domes due to their penetration by ground water.
Subsidence lakes are rather rare. Foremost in Britain is
Lough N eagh in N orthern Ireland, whi ch fills a sunken
section of the vast plateau of basaltic lava which covers
most of County Antrim. W ith a surface area o f396 km2(153
square miles), this is Britain's largest w ater body, but it is
also very shallow at only 17m. (56') maximum depth.
Lakes and pools often occur along unstable coastlines.
W herever cliffs have a tendency to subside or slip, short-
lived pools m ay be im pounded on the beach below.
W here shingle bars close the m outh of a drowned river
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
văile y, fresh w ater is retained, as at Covehithe and other
Suffolk Coastal broads and at Slapton Ley, Devon. Where
longshore drift is strong and Coastal waters shallow, river
mouths may be deflected and cut off to form lagoons which
may in time change from brackish to fresh. A famous
example is the Little Sea on South Haven Peninsula,
Dorset, w hich developed betw een the 17th and 19th
Centuries. The Somerset Levels are thought to have begun
in the same way and to have been for a time a shallow
lake before silting up and becom ing boggy.
Flowing waterways almost always have associatedpools
in backwaters where debris temporarily dams the current.
M eandering w atercourses may becom e cut off to form
short-lived oxbow lakes to the side of the main channel.
Wetlands also have associated pools, occurring wherever
the land dips below the water table. Some of the largest
are found on the flat-topped Pennines in Yorkshire, where
the natura] erosion or 'hagging' of the raised dome of peat
creates temporary wind and rain-scoured hollows in the
bog surface. The pools gradually coalesce and eventually
drain away through a channel or 'grough' cut through
the rim of peat.
Waterways of any type are rare on carboniferous limestone.
M alham Tarn in North Yorkshire is particularly notable.
Although it occurs in the middle of the limestone belt it
actually rests on an impervious layer of shale. Because of
its location it supports, w ith its associated fens and bogs,
a unique flora combining upland and lowland, acid and
calcareous features.
Man-made
Most of the estimated 338,000 ponds in England and
Wales are artificial. N otnecessarily intenţional, they occur
because hum an activity has altered local topography
so that w ater collects in im permeable hollows in what
had been generally porous strata. Although about one
quarter are found in the hill farms of the West Country,
Wales and the North, m ost occur in early-enclosed
parts of the lowlands: a quarter of the total in Norfolk
and Cheshire and the rest scattered through the other
lowland counties.
From earliest times tracks w ere routed to take advantage
of natural w atering places. Simple springs or damp
hollows developed into ponds due as much to trampling
by livestock as to active encouragement by men. The
Romans may have built ponds to water their horses
and drain their roads, but direct evidence is scant. More
lasting, in the long run, w ere the efforts of anonymous
farmers who tapped springs, built small dams, puddled
permeable bottom s w ith clay and protected them with
chalk or gravei to store w ater where most convenient
High on the chalk downs of Sussex, parts of Wiltshire
and Berkshire, reliable natural w ater supplies are very
^2
scarce. Here are found small, generally circular 'dew
ponds' surviving apparently unaided despite long-
standing use (until a few decades ago) for w atering stock.
Ponds of similar design, not always on chalk, occur in
small num bers in Dorset, Hertfordshire, Yorkshire and
Derbyshire. Dew ponds were once popularly believed to
be of miraculous ori gin ('dew ' considered a corruption
of 'D ieu'), or to be m an-made in Neolithic times, or to be
literally topped up as much as necessary by periodic heavy
dews. These theories w ere systematically demolished in
1939 by A J Pugsley, whose Dewponds in Fable and F ad
survey s their location, design and history and shows that
they are, invariably, rain ponds.
A few dew ponds can be proven to be very old, such as
Oxonmere on Pewsey Down w hich is recorded in the
Domesday Book. Most w ere built sometime between the
end of the medieval period and the 19th Century, and as
late as the 1930s they were still occasionally constructed
by professional pond makers. M any are situated below
the lip of a rise or next to a road which acts as a catchment,
providing some runoff water, but some on the open
tops depend on direct rainfall exclusively. M any have
gone dry over the years due to lack of maintenance and,
now that piped water has replaced them for farm use,
grassed-over hollows may soon be all that remain. Those
which seem truly everlasting turn out, on inspection, to
be old brickholes. These sometimes occur high on the
chalk where clay pockets were quarried for local use. The
resultant flooded pits w ere adapted for livestock. This
may have given the first dew pond makers the idea, but
from then on techniques developed on their own. Dew
pond design is discussed in Chapter 6.
M edieval manors and monasteries depended on ponds
for a variety of purposes including watering livestock,
storing drinking water, w hich was often piped from
springs, and keeping fish. Fish ponds ranged from simple
'stew ' ponds to groupings of specialised hatchery ponds,
each designed for a different size or type of fish. Fortified
farmhouses often had moats as their first defences, which
may remain, even where the houses have long vanished,
as circular, rectangular or E-shaped ponds. Thousands
of m oats still exist in northw est Essex, west Suffolk and
w est Cambridgeshire, often w ithin the hamlet or village e
w hich sprung up in the m anor's shelter.
Some simple manor ponds were later transformed into
quite gr and estate lakes. During the 18th Century, the
heyday of the English School of landscape architecture
made famous by Capability Brown, many unpretentious
stream sw eredam m edto form sinuouslakes very different
in appearance from funcţional round or oblong fish
ponds. Today's visitors often fail to realise how carefully
engineered some of these 'natural' lakes are. Some estates
turned their ponds into duck decoys by digging 'pipes'
at the corners w hich tapered away and finally ended
in funnel nets. W hatever the wind, one pipe would be
situated so that a specially trained 'p iper' dog could lure

ducks into it. M ost decoys have fallen into decay since
the end of market-fowling days, but a few have been
restored for ringing and research purposes.
Village ponds often pre-date their villages. W here a
crossroads m et near a pond two attractions combined to
encourage settlement. Elsewhere, existing villages spread
out to surround old com m ons or manor ponds, often
locating a market beside them. The ponds eventually
w ere surrounded by shops and houses or confmed to
small parks and squares.
Before piped supplies, ponds w ere the usual source
of w ater for fire-fighting. Early engines w ere simple
m echanical bucket brigades and w hen pumps were
introduced they w ere often fouled by sludge. Ponds
swelled wooden cartwheels w hichhad dried and loosened
from the hubs on hot summer days and so were often Iined
with bricks or filat stones to support the wagons as they
soaked. Their banks grew willows for making baskets,
creels and panniers and for use as thatching 'spics' or
spars. In Som erset special pools l-2m (3-60 deep were
dug where cut willow w as placed to sprout for making
withies. Both the craft and the small, rectangular pools
survive today. Anofher specialised pool was the watercress
bed. Today these are often concrete Iined and rigorously
managed to keep unwanted 'w eeds' out of the crop, so
their wiidlife value tends to be limited.
Until the advent of steam -driven machinery towards
the end of the 18th Century, virtually all mechanised
industrial activity depended on water for motive force.
Water-powered corn mills, often on sites used since
Norman times, dotted the country until a hundred years
ago. Staffordshire and the Weald are characterised by
'ham m er ponds', so called because the head of water
was used to drive tilt-ham m ers and other glass- and
iron-producing machinery. Ham mer ponds were often
located in w ooded areas where charcoal was available for
fum aces and forges. Early in the Industrial Revolution,
Lancashire and the Yorkshire Pennines sprouted new
hamlets, some of w hich seem quite isolated today, as
the cotton and w oollen industry grew. Initially every
beckside cottager participated in washing and carding.
As new machinery w as introduced, the focus shifted to
the valleys w here the larger streams were dammed and
mills established.
Quarries of many types tend to flood after abandonment.
Clay and mari pits, w hich furnished material for bricks,
daub and fertiliser, left many small, steep-sided ponds
scattered over the country. In the South West similar pits
in the upland plateau furnished rotten graniţe w hich was
carried to the valleys to build cob houses. Flooded stone
quarries, unfortunately, are often polluted by stone dust,
as in the N orth Wales slate workings. In the South and
M idlands, today's im m ense brick and gravei operations
provide challenging problems of renovation but can,
in some cases, form the basis for new recreaţional or
1 A LOOK AT PONDS & WATERWAYS
conservation areas. Gravei pits are generally shallower
and more easily developed for wiidlife conservation
than are clay pits. Great Linford in Buckinghamshire,
Sevenoaks in Kent and the Lea Valley area, amongst
others, demonstrate the success of gravei pit restoration
for wiidlife.
W herever peat w as used for fuel, the land is dotted with
old, shallow diggings. M any of these form pools within
larger bogs and fens, greatly diversifying the wetlands
habitats. The Norfolk Broads originated in this way. They
were dry pits, supplying fuel until the end of the 13th
Century when, after being excavated to a depth of 2.4-3m
(8-10'), they eventually reached underlying alluvium or
clay or flooded, despite pumping, due to the high water
table. Once abandoned, their origins were soon forgotten
and, until recent painstaking historical research and
detailed corings proved otherwise, they were assumed
to be natural features.
In coal and salt mining districts, subsidence due to
tunnelling may create shallow pools or 'flashes'. The gentle
slopes and shallow w ater of these pools and wetlands
make excellent wiidlife habitats, and many are now
officially recognised as SSSIs. Their value as semi-natural
habitat and educaţional resource is enhanced by their
location in the heart of industrial and urban areas.
M any other in d u strial processes create w aterw ays
and w etlands which can be of considerable value for
wiidlife. These include storage lagoons for silt and other
materials, water storage and treatment systems. With
increasingly stringent Controls on discharge of effluent
into watercourses, industries are investing in effluent
and w ater treatm ent systems which are cost-effective to
operate, and natural systems are proving their worth.
Several hundred reedbed systems have been constructed
in the UK over the last decade, to purify industrial and
domestic effluent. Industries requiring large amounts
of w ater have traditionally located near river, estuary
or Coastal supplies, and to ensure continuity of supply,
some have required the construction of reservoirs.
The history of piped water goes back to Roman times,
but it w as only during the Industrial Revolution, when
tradiţional supplies becam e inadequate due to pollution
and the increasing urban population, that reservoirs were
commissioned to supply pure water fromthe headstreams
of major rivers to large cities. Canal builders alsoneeded
im poundments to feed w ater into the highest points on
canals to replenish w ater lost at the ends. Early 19th
Century reservoirs w ere usually earth banked with
puddled clay cores; the fîrst masonry dam was not built
until 1892. The flooding of land for reservoirs has always
caused controversy, but many have become important
wiidlife and recreaţional resources. For wiidlife, the most
valuable have been formed by the flooding of shallow,
lowland valleys, such as Chew Valley Lake and Rutland
Water.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
Wetlands
For many centurie s, w et grasslands, river flood plains,
salt marshes and other wetlands have been subject to
alteration by man. Early navigation and the founding
of ports and fortified settlem ents required drainage of
marshy areas and the construction of access routes. The
fertili ty of alluvial soils for culţivation has been long
recognised, together w ith the value of w et grasslands
for grazing. W ith the advent of tile and mole drains
during the 18th Century, huge areas were drained for
agricultural im provement. This w as continued through
the m axim isation of agricultural production in the
post war period. Flood control to allow industrial and
urban developm ent usually m eant draining wetlands,
channelling rivers and speeding the w ater on its way
to the sea.
In recent years there have been m any changes. The
drive for m axim um agricultural production is now
past, and the em phasis on land drainage is gone. With
w ater supply requirem ents becom ing difficult to meet,
changing weather patterns and low ering of w ater tables,
the value of w etlands as huge 'sponges' has been realised.
The em phasis is turning to retaining and absorbing
w ater in inland w etlands, to replenish ground supplies,
and slow the flow o f w ater off the land. In Coastal areas,
w ater levels are expected to rise in the long term due to
the greenhou se effect, w ith consequent flooding. Coastal
areas w hich w ere previously 'reclaim ed' from the sea
are now seen as vital buffers against sea level rise and
erosion, and are being returned to their natural state.
After years of being paid to dram land, landowners are
now being paid to restore w et grassland. In the Somerset
Levels, a £20 m illion pound flood defence programme is
being im plem ented w hich includes payments to farmers
to raise w ater levels in ditches to flood grassland. In
many areas the technology and infrastructure of land
drainage is being reversed and used to raise w ater levels
and recreate wetlands.
Streams and rivers
Streams and rivers, sym bols of constant change, are in
reality extremely ancient and surprisingly stable in form.
In many cases they serve the same drainage function
today as when created by great earth uplifts millions of
years ago. However, while eroding the land to its present
profile some stronger rivers have cut into and captured the
headwaters of weaker streams. During the recent Ice Ages,
glaciers obscured or in a few cases completely altered old
patterns, for example by diverting the Severn southward
away from its old course into the River Dee. But even here
m uch earlier patterns are often discernible.
The character of streams and rivers, like that of springs,
ponds and lakes, is affected by the geological and climatic
division of Britain into two main areas: a wet, rugged
C~Z
north and w est and a relatively dry and gentle south
and east. M ore local differences are also important. In the
Scottish Highlands, w estward-running rivers are short
and torrential, plunging in a few miles from mountain
to sea, often through a series of lochs or lochans. Those
flowing east have a longer, more gradual course and
so exhibit more of the 'typical' river features described
below. The same distinction betw een westward and
eastward-flowing rivers holds, in general, throughout
the uplands, although some Pennine streams, such as the
Tees, change character repeatedly where they descend in
a series of steps.
The 'typical' river originates in uplands where it actively
erodes, bringing down great quantities of debris. The
gradient of the river bed lessens as the river flows through
the foothills to the lowlands, and as the flow becomes
slower erosion decreases and deposition increases. The
river slowly winds across its flood plain, the banks
being raised by deposition until the river may be higher
than the surrounding land. During flood the banks of
the river may be breached and the course of the river
changed. The processes of erosion and deposition result
in the river developing a smooth gradient from source to
mouth, until geological upheaval or change in sea level
e
causes the river to be rejuvenated, with renewed erosion
and deposition. e
W herever the surface material is chalk or Iimestone,
watercourses often exhibit peculiarities which set them
e"
apart from streams and rivers elsewhere. W hether in
the Wealden Downs, W iltshire or the Iimestone regions
of Derbyshire and North Yorkshire, many streams are
t
'w interbournes' w hich flow ordy seasonally. Even if
permanent, Iimestone streams are likely to change level
dramatically in response to seasonal changes in rainfall. f
Dry valleys are com m on, indicating now -vanished
waterways which once were active. Rain water, containing
dissolved carbon dioxide from the air, acts as a weak
acid and slowly dissolves the Iimestone itself. Joints and
e
cracks w ithin the Iimestone becom e enlarged until the
stream disappears entirely down a 'sw allow hole', and e~
flows through underground passages and waterfalls to
emerge some distance away. Caverns are slowly formed
until eventually the roof m ay collapse leaving a narrow f
gorge, such as Cheddar or Goredale.
In the levels of Som erset and East Anglia, rivers have
usually been modified beyond recognition. In their
natural state, these watercourses flowed sluggishly, in
sinuous meanders or multiple channels through marsh «•
and fenland, for nearly their whole length. The ground
w ater table was so high along m uch of their courses that
any major rainfall caused widespread flooding, important e
for the developm ent of the wetlands communities on
either side.
*•
 \

1 A L O O K A T P O N D S & WATERWAYS

Leats, ditches and canals hom esteads dry and field plots workable. The Romans
started large-scale drainage works in Romney Marsh
and the East Anglian Fens. The great age of open drains
Leats are w aterw ays designed to feed other waterways,
was during the 17th Century, when the Somerset Levels,
or to supply w ater-powered mills and Industries. They
East A nglian Fens and the Don Valley were drained for
are usually fairly narrow, but in urban areas may be as
agriculture. Drainage causes oxidation and settlement
big as canals and serve as m uch to transport goods as to
of the fen peat w hich results in the fens shxinking lower
supply water. Sm aller leats feed off-stream ponds where
than the surrounding land, and w ater m ustbe continually
they often lead by a gradual route along the contours.
pumped out to prevent flooding.
Examples are found on m any large estates such as Fyne
Court, Somerset, but the inflow to any suspected man-
Interesting features of today's fenland are the extinct river
made pond is worth investigating for tell-tale straight
channels or 'roddings' left winding across country above
lines, paved bottom and steep banks under the moss,
the level of the skirtland to either side. The roddings
overhanging shrubs and accum ulated leaves and silt.
form stable platforms and often have houses or roads
Villages often diverted w ater from nearby streams past
built along them.
houses and Industries, as at Sticklepath, Devon, where the
leat is tapped for the w heel-run trip hammers, shears and
By the early 18th Century hollow tile drains became
blow ers of the old forge, now a museum. Such courses
available, and the technique of making mole drains in
are usually equipped w ith sluices to control levels and
divert the flow as required. clay soil w as developed. This involves the pulling of a
special plug-shaped plough through the soil to form an
unsupported under-drain. The middle years of the 19th
Ditches, including drains and dykes of all sizes, are
as num erous as natural channels in most parts of the Century saw the massive spread of these techniques to
country. They w ere dug prim arily to drain the land and im prove land for agricultural production, and since then
have f ollowed cy cles of dereliction and renewal according
act as boundaries, but may also have served for irrigation,
to the changes in the agricultural economy.
flood control and navigation purposes. Simple grip and
cut-off drains w ere in use in pre-Rom an times to keep
2 Waterway and wetland ecology

Chemical and physical
factors
This section describes some of the Chemical and physical
properties of still and flowing waters. These help determine
the shape and nature of the lake, pond or waterway, and
affect the type of plant and animal life which it supports.
Animals, not depending directly on sunlight, can live at
low er depths or in the bottom ooze. Light penetration
is usually limited by staining (due to dissolved matter),
turbidity (due to suspended matter), and shading by
floating vegetation.
Thermal stratiffication

Oxygen and carbon dioxide Still waters becom e thermally stratifiedbecause the sun's
heat, absorbed near the surface, cannot penetrate the
depths. Shallow ponds may stratify whenever the day
One of the problems faced by aquatic life is that of
is warm, calm and sunny but becom e uniform again at
exchange of gases. N ot only is diffusion of gases insolution
night as the exposed surface layers cool and sink to mix
slower than in a ir, but the am ount of oxygen which can
with the deeper layers.
be dissolved in a given volum e of w ater is much smaller
than in the same volum e of air. The balance of oxygen
In deep lakes, overturn is seasonal rather than daily.
and carbon dioxide can therefore rapidly become criticai
Starting in spring, a sharp distinction develops between
Oxygen is added to the w ater by surface aeration and
the upper, w arm 'ep ilim n io n ' and the low er cold
by plant photosynthesis during the day. It is depleted
'hypolim nion'. Betw een them is anarrow transitionzone,
by animal and plant respiration and by the oxidation of
the Thermo cline', in which temperature drops rapidly
decaying organic remains.
with depth. During the summcr the layers do not mix, and
the difference betw een their respective temperatures and
In moving water, circulation continually brings water from
content becomes more marked. The hypolimnionreceives
the depths to the surface allowing exchange of gases. By
no oxygen, but only the organic debris showering down
contrast, exchange at the surface of a still pond is very
from the epilimnion. The epilimnion in turn receives none
limited. During the night, a thickly vegetated pond may
of the products of decay, and by the end of the summer
becom e almost depleted of oxygen, which only slowly
its nutrients are exhausted and vegetation declines.
builds up during the day. The effect is worsened in warm
Stratification continues until autumn, when the surface
weather, as warm w ater contains less dissolved oxygen
gradually cools tobring the epilimnion and hypolimnion
than the same volume of cool water. D eoxygenation of
to about the same temperatura and allow storm induced
the lower layers of a deep lake may kill off all but the
eddies to mix them again.
anaerobic bacteria. If thisbottom layer is disturbed, toxic
byproducts of anaerobic decom position may actually
pollute the upper layers. S u m m e r s t r a t if ic a tio n in la ke s

pH
pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of water and relates
to the concentration of hydrogen ions. pH 7.0 is neutral,
below 7.0 being acid and above being alkaline. Aquatic
organisms, especially animals, are generally adapted to a
very restricted r ange of pH values. Changes due to pollution m e f r e s d e p th
orto therelease of aci dsby decompositionof organic remains
cause shifts in the species balance. The presence or absence
of certain invertebrates can be used to estimate the pH and Water current
pollution level of water bodies (pl65).
Streams and rivers exhibit two types of flow. 'Lam inar'
flow is smooth and occurs in a thin bând along the beds
Light and banks where the w ater and channel are in constant,
steady friction. This causes the lam inar flow to slow
Plants depend on sunlight for photosynthesis and food relative to the central core of moving water. 'Turbulent'
production, and are therefore found near the surface. flow occurs elsewhere, due to irregularities in the bed
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
or bariks which cause the w ater to eddy. Except in very
small or artificial channels, this is the dom inant force. The
velocity along different lengths varies w ith the channeTs
slope, relative w idth and height, and also over time,
according to the volum e carried.
A natural w atercourse is adapted not to its average or
m ean flow bu t to its volum e w hen bank-full, w hich may
occur only a few days a year. Similarly, the bed material
may reflect extreme rather than average conditions. For
example, a stream strewn w ith large boulders is clearly
m ouldedby torrential spates rather than by average flow
or volume. The nature of a stream bed depends largely
on the velocity of the w ater flow ing over it, and not on
the parent m aterial in which it is formed.
Wave action
M uch of the specific shape and character of the margins
of open w ater bodies, particularly of large lakes, is
determined by the varying effects of wind on different
shoreline materials and on the orientation of storm winds
to the shore.
If the shore is rock, waves break up the weaker types of
rock and leave harder material projecting as ridges, but the
total effect is small. If the shore is soft sand or peat, waves
quickly erode the edge, perhaps into distinct cliffs. If the
edge is glacial drift or ti 11, as in the moraine-enclosed lakes
of the North, waves carry away finer particles but leave
larger stones andboulders inplace. The disturbed materials
grade from coarse near the shore to fine in deeper water,
and are often redeposited in a platform, the shoreward
edge of which is steepened as it is cut by the waves. Where
the material is carried along the shore by wave generated
currents, rather than directly out from it, a spit forms
as the material settles. This may create a sheltered inlet
important to plants and animals which cannot survive
the more exposed positions. In such places the process
of eutrophication and gradual filling-in of the lake can
most easily be observed. The relative stability of many
in termediate shorelines is quickly destroyed by an increase
in wave action. This is w hy motorboats, especialiy when
towing water skiers, may cause serious erosion problems
on canals and much-used lakes and Broads.
Silting
Deltas form where inflow streams drop sediments into still
water. Provided they are not too disturbed by currents,
the sediments fan out and becom e graded from coarse
material near the m ain inflow channel to finer particles
in deeper water and to either side. Once raised above the
water, deltas develop a w etland or terrestria.1 vegetation
appropriate to alluvial soils.
Spate streams may quickly fiii in small ponds with deposits
brought down in flood. These may form deltas which
progressively extend across the open water. To preserve
such ponds it is necessary to deflect the current against
reinf orced embankments and to encourage vegeta tion as a
natural silt trap. Periodic digging-back is also essential.
Pond and waterway life
Ecology of still waters
Although the still waters of lakes and ponds are virtually
a closed system, this does not m ean they are unchanging.
AII show changes in populations and diversity over time,
<=■
but the fluctuations becom e greater as the volume of
w ater becomes smaller. A large lake is a stable habitat,
and although subject to thermal stratification, shows
G
relatively little change in w ater temperature or volume
over the year. By contrast, a sm all pond is subject to
great fluctuations. A hot sum m er can dry it out, a heavy
rainstorm flood it, and oxygen can easily fall to a criticai
level. Animal populations change rapidly, not only from
season to season, but also from one year to the next.
An algal bloom can appear overnight if conditions are
right. The higher plants in general have a greater tolerance
to fluctuations, but any perm anent change in conditions
will be followed by a change in the type of vegetation.
&
Ecology of streams and rivers
fi
If a stream or river is studied at several points along its
course, different types of plants and animals will be found fi
corresponding to the different water velocities. In the
upper reaches no free floating plants are found, and the
only vegetation that can survive are algae, mosses and fi
liverworts growing in crevices betw een the rocks.
The first vascular plants to appear are those that can root fi
betw eenrocks, but remain totally submerged and lie close
to the stream bed where friction w ith the rock reduces
the water velocity. Gradually as the velocity lessens the fi
amount of vegetation increases, itself slowing the water
flow and trapping silt, until eventually it becomes similar
to pond vegetation. A similar gradation is found across fi
the width of a river.
M oving water presents the same anchorage problem fi
for animals as for plants, and in fast-flowing water only
sm all bottom -dw elling organisms can survive, sheltered
betw een the stones. The caddis-fly larvae builds cases fi
of pebbles w hich not only act as camouflage but also
protect their soft bodies from being buffeted against
stones. Other organisms are flat in shape so they can fi
keep within the narrow bând of slower moving water
close to the stream bed.
fi

Characteristics of water plants
R ep ro d u ctio n
Only the sim plest fresh w ater plants are aquatic in
ori gin. AII others, from mosses and ferns to the flowering
plants, are land plants w hich have undergone a kind of
'reverse evolution' to colonise aquatic habitats. Unlike
algae, w hich require free w ater for sexual reproduction,
higher plants, w ith only very rare exceptions, require their
flowering parts to reach the air for successful pollination
and seeding. This presents such problems that m ost of
these plants flow er and set seed far less regularly and
less abundantly than land plants and depend, instead, on
vegetative reproduction for survival and spread. Annuals
are rare because of the flowering problem and most w hich
do occur are not strictly aquatic but are, rather, plants of
open muddy habitats.
Structure
Non-emergent aquatic plants have soft stems w hich lack
a cuticle and so allow the absorption of water, dissolved
gases and salts directly over all of their submerged
surfaces. They are strong and flexible enough to withstand
water currents, butbecause they lack strengthening tissue
many cannot survive drying out.
Ranunculus aquafilis
COMMON WATER CROWFOOT
2 WATERWAY & W ETLAND ECOLOGY
Floating-leaved plants have stomata only on their upper
surfaces, where they are exposed to the air. The upper
surfaces are w axy so rain or splashes of w ater will run
off. Stems containîarge air spacestoretain oxygen, which
may be in short supply in the water and altogether absent
from bottom sediments. Submerged leaves are usually
finely divided, to offer little resistance to water flow, and
also creating a greater surface area for gaseous exchange
and m ineral absorption. Some plants such as Ranunculus
aquatilis have typical lam inar aerial leaves, but finely
divided submerged leaves.
Over-wintering
Various adaptations allow perennials to survive the
winter. Some, such as the starworts {Callitriche spp), simply
sink to the bottom to await the spring. Others, including
the waterlilies and m ost em ergent species, have stout
perenniating underground stems or 'rhizom es' where
food is stored as starch and from which new shoots arise
in spring. Still other species, such as frog-bit (Hyărocharis
morsus-ranae), produce 'w inter-buds', or 'turions' which
sinkto the mud upon decay of the parent plant, remaining
there until spring w hen they surface and develop into
new adults.
Hydrochoris morsus-ranae
The productivity scale
The total w eight or 'biom ass' of life in any habitat is a
measure of its productivity. Simple visual inspection of
the type, variety and density of aquatic algae and of the
higher plants growing at the w ater's edge gives a general
idea of relative productivity.
Different waterways can thenbe compared on a scale from
dystrophic (no or extremely low productivity) through
oligotrophic (low productivity) and mesotrophic (medium
productivity) to eutrophic (high productivity).
The soft, acid waters and sterile, stony or gravelly shores of
the north and west support a sparse, calcifuge vegetation
and are in the range from dystrophic to oligotrophic. A
typical highland loch has a marginal bând of diatoms,
filamentou s algae and clumps of moss between the seasonal
high and low water marks. Water lobelia (Lobeliadorhnanna)
dominates the shallows, while in slightly deeper water
the quillwort (Jsoetes spp) extends to 2-3m (7-10') depth
interspersed with water milfoil (Myriophyllum spp) on
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
gravelly bedsor greenalgae onfiner sediments. Pondweed
(.Potamogeton spp) may flourish to a depthof 3-3.6m (10-12')
where the bottom is richly organic. Beyond this there are
only diatoms. The total num ber of species is small, except
in the shallow lochs of the machair (calcareous grasslands)
of the western coast and islands. Many Highland lochs
are very steep-sided with less than 10% of the water area
shallow enough to support rooted plants.
Lowland ponds and lakes, by contrast, usually have a
rich flora, and fall w ithin the mesotrophic to eutrophic
range. Reedswamp communities, described later in this
chapter, flourish in the shallow margins. Further out
are floating-leaved plants such as the w hite and yellow
waterlilies (Nymphaea alba and Nuphar Iuţea), the water
crowfoots (Ranunculus spp), common also in flowing
waters, and broad-leaved pondweed (Potamogeton natans).
M any other species occur as submerged rooted plants, as
do the water m ilfoils and Canadian pondweed or water
thyme (Elodea canadensis). The latter w as introduced
to Britain in 1842, spread rapidly to choke waterways
across the Southern part of the country and, although
less dominant now than at its peak, still requires frequent
management in low land ponds and rivers. Free-floating
plants include frog-bit, its leaves looking like small water­
lilies, hornwort (Ceratophyllum demersum), unusualinthat
it flow ers under w ater and is pollinated by drift, and
duckweed (Lemna spp), w hich often carpets the surface
with its tiny leaf-like stems.
Spiked
w a le r milfoil
Duckweed forms the 'scum ' of foul, deoxygenated ponds
with a high organic content, where it may help to purify
waters unsuitable for other species. Although often subject
to control measures, duckweed rapidly regains dominance
wherever conditions are favourable.
The historical evolution of ponds and lakes can be
studied by sam pling undisturbed bottom sediments.
Seasonal changes show up in the colour or size of
particles washed down by inflow streams, with light
(low productivity) winter sediments al terna ting with
dark (high productivity) sum m er bands. The increasing
thickness and organic content of the dark layers shows
increasing productivity over time. Microscopic analysis
reveals the developm ent of the surrounding vegetation,
which releases its pollen each year to float and then sink
into the ooze. Since we know the climate and soils which
various species prefer today, w e can use pollen analysis
to deduce changing conditions over past millennia.
Streams and rivers reiate much less conveniently to a
simple productivity scale than do ponds and shallow
lakes. This is because their currents continually scour
the channel and flush out nutrients. However, many
streams and rivers have shown a recent trend towards
eutrophication, as nitrates from excess fertiliser and wastes
of various types find their way into watercourses. The
smallest farm pond or the largest river system can be
degraded in this way. Only some springs and the streams
and tarns of mountains and ungrazed moorland are likely
to remain unaffected.
Eutrophication
Eutrophication is a natural process in which w ater
becom es Iaden w ith nutrient salts leached out of the land
by stream s and form ed by the decay of organic m atter
in the water. It is a gradual process unless altered by
m an's interference. The natural rate depends, amongst
other factors, on the nature of the catchm ent area and
the pond's depth, and shallow low land ponds may
evolve from oligotrophic to eutrophic in a few decades.
Eventually, eutrophic ponds undergo succession to dry
land conditions. Trouble is caused w hen eutrophication
takes place too quickly, as a result of extra nutrients being
added to the w ater by pollution from sewage, fertiliser
run-off and detergents. These nutrients may cause a
sudden growth of algae, either in gelatinous masses,
filaments or single cells, w hich can cover the surface in
a thick mat. The oxygen produced by the algae is mainly
lost at the surface, and the 'bloom ' shades all life beneath.
This prevents subm erged plants photosynthesising and
deoxygenation of the low er level results, dam agingboth
plant and animal life. Eventually the algal population
collapses due to n utrien t shortage or a change in
tem perature or light and the pond becom es further
deoxygenated by the m ass of decaying vegetation. Fish
and other organisms m ay die.

Algal bloom s occur in naturally eutrophic w ater in
optimum nutrient and weather conditions, but the effect is
not serious if the ecosy steni is in balance. If algal bloom is
dearedto improve water flow or navigation, thesubsequent
burst of growth of submerged vegetation thriving in the
improved conditions may cause further problems.
Zonation and succession
The edge of any productive w ater bodyw ill show different
zones of vegetation, according to the depth of water. A
gently shelving edge will have w ider and more complex
zones than one w hich drops steeply to deep water.
Examine a productive pond over the years and it becomes
clear th at each of the vegetation zones shown in the diagram
gradually moves toward the middle, in the process of
'ecologica! succession'. Rooted plants trap ooze between
their stems; w hen they die and decompose they further
thicken the bottom sediments which build up and reduce
water depth. This in turn allows other plant species to
invade and cause further drying. W hat is at present a few
feet of open water covered in water lilies may in a matter
of decades become a reedswamp, dry for part of the year.
What was once a reedswamp may now be covered in
willow scrub or alder carr. W hat is now damp scrubland
may become in time a young pine or oak wood.
EMERGENT
FLOATING
Rooted in mua,
t
AlTached Rooted in mud.
Yellow Flag
leaves are Yo sta nes, Submerged and aerial fo rm .
submerged. submerged algae Amphibious Bistorh
Spiked Wal*er ea. Cladophora spp.
Milffoii
2 WATERWAY & W ETLAND ECOLOGY
Wetlands range all along the continuum between open
w ater and dry land conditions. With the exception of acid
bogs, they show an inherent and short term instability
whichmakes eveneutrophyingponds seemslowto change
by comparison. It is as if a take-off point is reached once
emergent vegetation covers the open water. Wetlands
management should always askthis questionfirst: Should
succession be allowed to continue naturally, or should we
intervene to maintain the status quo, or should we attempt
to either speed up or reverse the natural succession?
On open w ater bodies, ecologica! succession may be
controlled by removing aquatic and reedswamp species. If
plants are dug out at the roots, a great deal of accumulated
silt and organic muck is removed as well, increasing the
w ater's depth and further retarding succession. Some
control programmes, e.g. the raking of duckweed (Lemna
spp) or algal blooms or the top-cutting of rooted vegetation,
have no direct effect on the rate of succession, although
they may be a means of 'harvestmg' excess nutrients taken
up by the plants, thereby slowing eutrophication.
In w etlands areas, succession is usually controlled
through scrub or carr clearance, sometimes followed by
raising the w ater table through excavation or flooding.
This is the main managem ent task on many lowland
wetlands reserves, particularly w here fires, drainage or
extraction of w ater on site or in the surrounding area has
f Reed
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
progressively lowered the w ater table and encouragcd
the quick invasion of shrub species.
In both aquatic-reedsw am p and scrub control, it îs
essential to remember that the new habitats created by
succession are valuable in their own right. In every case it
is best to Ieave some areas free to develop and to maintain
other areas as reedswamp, open carr or closed carr, even
if the overall objective is to preserve the particular stage of
succession deemed most valuable over most of the site.
Reversing succession by raising the w ater table via
flooding or blocking the drainage ditches allows land
managers to create new open water habitats within
w etlands reserves. Le vels need not be raised year-round,
since the vegetation type depends largely on the spring
and early summer levels during w hich time plants are
establishing themselves. However, fluctuating levels
usually create different plant communities from those of
stable conditions, and effects of fluctuations on animal
life may be extreme.
Swamps and marshes
Swamps
Sw am ps are areas o f m ineral-based soil, norm ally
flooded in the growing season and in this country usually
dominated by tall em ergent plants such as common or
Norfolk reed (Phragmites communis). The few exceptions
to reedsw am p com m unities tend to grow in rather
specialised circum stancesor as a reed-marsh transitionin
areas of the north and w est w here the cool, rainy climate
favours the buildup of peat and the development of acid
bogs. M ost swamps occur at the edges of open w ater in
protected shallows where the current is slight. They also
fiii shallow, sluggish ditches and cover wet areas that were
until recently open w ater or seasonal pools.
Most of Britain's larger swamps have been drained,
but a few still occur along the south and east coasts, for
example at Arne in D orset and M insmere in Suffolk. The
swamps and fens of the Kennet Valley are noteworthy
because they are thought to have developed w henbeavers
dammed the streams.
Reedswamp communities are typically 'pure', thatis made
up of single dominant or two co-dominant species withfew
if any associates. Reedswamp species usually have aerial
shoots which, under favourable conditions, grow so tightly
packed that competitors have little room. These species
spread by sending out side-shoots from their root-balls
or 'rhizomes'. A single plant, arriving perhaps as a bit of
broken root which sets, may spread to form a large colony.
Rhizomes and roots of separate plants may interlock to
create, for practicai purposes, a single unit.
A t its fringe, in deeper w ater where it is just becoming
established or on drier ground where it is starting to lose
its vigour, the stand becom es more open. Other species
grow as associates or as plants of the 'ecotone' between
the reedswamp zone and aquatic and terrestrial zones.
Reedswamp often shows some internai floristic zonation
as well, despite its uniform appearance, due to the varying
preferences of species to such factors as depth of water
and exposure to wave action.
Im p ortant reedsw am p p lants inclu d e, in addition
to com m on reed, bu îrush ( Schoenoplectus lacustris),
great reedmace ('Typha latifolia ) and branched bur-reed
{Sparganium erectum). Reed sweetgrass (Glyceria maxima)
commonly dominates swamps on the upper Thames and
many of the East Anglian rivers. Lower plants, which do
not compete very well with tall reedswamp species but
which often fringe shallow ponds and ditches in lowland
England, include the w ater plantains and their relatives
such as arrowhead (Sagittaria sagittifoiia).
e
r-
€'
M arshes occur where the soil is waterlogged but where
the summer level, while close to the surface, is seldom
much above it. As w ith swamps, the soil has a mineral
rather than peat base. Although Britain's large marshes €r
have been destroyed, in a natural state they covered vast
areas of bdulder clay around lowland glacial lakes and
river valleys on alluvial gravels, sands and silts. Small &
marshes occur in drier surroundings below springs, dams
or seepage lines where the soil is waterlogged. These may
be very interesting, especially in highland regions where &
the 'dam p flush' of water-borne nutrients allows a wide
variety of plants to grow, in contrast to the surrounding
leached-soil or bog vegetation.
The vegetation of both lowland and upland marshes is
extremely varied. Often no dominant species canbe singled £
out, in marked contrast to reedswamp communities.
Some marshes, like reedswamp, are dominated by almost £
pure local stands of rushes (Juncus spp), grasses such as
branched bur-reed and dicotyledonous herbs such as great
£

hairy w illowherb (Epilobium hirsutum). Where the water
is less than 150mm (6") deep, lower-growing species such
as horsetail (Equisetum ) and w ater dropwort ( Oenanthe
spp) may also form dense stands. W here the substratum
is rocky or erosion prevents the growth of reedswamp-
like communities/ plants w hose tough rhizom.es can
penetrate the hard surface m ay share dominance. These
include com m on spike-rush (Eleocharis palustris) and
reed Canary-grass (Phalaris arundinacea), accompaniedby
purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) in the zone extending
below summer w ater level and 75-150mm (3-6") above it.
The sedges (Carex spp) are important where the soil has
a very high organic content. W here marshes are grazed
or otherwise disturbed, a m ixed community of sedges
and rushes, none d om inant may grow along with the
coarse, tussocky hairgrass (Deschampsia ) and a num ber
of short or creeping herbs.
Lowland marshes are usually invaded by such trees and
shrubs as common alder (Alnus glutinosa), ash (Fraxinus
excelsior), grey willow ( Salix atrocinerea), alder buckthom
( Frangula alnus) andhairy birch ( Betulapubescens). Inslightly
more acid and peaty conditions, sweet gale or bog myrtle
(Myrica gale) may be the first invasive shrub species.
Upland marshes may have quite a different flora, although
rushes and sedges continue to be important. There is
often great variety, especially in rather open limestone
areas, with many beautiful species such as globe flower
(Trollius europaeus). In moderately acid soils, plants such
as the butterw orts (Pinguicula spp) indicate a transition
towards mire conditions.
Wet grasslands
Wet grasslands, while extremely diverse, all developed
under human, generally pastoral, management, to which
they owe their character. Wet grasslands are of five main
types: flood meadow s, w ashes, w ater meadows, grazing
levels, and w et heaths and acid grasslands.
Flood meadows occur where rivers periodically spread out
over their lowland plains and inundate them w ith fertile
alluvium. They may persist on their own where flooding
2 WATERWAY & W ETLAND ECOLOGY
is regular and deep but in most cases natural succession is
toward some form of marsh or scrub and wet woodland.
Traditionally, flood meadows were managed for grazing
and hay making, which prevents the invasion of coarser
vegetation, but nearly all have been destroyed in recent
years by gravei excavation or development or have had
their vegetation greatly altered by fertilisers or ploughing.
One such area, N orthM eadow in Cricklade, Wiltshire, has
been preserved as a haven for such typical but now-rare
'oldm eadow ' plants such as adder' s tongue ( Ophioglossun
vulgatum) and snakeshead fritillary (Fritillaria meleagris).
Washes are artifical flood meadows created for drainage
or flood control purposes. Unlike normal flood meadows,
which usually experience a gentle rise in ground water
levels above the surface, washes may be subject to sudden
and fairly violent inundation. The largest and best known
are the Ouse Washes, about 2,000 hectares (5,000 acres)
in extent, which act as a huge 'safety valve' for the River
Great Ouse, receiving pumped water when it approaches
overflow and containingituntil it canbe gradually released
farther downstream. These washes are grazed early May
to early November, when cattle must be taken off because
of the high risk of winter flooding. Some haymaking is
possible, although even in summer floods may occur. The
main conservation interest of such washes is their value
for wintering and breeding wildfowl and shorebirds.
They often have a remarkably varied flora but usually
few rarities.
Water meadows are a feature of certain chalk stream valleys
in Wiltshire, Hampshire and Dorset. They werebuilt during
the 17th and 18th Centuries to increase the productivity of
riverside grasslands. The system is ingenious. Stream water
is impounded behind a barrage and released via sluices
when and as desired, to be distributed through a network
of raised aquaducts and overflow onto the fields. After
flooding, which usually lasts 12 to 48 hours, other gates are
opened and the water flows out through a set of drainage
channels to empty via a main drain downstream.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
Themeadows are generally flooded inFebraary toprovide
M arch grass for ewes and lambs. The grass is stimulated
to quick growth because the w ater taken f rom the streams
is sever al degrees w arm er in w inter than the surrounding
land. A nother flooding assists the July hay crop which is
followed by grazing in auturnn.
The success of the operation depends on how long the
water is allowed to flood the meadows. A local saying
has it that 'you tets (takes) the water on at the trot and
off at the gallop'.
Water m eadow s are laborious to build and m aintain
and require accurate timing of flooding for maximum
benefit. With the loss of the m en known as 'drow ners' or
'floaters', knowledgeable in water meado w management,
and the increasing cost of farm labour, the aquaducts
and sluices fell into disuse and decay and most w ater
m eadow s no longer function. However, a few have
remained under continuous management, and two m ajor
sites, near Salisbury in W iltshire, and at Sherborne in
Gloucestershire, have recently been restored. Relic w ater
m eadow s are dominated by grasses, up to thirty species
occurring on one site. W here farm ers have taken weed
control measures, dicotyledons are poorly represented.
Grazing levels are w et grasslands produced by the
drainage of meres, marshes and fens. The largest areas
exist in Som erset and Norfolk, but in both places the
active conversion to grazing land has halted where the
peat is deepest and drainage m ost difficuit. In Somerset
the peat levels are rather poor quality, w orth only about
half the nearby drier fields on silt and clay, and are
often used as rough grazing for beef cattle although the
region as a w hole is rich dairy country. Poorly drained
fields a long w ay from paved roads are now allowed to
deteriorate to scrub and w et heath or are dug up for the
peat, and are ofteninvaded by purple moorgrass (Molinia
caerulea), brambles, sw eet gale and birch. As with other
lowland grasslands, the ditches and drains intersecting
or bordering them often have an interesting aquatic flora
independent of the quality of the grassland,
Wet heaths and acid grasslands often surround or grade
into true wetlands, particularly acid bogs. Grasslands
surrounding bogs are them selves likely to be acidic and
very different from the rich grasslands of chalk, limestone
and other basic or even neutral soils. There are three
major acidic grassland communities:bent-fescue (Agrostis
-Festuca) grassland on siliceous and sandy soils, Nardus
grassland on damp siliceous soils and on disintegrated
peat eroded from high moors, and M olinia grassland,
dominated by purple moorgrass (Molinia caerulea), on
peaty soil w hich is w et nearly all the time but where
the water m oves at least slowly and so remains aerated.
All three acidic grassland communities have a very
limited associated flora. Intensive grazing, or burning on
grouse moors, along w ith the destruction of the original
woodlands, has elim inated many of the m ost interesting
flowering plants w hich otherwise could be expected to
exist in w et 'flushes' and other favourable places.
Mires
Mires are areas of perm anent!^w et peat caused either by
a water table veiy near the surface ('siligenous' mires) or
high rainfall which saturates the peat even though it is
above ground water level ('ombrogenous' mires).
M ires are interesting because the peat preserves its
ow n history, which often. extends as far back as the
end of the last Ice Age. Corings usually reveal different
stages, showing a transition from neutral or alkaline to
increasingly acid conditions. Pollen in the peat shows the
changing composition of wind-pollinated trees, shrubs
and herbaceous plants w hich surround the mire; these
in turn reflect changing climatic conditions over tens of
thousands of years.
Basin mires develop from small, deep ponds which iack an
outlet. Marginal vegetation is unable to trap sediments or
enlarge the fringe of swamp and marsh. Rather, it forms a mat
or skin over the w ater's surface which eventually becomes
so thick that plants are raised on a layer of soggy peat above
the watep which becomes anaerobic and acid. Cut off from
minerals and leached by the rain, acid-intolerant plants give
way to bogmoss (Sphagnum spp) and associates. Where the
moss forms tussocks, scrub and trees seed in but as they
grow they either depress the mat and drown or topple into
the depths, creating temporary open pools.
SECTION
Britain'sbest-developed basin mires are foundinCheshire
and Staffordshire. The German term 'Sch wingmoor' aptly
describes the sensation one feels walking on their surface.
It is possible, by setting up a rocking motion, to get trees all
over a Schwingmoor swaying and dancing in response. It
is also possible to fall through the mat. Schwingmoors are
best left unvisited unless under expert guidance.
Valley mires develop where water flows through shallow
valleys but where the drainage is somewhat impeded. The
ground remains waterlogged and peat forms, but whether
the vegetation becomes that of bog or fen depends on the
mineral content of the ground water and, ultimately, the
nature of the surrounding rock. Frequently, hurnrnocks and
other leached areas have bog plants while the banks of the
drainage channels cutting the bog and the stream which
usually flows through its centre have fen species.

Valley bogs develop even in areas of fairly low rainfall
since they depend only on ground water. Some of the
most interesting occur in Southern England, notably the
New Forest, where m any plants and animals not found
in northern areas survive due to the mild climate.
SECTION
Raised mires develop from valley mires where the
rainfall is over lOlOmm (40") per year. Here peat builds
up until it is above the ground w ater table. Rain leaches
out rem aining minerals from the raised patches, which
tend to spread and coalesce in a continuous circular or
oval dome of Sphagnum peat up to 1.6km (one mile)
across and 6-9m (20-300 higher in the centre than at the
edge, w hich is usually m arked by a rather steep drop
into a peripheral drainage channel or Tagg'. The dome's
spread halts only at the drier valley sides or at w ide or
swift streams. The only nutrients available are those in
airborne dust, sea spray blow n inland, rainwater and
leachings from dead plants. Very few species tolerate
these extremely im poverished conditions. TregaronBog
in central Wales and the red-bogs of Ireland are the best
British exam ples of raised mires.
SECTION
P ea t in c o n t a c t w ith g ro u n d w a te r
Flood plain mires form where the upper soi! is kept
permanently w et due to frequent flooding or to the
percolation of w ater through porous alluvial soils.
Here swamp and marsh give way to bog or fen as peat
accumulates, but the mire vegetation stays in contact
with the ground w ater so its make-up is determined by
local w ater chemistry.
SECTION
Peat1 in c o n ia c ! with q r o u n d w ater
2 WATERWAY & W ETLAND ECOLOGY
Small flood plain mires occur along many streams and
rivers but in the low lands most have been destroyed by
hum an interference.
Blanket mires develop only where the rainfall is at least
1395mm (55") per year and the humidity is consistently
high. Here, all flat ground and gentle slopes remain.
perm anently w aterlogged, peat builds up and large
areas becom e uniform ly blanketed, irrespective of local
variations in grormd w ater chem istry although slopes
steep enough for continued drainage remain free. The
diagram shows four topographical varieties of blanket
mire, all of w hich may occur w ithin the same continuous
tract.
SECTIONS
Plateau
Valley side and
BaSin-biankeE
wafershed
M any examples of blanket mires occur in Ireland, the
Scottish Highlands, the Welsh uplands, Dartmoor and
the Pennines. Botanically, they can be divided into two
provinces, north and south of the Scottish Highland line.
These are subdivided by analysis of local topography, the
w etness of the surface, the extent and degree of flushing,
and the altitude. So, while blanket mires present some
of the bleakest, most monotonous scenery imaginable
to the untrained eye, the botanist finds a great deal of
variety even here.
Mires are of two types, "bog' and Ten7, depending on
whether their vegetation is adapted to acid or alkaline
conditions.
Bog vegetation
Acid mires or bogs develop initially due to one or more
of these conditions: a w ater supply deficient in basic
minerals, high rainfall leading to extreme leaching of soil
minerals, or the raising of the mire above the water table,
cutting off the supply of water-borne nutrients.
Very few plants tolerate these conditions, and those that
can, notably Sphagnum spp, tend to decompose slowly
and to release acids during decomposition. This causes
even more effective leaching of minerals which, combined
with the other conditions conducive to acidity, results in
the extreme depletion of soil nutrients from the mire.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
The typical Sphagnum bog is covered alm ost completely
w ithbog-m oss of sever al species, through w hichprojects
a stunted growth of various grassy and sedgy plants
and heafher (Calluna vuigaris), cross-leaved heath (Erica
tetraiix), and sw eet gale. Bog asphodel (Narthecium
ossifragum ) is usually found. The Sphagnum carpet
supports a specialised com m unity of sm all plants,
including many liverworts and insectivores such as the
sundews (Drosera spp). The species composition and
balance varies throughout Britain, depending primarily
on rainfall and altitude. Certain very w et bogs form pools
and hu mmocks in a continuing local cycle but, in general,
bog communities are rem arkably stable if undisturbed
since little change can occur once the peatbecom es leached
to the lim it possible in any particular climate.
W hen Sphagnum bog becom es degraded due to climatic
effects or hum an interference, mixed m oor results. This
occurs athigh altitudes or onslopes where the peattends to
break down andbecom e dissectedby drainage channels.
Here the sheathed cottongrass (Eriophorum vaginatum)
is alm ost always prominent, usually accompanied by
heather. Although m ost bog species can be found locally,
the Sphagnum carpet is absent and the balance of species
is entirely different from that in the continuous-cover
Sphagnum bog.
MIXED MOOR
Elsewhere, m an's m anagem ent is thought to have caused
the changeover from Sphagnum bog to mixed moor.
Drainage, burning and grazing dramatically affect bog
vegetation, particularly w hen applied in combination.
First, they d isru p t the Sp hag nu m carpet, quickly
eliminating m any w idespread Sphagnum species as well
as the sundews, some of the sedges and liverworts and
many rarer plants. After this, the smooth, m ossy bog
surface w ith its scattered projecting shoots is replaced
f i -
by an irregular tussocky surface, commonly consisting
of sheathed cottongrass and heather, although in w estern
bogs deer-sedge and purple moorgrass m ay be locally
abundant. Bog-m osses and other small species become
increasingly rare. Finally, certain n ew m osses and
liverworts appear w hich take advantage of decreased
competition or which are associated with the rather higher
C :
salt content in the peat due to oxidation.
CCj
Fen vegetation
Fens are mires which lack extreme acidity due to the
presence of alkaline ground water. Because of this, fen
vegetation is typically more like that of marshes than of acid
bogs, often containing a greatm any diverse communities
wherever there are small variations in relative soil acidity
or the height of the water table. Here rare plants or plants
w ith restricted ranges flourish. Woodwalton Fen, in
Cambrîdgeshire, supports over 400 species including the
nationally rare fen violet {Viola stagnina), the woodrush
(Luzula pallescens), and Deptford pink {Dianthus armeria).
Mixed fen is dominated by tussock-forming grasses such
as purple quailreed (Calamagrostis canescens), reed canary-
grass, purple moorgrass, reed sweet grass {Glyceria maxima),
blunt-flowered rush (Juncus sulmodulosus) and black bog C * -
rush (Schoenus nigricans). There is a consider able proportion
of meadowsweet {Filipendula),yellow iris (Iris pseudacorus),
water mint (Mentha aquatica) and reedmace (Typha spp). f T_
These plants are rather lower growing than reedswamp
species, allowing the survival of a great many smaller
herbaceous species. Mixed fen is favoured by grazing and f t:
mowing but, if left unmanaged, gradually succeeds to
'mixed carr' which is relatively dry and contains a variety
of shrubs and trees. 1
V
MIXED FEN
f ■■.
e t:
f :
e
e j
Reed fen develops from swamp which is managed to e j
the advantage of common or Norfolk reed (Phragmiies
communis). Reedbeds m ay be created artificially by
e i

flooding, w ith subsequent control of water levels for
reed, or they m ay be recovered from old beds w hich
have becom e derelict. If the reeds are notharvested, they
die and break dow n each y ear, form ing a loose litter and
eventually a thick organic ooze. Peat then builds up,
uriless silt is continually added through tidal action or
currents. N orm ally derelict reed fen succeeds to one or
another type of sedge fen, w here the reeds are not dense,
or otherwise to m ixed carr.
Great saw sedge (Cladium mariscus) develops where the
water is stagnant but rich in calchim and poor in nitrogen
and phosphorus. This is often the case in the interior of
alkaline fens where nutrient-rich drainage water cannot
penetrate from outside. Saw sedge fen has few associated
species since it form s a dense surface m at of dead litter
with evergreenleaves reaching through and above it. This
type of fen resists tree invasion for a long time even if
unm anaged. Eventually a thick, firm m at builds up and
sweet gale m ay invade, follow ed by creeping willow
(Salix repens) and other trees.
2 WATERWAY & W ETLAND ECOLOGY
Fens were once widespread in the English lowlands,
notably in the Fenland proper of Cambridgeshire and
the surrounding counties. In the w et north and west, fens
form a relatively short-lived transition stage betw een
swamp or m arsh and acid bog. Here fens develop w hen
peat accum ulates in high concentration but succeed to
bog when the peat builds up above the water table.
Even in East Anglia, mires may shift from fen to bog as
they becom e subject to leaching by rain. In this part of the
country, however, rainfall alone is not usually sufficient to
keep the peat perm anently waterlogged, and shrub and
tree species gradually seed in, leading to the development
of fen scrub or 'ca rr'. Carr may be of several types. 'M ixed
carr' is relatively dry and contains a variety of scrub and
tree species. 'Sw am p carr', where trees colonise tussocks
over a layer of water, is comparatively unstable since the
trees tend to f all over or drown as they grow larger, forming
open pools, but it may persist for a long time until the
floor begins to firm through the buildup of brushwood
and other detritus. In 'sem i-sw am p carr', trees colonise
a strong, interlaced rhizome m at w hich can support
their weight. Another im portant distinction is between
'open carr', in w hich trees are spaced far enough apart to
allow sunlight to penetrate to ground level, and 'closed
carr', in w hich tree growth is dense, shading out most
flowering ground plants. A mixture of open and closed
carr in association w ith areas of open fen often supports
an exceptionally varied plant, insect and bird Iife.
MIXED CARR
f p ' - Â k , .« K P
Alders
'i W t
/i f //o if*^3
ju r Fen Sallow
3 Management for conservation
and amenity
Threats and opportunities
This section outlines the threats and opportunities which
are created by the interaction of man with waterways
and wetlands. Throughout history, the maintenance of
fresh water supplies has been essential for the survival
of cultures, for dom estic life, agriculture and industry.
Waterways for transport, .water supply and defence
have determined the pattern of urban settlement. Some
of m an's actions have been of benefit, w ith industry
creating such features as the Norfolk Broads, the canal
System, and the many gravei pits and reservoirs which
havebecom e valuable wildlife habitats. However, the 20th
Century has been characterised by pollution, abstraction,
draining of w etlands and engineering of rivers. There are
many initiatives to restore habitats, reduce pollution and
return to more natural m ethods of river management,
but serious problem s remain:
a Pollution from sew age effluent, w hich requires huge
investment in im proved treatm ent systems. Pollution
from agricultural w aste can only be lessened by
reducing inputs and establishing buffer zones.
b Ever increasing demands for w ater for industrial and
domestic use, requiring increased abstraction, resulting
in lowering of river levels and water tables.
c Increasing recreaţional pressures from watersports,
angling and other outdoor activities.
d Climate change, w hich appears to be resulting in a
reduction of annual rainfall in the UK; a trend which
is predicted to continue.
Springs, ponds and lakes
Springs are insulated against the worst effects of pollution,
althoughnitrate ions from fertilisers canpercolate through
the rock strata. Springs are more often threatened by
ground w ater extraction which lowers the w ater table
and cuts them off from their sources of supply.
Ponds and lakes, w hether natural or artificial, may be
threatened by pollution. This is caused more often by
excess nutrients entering the w ater than by directly toxic
substances. Dom estic w astes and certain industrial by-
products are major sources of nutrients, as are fertilisers,
silage and slurry effluent. Inputs of phosphate from
sewage on rivers in the N orfolk Broads is estimated to
have increased tenfold since the beginning of the 20th
Century. The ecosystem of many Broads effectively
collapsed due to eutrophication, w ith algae dominating
in turbid water. Since the early 1980s, phosphate has
been removed at eight sewage works which discharge
into Broadland rivers. Restoration measures on some
Broads have included the injection of iron to bind the
phosphorus, the pumping of mud, and removal of fish
to allow w ater flea populations to increase, which in turn
reduce algal bloom s by grazing.
Problems of excess eutrophication are often interlocked
with those of ecological succession. Many of the Broads,
for example, have filled in over the years w ithfen detritus.
Those that w ere too deep to drain in the last century are
now very near the threshold at w hich rooted plants can
spread across the surface. W hen this happens the Broad,
being of nearly even depth throughout, quickly silts up
and develops into fen. The same progression affects other
small water bodies, such as farm and village ponds.
W ithout maintenance the se ponds slowly fiii in and turn
to scrub or grassland.
Questions of access and use create major problems on
open water bodies of aii types. Where one purpose is of
o verriding concern it may be easy to decide an appropriate
policy for the number of people allowed onto a site, and
the m eans by which they are allowed to use it. Conflicts
may arise where several incompatible users have interest
in a site, but zoning in time or place may allow satisfactory
multiple use. On many sites, for example, wildfowlers
and fishermen work in co-operation with conservationists,
and can often assist in m anagem ent work with finance,
labour and expertise. Zoning works best on large water
bodies. W here there are a num ber of smaller ponds it is
best to restrict each to one or two compatible activities.
Streams and rivers
Over the centuries m anhas greatly altered many ri vers and
their floodplains. Lowland rivers have been straightened,
widened and deepened to prevent flooding and increase
water flow, destroying much of the natural habitat of the
river. Floodplains have been drained for agriculture and
development. This causes an actual loss in valuable wetland
habitat, as well as the loss of the buffering and absorptive
effect of wetlands. Heavy rains are rapidly drained off into
rivers, causing high flows which then need controlling,
and with less w ater being absorbed and reaching the vital
underground aquifers. Rapid run-off from drains and
hard surfaces washing into rivers also results in siltation,
pollution and other problems. During dry spells of weafher,
there is no slow seepage from wetlands to help maintain
river flows, and water levels drop dramatically.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
In general, an alteration to one part of a river system has
effects elsewhere that usually result in the need for further
interference. How ever since the 1980s, the im portance of
conserving natural habitat has been realised, with m uch
more emphasis from the Environm ent Agency and other
organisations on using 'soft' engineering techniques
for river revetment, and the protection of natural river
features such as meanders and riffles. W ith so many
streams, rivers and their flood plains altered irreversibly
for urban development, the protection of remaining
natural habitat becom es even more important.
Pollution from industrial wastes, agriculture and sewage
continues to be a problem. Although some rivers, notably
the M ersey and parts of the Thames, are much cleaner
than they were in the mid 20th Century, and in spiţe of
a reduction in industrial pollution and the banning of
some persistent Chemicals, pollution is still a problem.
The 1990 Rivers Survey by the National Rivers Authority
reported a net deterioration in river quality over the
previous decade, partly due to increased sewage effluent.
Quality had deteriorated due to deoxygenation from
bacteria! breakdow n of w aste material, toxic effects of
ammonia, some pesticide residues, and eutrophication.
Surveysby EnglishN ature and other conservationbodies
have identified in particular an alarming increase in
phosphate, mainly from dom estic sewage effluent, but
w ith a significant proportion from agricultural wastes.
Phosphate favours fast growing plants, w hich out-
compete more sensitive species. In slow flowing rivers,
algae and blanket-w eed dominate, suppressing other
plants and causing deoxygenation of the water.
In upland rivers, a small increase in phosphate can greatly
alter the plant community. Measures need to be taken at
several levels. Inputs from detergents and other cleaning
agents should be drastically reduced by only allowing
phosphate-free products. Phosphate removal is needed at
sewage treatment works to remove the phosphate which
enters the system from the food we eat. Input of phosphates
from agricultural fertilisers needs reducing, together with
the greater use of buffer strips and water fringe habitats to
absorb phosphates before they enter ditches and streams.
Changes are being m ade to try and reduce m any
types of pollution, and to manage rivers in a more
natural way. Agricultural schemes including Set-Aside,
E n v iro n m e n ta lly S e n sitiv e A reas (E SA s), N itrate
Sensitive Areas and others should benefit w ater quality
and riverbank habitats. E nvironm ental A ssessm ent
legislation requires all works w ith the potenţial to have
significant effect on the environment to be subject to formal
asessment. This covers many types of river management
and maintenance work. The formation of the National
Rivers Authority in England, now part of the Environment
Agency, is resulting in river managem ent being planned
in a more holistic manner, rather than on a site by site
basis. W ildlife and conservation issues are an im portant
part of their agenda.
While improvements are being made on some fronts,
weather patterns and climate change have conspired
against us. The 1990s have been characterised by severe
droughts in much of the country, with many rivers down to
less thanhalf their normal flow. The lackof rainhas lowered
the water table, w ithmany aquifersintheNorthEast, North
West and East Anglia at an all tone low. Meantime, domestic
and industrial demand for water continues to rise. In the
autumn of 1995, many water companies were faced with
near empty reservoirs, and successfully applied for drought
orders to allow the emergency abstraction of water from
feeder rivers. The expected winter rain of 1995/96 never
came, and as water companies abstracted the water, river
levels dropped further. In August 1996, English Nature
reported that 89 sites of natural and special scientific interest
has been damaged by excessive abstraction,
With the long-range outlook a continuing warming and
reduction of rain over a long cycle of years, reduction
in demand, conservation of supplies and the stopping
of leakage from supply pipes is essential if rivers are to
recover. Borehole extraction from aquifers for agricultural
use has been reduced or stopped in many areas, together
with abstraction from rivers and streams. It is likely that
larger farms will increasingly in vest inbuilding their own
reservoirs to ensure continuity of supply.
Leats, ditches and canals
Tradiţional labour-intensive cutting and clearing of ditches
and canals has given way to quicker, cheaper and more
thorough methods which can severely disrupt the aquatic
ecosystem. Dredgingiseasily mechanised and canbedone
on a vast scale. Small drainage ditches, both natural and
artificial, may be piped in to increase land-use efficiency.
Piping in destroys their value as 'linear nature reserves'
which are so vital for the survival of wildlife, especially in
the hedgeless agricultural landscapes of areas such as East
Anglia and Lincolnshire. Ditches are also important for the
spread of aquatic plants, many of which propagate from
broken pieces of stern or root which are carried along in
the water. This is why plants soonrecolonise dredged areas
if 'sanctuaries' are left between the cleaned-out sections.
In recent years, authorities responsible for watercourse
management have shownincreasing interestinmethods of
management which are more compatible with wildlife, and
which also create a more natural, stable way of managing
water resources. These include parţial dredging, rotational
cutting of bankside vegetation, and retention of meanders,
ox-bow lakes and other natural river features. Por further
Information, see RSPB, NRA and RSNC (1994).
Artificial channels can also be harmed by neglect. As canals
decay their wildlife value may improve up to a point,
but w hen completely choked in reedswamp or silted up
and dried out they again decline in interest and diversity.
Wetlands nature reserves, especially in East Anglia, often
contain elaborate drainage and access channels dating
 3 M ANAGEM ENT FOR CONSERVATION & AMENITY
from the last century or earlier, sometimes equipped
with pumps and sluices to control levels and prevent
their drying out. Usually these areas have suffered a
generation or more of disuse and dereliction by the time
they receive reserve status, so m uch renovation w ork is
required before their survival can be guaranteed. Once
restored, they offer an unparalleled opportunity for the
maintenance of a m osaic of habitats and for controlled
experiments in ecosystem development.
Swamps and marshes
Swamps and marshes devei op on fertile silt and peat soils
which are attractive for agricultural reclamation. Drainage
has fragmented lowland sw am ps and marshes, such as
the great arc of m arshland around the Wash, north of the
Fenland proper, w hich been converted to rich pastures
and horticultural land. Housing and industrial estates
often drain w etlands piecem eal or fiii them with spoil.
Swampy fringes of open w ater suffer from waterway
maintenance programmes, especially dredging.
Conservation of swamps and marshes must be carried
out not only to save them from these thieats b u t also to
avoid similar damage in the pursuit of management.
Footpaths and trackways often disrupt the hydrological
balance of wetlands even if they don't actually drain
them. Pond, lake and channel clearance to protect open
w ater habitats or provide access and recreation should
be planned carefully to minimise destruction of fringe
vegetation. D evelopm ent of new w aterw ays can destroy
existing swamps and marshes but m ay also ensure
their continuation by providing suitably graded banks
and shallows. The Great Linford wildfow l reserve in
Buckinghamshire is m ade up mainly of rather deep lakes
created through gravei extraction operations, but fringes
of reedswamp and m arsh have been developed through
extensive shoreline plantings, abulldozed 'serape' and the
fencing of adjacent w etlands against grazing by cattle.
Wet grasslands
The most interesting lowland wet grasslands occur along
the larger river valleys, but here they have been decimated
by drainage, flooding clearance or dredging. Even the Ouse
Washes have at various times been suggested for ploughing
or flooding for a reservoir. Water meadows, unlike some
grasslands, need unbroken tradiţional m anagem ent
to maintain their historical and wildlife interest. Once
their sluices and aqueducts cease to function they revert
to drier conditions. A few areas have been maintained
throughout this century, forming precious reserves of wet
grassland flora and fauna. Hopefully the tide of neglect
and destruction is now tum ing, and in recent years several
areas have been restored or created. These include water
meadows on the River Avon at Britford, south of Salisbury,
and on the River Windrush, at Sherbome in Gloucestershire.
The characteristic plants of flood meadows are dependent
upon continuous tradiţional management, since species
such as the fritillary persist only where there is winter
flooding, quick spring drainage and summer mowing
which keeps down ranker plants.
Sand and gravei extraction eliminates flood meadows
and other wetlands. Extraction advanced so rapidly
during the latter part of the 20th Century that many
im portant sites have vanished. Extraction can produce
new areas of open w ater w hich can, w ith time, become
valuable habitats. Some pits have been partially refilled
with other material and restored as wetlands. This does
not, however, compensate for the loss of the original wet
grassland habitat w hich can never be recreated.
The threat to mires throughout the world is so severe that
enormous efforthas been put into their protectionby many
conservation organisations. Upland mires, though less
accessible that those in the lowlands, are in some way s the
most vulnerable. Raised and blanket bogs, particularly,
break down and 'w aste' once the surface vegetation
is killed. This can be clearly seen on Kinder Scout and
elsewhere in the Derbyshire Peaks where fires, trampling
and air pollution have led to widespread dissection of
the blanket bog into blocks of deep peat cut by a maze of
treacherous drainage channels. Improvements are slowly
being made by the provision of resistant path surfaces,
liming and reseeding, and the reduction of grazing.
Grasses, bracken and scrub species are adapted to take
advantage of fires and are able to regrow or seed very
quickly into burned areas. The release of nutrients from
burned vegetation further favours these plants at the
exp.ense of Sphagnum. Heavy b u m s or fires in peat which
is already dry ignite the peat itself, w hich smoulders
indefinitely and is then easily eroded by wind and
rain. Trampling pushes bog plants below water, killing
them and leaving pools in their place. Even one or two
people struggling across a raised bog may make a lasting
impression, one reason why study or management of
such sites is diffkult. Sulphur dioxide from burning coal
and car exhaust may descend as 'acid rain', upsetting
the meagre nutrient supply of raised bogs especially.
The shift in the 18th and 19th Centuries from Sphagnum
bog to cottongrass ( Eriophorum ) moor in the Pennines is
thought to have been caused partly by industrialisation
in Lancashire and the resulting air pollution carried
eastward by the prevailing winds.
Lowland bogs and fens are less susceptible to fires,
tram pling and pollution although damage is possible,
especially where public pressure and vandalism become
intense. Their vegetation balance may be upset by a
change in the water nutrient status, although the effect
is often confined to a narrow strip along ditehes which
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
bring eutrophic w ater into the mire. But if the ditches
overflow, acid-loving plants across the bog surface are
destroyed. Fens and some low land bogs are susceptible
to natural scrub invasion w hich may require combating
if the mire is to survive. Scrub clearance is a m ajor aspect
of vegetaţion m anagem ent on many low land sites and is
detailed in a Iater chapter.
Drainage and peat cutting have decimated many mires,
especially in the lowlands w here today only a few relics
remain. These are often extrem ely im portant as 'islands'
of high wildlife value in a sea of relatively impoverished
agricultural land. Peat was, until recently, an important
fuel throughout rural Britain wherever firewood was
scarce, as it still is inisolated parts of Scotland and Ireland.
In most cases the effects of tradiţional peat cutting are
limited and transient. Some lowland Welsh, Scottish
and Irish bogs have been reduced in size over the years,
but because cutting must cease when the water table is
reached, unless pumps are used, tradiţional methods
tend to take a thin layer off an area and then abandon it
or turn it over to grazing w hile the vegetation recovers
and another area is scalped in turn. This often produces
a valuable diversity. Slightly raised mires w ith alkaline
ground water, for example, may develop a series of
habitats from alkaline pools and w ater level peat to
moderately acid peat at the original mire level to highly
leached and acid ridges or baulks, well above ground
water, where the top vegetation is piled after being cut
away. Even bogs unaffected by alkaline ground water
may develop slight variations in acidity and waterlogging
due to cutting, w hich allows a greater variety of plants
to flourish than would otherwise exist.
Some of these w orked-over mires today form nature
reserves of great interest. Often the areas most desirable
to preserve are the 'p oo r's fens', so called because they
were set aside for the use of paupers and pensioners.
While m any priva tely-ow ned mires were drained for
pasture, ploughland or plantaţi on, the poor's fens often
remained unimproved and in use up to the 1930s or
later. Unfortunately, ownership of these areas is now
often obscured by the unofficial demise of the original
controlling charities. W hen nobody is left to exercise
cutting rights, these fens quickly revert to scrubland.
The demand for peat has vastly increased in recent years,
mainly for horticultura! purposes but also for use in such
diverse fields as distilling, animal husbandry, medicinal
baths and the production of biostim ulants and peat wax.
In Ireland peat is now used to fuel large-scale electrical
power stations and peat 'm ining' is highly organised.
Shapwick Heath in Som erset is the major English source
of high-grade sedge peat. Here the largest companies use
machines each of w hich replaces fifteen m en cutting by
hand. The m achines m ust be kept in continuous use, if
possible, which requires hundreds of acres to be kept open
for cutting at any one time. It may take five to seven years
to cut the top layer off an entire field. Cutting then begins
at a new and low er level, continuing intermittently until
subsoil clay is reached or until it is no longer econom ic
to pump the fields dry.
The Som erset peat moors are designated by the IUCN
as being of internaţional scientific importance, both for
their present-day flora and for the plant remains and
archaeological evidence w hich they preserve. Mining,
which wi.il eventually include most of Shapwick Heath
NNR, destroys this. M ined areas can be left to regenerate
naturally to w oodland or they may be reclaimed for
grazing. New peat, however, cannot be formed since
clim atic conditions are now unfavourable. It is planned
to turn some of the exhausted Somerset peat fields into
lakes f or flood control and recreation, but it seems unlikely
that these new features will develop anything to compare
with the biological richness of the old.
/ Management problems
Când principles___ _____
The m anagement options for a site can range from non-
intervention, through minor alterations to maintain the site
as it is, through larger-scale works over several years. The
aims of m anagem ent may be varied, including wildlife,
public access, and farming and commercial interests.
Water supply and drainage are regulated by outside
agencies, and few sites are completely seif contained.
M ost management involving waterways and wetlands
requires consultation with various parties, and agreement
over the varying aims and methods of achieving them.
Climate and w eather also play their part.
M anagement may require massive alterations to a site,
w ith or w ithout continuous and long-term follow-up,
or it may consist of no more than fencing, screening,
signposting or policing to protect the site from further
interference. In eveiy case, the aims, requirements and
likely effects of the programme m ustbe evaluated before
it is begun.
M anagement aims may include the following:
----- tssrr - -—rrr
a Influencing the ecological succession of a site or habitat
in order to preserve or increase its wildlife value.
M anagement may accelerate, maintain or retard the
rate of succession.
b Conserving species endangered on a local, naţional or
global level, by protecting existing habitat and where
possible, creating more habitat.
c Protecting or creating areas of semi-natural habitat
w hich support a range of wildlife. Within urban or
intensively farmed land their importance for wildlife
is increased if they are linked in a netw ork to other
areas of semi-natural habitat.
 3 M AN A GEM EN T FOR CONSERVATION & AMENITY
d Providing an amenity for passive or active recreation,
or an educaţional resource.
e Impro ving or m aintaining the health of an ecosystem.
T h e in te rd e p e n d e n ce o f m an and h is n a tu ra l
environm ent is no longer being ignored by industries,
agriculture, government agencies and decision makers.
Althoughm uch remains tobe done, huge sums are now
being invested in systems w hich reduce or eliminate
pollution, recyele w aste and m akebetter use of natural
resources.
Site survey and analysîs
Tt is im portant to find out as m uch as possible about the
site before any decisions are made concerning its future
m anagement. It is difficult to assess its value for wildlife
without m aking regular visits to the site over the course
of at least a year. Contact the local office of English Nature
(or equivalent) or the county wildlife trust for advice.
S u rv ey q u e stio n s
Surveys establish a baseline by which future changes
canbe measured and they pro vide inform ationby which
m anagem ent can be made more precise as it progresses.
Some survey techniques require specialised knowledge
or equipment, but m uch can be learned from informed
inspection of the site supplemented by a few simple
tests (pl65).
Ideally, a site should be studied over the course of at
least one year before m anagem ent begins. Appearances
at any one season m ay be deceptive since, for example,
a site's im portance for flow ering plants or overwintering
wildfowl can be judged only at certain times of year. If
fairly regular m onitoring is not possible, the site should
be inspected on three or four occasions during winter, late
spring or early sum m er and autumn. If only one visit can
be made, it should be in M ay or June when aquatic life
is at its m ost active, although at this time the w ater level
may be near its low point. W hen studying a site, don't
ignore local know ledge and opinion, particularly in the
case of village ponds. The location of drains emptying into
a pond, its changing w ater levels, past habitat quality and
the im pact of public pressure m ay often be more easily
learned at the local pub th an b y the waterside!
The following questions are m ost im portant in the survey
of w aterways and wetlands sites:
a What is the water source? Ponds and lakes may exist
due to natural drainage or seepage, or because they lie
below the water table. They may depend on natural
impermeable deposits, or may have been created by the
use of an artificial lining. Ponds of a fairly regular shape,
especially those in series wifh a noticeable drop between
each, may be man-made hammer ponds, fish ponds, or
watercressbeds. Lookfor signs of a dam or weir wherever
there is no other obvious reason for a pond's existence.
Streams, rivers and other linear water bodies may be
fed by springs and seepage areas in addition to runoff.
Watercourses running along rather than across the
contours are man-made leats or canals.
b W hat is the w ater quality? Are there obvious signs
of pollution or over-enrichment, such as oii slicks,
suspended silt, algal bloom s or dead fish ? Test the
pH and sam ple the aquatic invertebrates (p!65).
W hat affects water quality before it reaches the study
area? Is the catchm ent intensively farmed or highly
populated, producing drainage polluted by fertilisers
or organic effluents? Forested catchments may supply
sudden heavy loads of silt after clear-felling and nearby
waterways may be deoxygenated when debris washed
in sinks to the bottom to rot. Roadside ponds and
streams are especially likely to be polluted since they
often receive drainage w ater laden with dust, oii and
road salt and are obvious targets for tipping.
c Does the w ater supply fluctuate with the prevailing
w eather, season or other factors? Are any such
fluctuations harmful? Some watercourses and ponds
are only seasonal, and have a particular flora and
fauna associated with this seasonality. To try and
prevent fluctuations may not only be difficult, but
harmful to the ecosystem. M any seasonal pools are
very stable ecosystem s in the long term, providing
valuable continuity of habitat. The summer drying
out allows accumulated organic matter to oxidise, so
preventing the pond from filling in. The growth of
em ergent and marginal plants is suppressed, while
invertebrates, snails and other organisms survive in
the damp mud. The unattractive state of a dried-out
pond does not reflect its health as an ecosystem.
In contrast, many wetlands rely on the manipulationof
water level by flooding or 'draw ing down' at various
times throughout the year. This is necessary for some
commercial reedbeds and grazing marshes. The value
of wetlands for wading birds and other wildlife, and
for w ater treatment, flood relief and coasta! defence is
now being realised, and many hectares of wetlands are
now being managed by manipulation of water levels
by sluices and pumps.
d W hat species of plants and animals are presenton site?
Do these include any rarities or species of particular
interest, for which special provision should be made?
Complete inventories of fauna and flora may not
be feasible, but try to record as much information
as possible w ithin practicai limitations of time and
expertise. Consult English Nature, the local Wildlife
Trust, Biological Records Centre or other organisations
likely to have know ledge of the site.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
e W hat are the hum an factors affecting the site? W hat is
its present use and that of the surrounding a rea? How
is this likely to affect the site in the fu ture if present
trends continue?
Is management required?
Once preliminary analysis and site surveys have been
made, the following questions should be asked to clarify
the managem ent requirements:
a Îs there a need for direct habitat management? W hich
plant spedes are dominant and do they need controiling?
Are additional plantings needed? If so, which species
would best adapt to the site without becoming too
invasive? On very exposed sites, additional shelter may
be beneficia!. Do the banks, shoreline or bottom need
modifying? Can this be done without causing secondary
problems of spoil disposal, flooding or drainage?
b Is there a need to manage hum an uses of the site?
c How much is the site affected by surrounding habitats?
M any sp ecies m igrate betw een d ifferent w ater
bodies and wetlands and may depend on this to find
appropriate conditions during all seasons and phases
of their life cycles. A site may lose much of its wildlife
interest if surrounding land is improperly developed.
d Does the site have management priority over others?
Does i t really need management or can it go its own way
for some time without losing value? Given the limited
resources available for any management work, are there
other sites more in need of immediate attention?
e Can less be attempted than is tempting? The sensitivity
of some habitats to interference means that there
may be a danger of trying too much too soon, with
unexpected and unwanted repercussions. Management
work should be phased, if possible, so that it can be
checked early bef ore making a commitment to the entire
programme and so that unavoidable damage is localised
and minimised. If a programme requires completion in
order to be successful, it should be started only when
there is certainty of carrying it through.
f How long will improvements due to the work remain?
Will they wear off and conditions be the same or possibly
worse as a result? Will the site require continuous
management in order to maintain any improvements?
Choosing a method
If m anagem ent w ork is judged necessary each available
work method should be evaluated by asking if it will:
a Achieve the desired results
b Minimise any habitat destruction
c Minimise any disturbance to wildli fe due to interference
at flowering or nesting seasons
d Involve risk to hum ans, non -target w ild life or
agricultura! crops and livestock
e Risk damage to equipment or physical installations on
site
f Risk damage to other people's property
g Require legal permission from government authorities
or landowners
h Be possible given available labour
i Be possible given available funds for capital and
operating costs
Introductions
New species of plants or animals may be introduced to a site
for several reasons. These include to propagate species under
threat elsewhere, to add diversity and interest to the site, to
attract other species not yet present on a site or to stabilise
an unbalanced ecosystem. The following safeguards are
basic to ensure that harmful introductions can be avoided
and all introductions are properly recorded.
a Draw up a list of species considered acceptable for
introduction to the site. Indicate in which management
areas within the site introduction is acceptable or
unacceptable. For example, non-native trees and shrubs
may be desirable for planting in areas of parkland
character but not into existing copses or scrubland.
b Consult and invite the participation of the local county
w ildlife trust, the Biological Records Centre and
English Nature (or their equivalents) in any large-scale
introductions or those involving rare species.
c Notify either the local county wildlife trust or the
Biological Records Centre of all introductions. In
this way future scientific study of the area can take
introduced species into account.
Animal management
Most conservation work on waterways and wetlands is
directed at a general improvement of the habitat, often
through management of the vegetation. However, the
importance of animals in the ecosystem must not be
overlooked, and the following sectaons describe techniques
to encourage both diversity and speciality in the animal
world.
 3 M ANAGEM ENT FOR CONSERVATION & AMENITY
Invertebrates
The vast majority of animal life associated with waterways
and wetlands is invertebrate, from the simplest protozoa
and worms to molluscs, spiders and insects, and ranging
from the rather unpleasant to the spectacularly beautiful.
They form the complex and m ainlyhiddenpart of the food
chain, a jungle of camivorous, herbivorous and detritus-
feeding organisms, vital for the health of the habitat. If the
vegetation, water and ofher factors sucii as light or shelter
are favourable, the species should eventually arrive. They
can be helped, for example when restoring a pond, by
introducing individuals from a nearby productive pond.
Some habitats are managed specifically for the more
spectacular invertebrates, particularly dragonflies and
butterflies. Wicken Fen in Huntingdonshire has long been
managed for the Swallowtail butterfly, which requires
M ilk Parsley (Peucedanum palustre) on which to lay fheir
eggs. Dragonflies suffered a decline due to the draining of
wetlands and the in-filling and tidying of ponds. Always
contact the local office of English Nature (or equivalent)
before doing any pond clearance work, as the importance
of the habitat for invertebrates is difficult to assess without
expert help.
Fish
Fish are a good indicator of the water quality and general
health of rivers and other watercourses. Fish in ponds
and lakes need careful m anagem ent if populations are
going to remain in balance, and not cause deterioration
of the ecosystem. Small wildlife or educaţional ponds
should n o tb e stocked w ith fish, and any stocking of large
ponds, lakes or watercourses should only be done after
consultation w ith the Environment Agency and English
Nature (or equivalent).
In many cases, the m anagem ent of water for angling or
fisheries can combine well with conservation management.
Both are aimed at maintaining a rich and varied ecosystem
with a good variety of plant and invertebrate species,
although conflicts m ay arise where predators such as
herons need control. For further reading see Alabaster, J
S (1985) and M uus and D ahlstrom (1971).
General requirements
The two basic requirem ents for fish, w hich together
determine the character of any fishery, are:
a Adequate oxygenin the water. Game fish (salmon, trout
and grayling) require much higher concentrations of
oxygen than do coarse fish (carp, tench, roach, rudd,
bream etc). Since cold w ater holds more oxygen than
w arm water, game fish are limited to cool waterways
and, in general, to swift streams where turbulence
increases aeration. Trout survive in ponds but only
where the temperature never exceeds 20°C (68°F) and
where summer warming plus bacteria! decomposition
does not fatally lower the dissolved oxygen content.
Coarse fish, by contrast, tolerate fairly wide temperature
fluctuations and a few species, such as carp, persist
even in highly eutrophic or polluted waters with a low
oxygen content.
b Adequate food, w hich in turn is largely determined by
the w ater's pH. Acid waters never support as much
life as alkaline waters, and trout in mountain tarns,
for example, m ay grow to no more than one sixth the
w eight of trout in productive chalk streams. Coarse
fish prefer a pH betw een 7 and 9 with pH 7.5- 8.5
being ideal. Fish feed principalîy on smaller creatures
which live on or among w ater plants or which fall
into the w ater from overhanging trees and shrubs.
It is therefore always im portant to allow aquatic and
bankside plants to flourish in some areas even if they
are kept w ithin limits elsewhere.
Further requirements of game fish, but not coarse fish,
include:
a Clear flowing w ater for breeding. Whether migratory
or not, all game species reproduce only in shallow
gravel-bottomed streams which do not become silted
due to slow flow.
b Water free from pollution. H igh concentrations of
toxic substances or extremes of deoxygenation kill all
aquatic life. In general game fish are affected far more
quickly than coarse fish by w ater quality, and thrive
only in w ater w hich is free of pollutants.
M anagement should always be in stages or restricted
to limited areas at any one time, to avoid disturbing or
harming fish. Too m uch stirring up of bottom ooze can
lead to increased decay and deoxygenation. Extensive
weed clearance can do the same if the cuttings are not
removed, while food supplies are inevitably disrupted
and temporarily reduced by this work
Stocking
On rivers, stocking of fish for angling has only short-
term benefits. An im provement in habitat requirements
and w ater quality is the only way to make long-term
improvements.
O nnew ponds where the aim is angling, it is best to prevent
fish entering the pond as it fills so that the population
balance can be fully controlled. Do not stock until the
pond has had time to develop a healthy aquatic vegetation
and to achieve a measure of stability. If possible, wait at
least one full year. M eanwhile, you can encourage pond
life by planting marginal and aquatic vegetation and by
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
introducing invertebrates. These m ay be collected from
nearby ponds of similar water type, transported în water-
filled containers and dumped into the shallows. When
collecting, net free-swimming creatures in shallows, pick
over the bottom stones to scrape off animals clinging to
them and scoop out some of the surface mud from the
bottom. Do not delay too long before releasing the animals
silice predators are at an advantage in confined conditions.
Snails and fresh water shrimps may be collected orbought
from fish farms. Snails should be introduced in stony
shallows where they can feed on algae, while shrimps
should be scattered in sandy shallows and among the beds
of water plants. Suitable sanctuary areas surrounded by
fine-mesh wire netting help snail populations establish
themselves free from predation by fish.
Initially fish should be stocked in new ponds at a rate of
no more than 30kg per hectare (1501bs per acre) of water
surface, even where food and plants have been provided.
Otherwise the pond's resources may be depleted and the
programme set back for some time.
Suitable species for introduction to new ponds include
a Carp (Cyprinus carpio). These are bottom feeders which
do not spawn in most waters in this country. This is an
advantage in new ponds because it gives other aquatic
organism s a better chance to develop.
b Tench ( Ţinea ţinea). These are bottom feeders which,
like carp, sift the mud, but take different food and so
do not compete with carp.
c Roach (Rutilus rutilus), w hich feed on algae, plant
fragments and insects among the beds of aquatic
plants. Roach often over-breed but the surplus can b e
netted.
d Rudd ( Scardinius erythrophthalmus) which feed fromthe
surface and in m id-w ater and so do not compete w ith
bottom feeders. Rudd tend to hybridise with roach in
small pools where spawning places are limited, so it
is best to choose betw een the species in this case.
e Bream (Abramis brama). These are bottom feeders which
should only be introduced after the pond has had
time to mature. They tend to ştir up the mud, causing
turbidity w hich inhibits aquatic plant growth.
Species which should not be introduced, where angling
is the main concern, include small fish such as gudgeon,
ruffe, minnows and sticklebacks and the piciverous perch
and pike. A few large perch may be useful to keep down
the number of excess fry, but they tend to over-breed and
small perch deplete the insect life neededby other fish. They
do, however, provide amusement for young anglers and
winter fishing when other species are semi-dormant.
Resting and feeding
In still waters, resting and feeding habitat is generally
assured, provided there are extensive shallows which are
well-vegetated but not choked w ith weed growth. The
situation is a little more complicated in streams.
Fish in streams seek spots where they can get as much
food as possible w ith the least effort, at the same time
fending off competitors and protecting themselves from
predators. In swift streams and small rivers, fish settle in
pools between which liestretches of'thin' water where the
current is swift and clear over boulders or pebbles. Thin
w ater is unattractive to fish because it is too shallow and
exposed unless waterside trees and shrubs provide cover.
Also, thin w ater areas supply little food although they do
support a specialised insect life adapted to them.
Typically, each suitable pool holds a single dominant fish,
quietly positioned just off the current where virtually no
energy is needed to stay in place while it waits for choice
morsels to float past. Other fish occupy progressively less
satisfactory positions down to the smallest, which find the
least food and use most of their energy fighting the current.
If the dominant fish is cau ght, the sub-dom inant fish mo ves
into place almost immediately and so on down the line. In
order to increase the overall population, yet at the same
time avoid a diminution in the size of individual fish, it is
necessaiy to create new pools in less suitable stretches. It
does no good to simply dump more fish into the stream,
since they just drift down, or less often work their way
up, until they find a favourable location. New pools and
resting places can be created in 'thin' water by:
a Building stone or cement-bag weirs (pl20) or stone-
filled gabion 'croys' (p86) part way across the stream
so that scouring occurs below each weir to form a
new small pool. If the weirs are extended farther they
deflect the current against the opposite bank. This may
be desirable if the margin is badly silted but should
otherwise be avoided.
b Installing temporary log or concrete slab dam sheld in
place with Steel spikes or lengths of angle iron driven
into the bed (p l21). These are most suitable for the fairly
sedate chalk streams of the South, where it is necessary
to maintain summer w ater levels. Before the waters
rise in winter, the stakes should be removed and the
pieces pulled onto the bank for reuse next year.
Spawning
G am e fish
Trout (Salmo trutta) and Salmon (Salmo salar) spawn in
autumn and winter, in fast-flowing w ater about 300mm
(1') deep over beds of small friable gravei. The ova take
a long time to develop: from six to twelve weeks for
 3 M ANAGEM ENT FO R CONSERVATION & AMENITY
trout and from seven to tw enty-eight w eeks for salmon,
depending on the w ater temperature. Grayling (Thymallus
thymallus) spaw n M arch-M ay in slightly deeper w ater
over sand or gravei. Their eggs hatch in three to four
weeks, depending on temperature.
There are several threats to successful spawning of these
species, aside from predation:
a In calcareous streams, calcium carbonate deposits
may lock the gravei into a hard mass, preventing fish
cutting the 'red d ' or bow l-shaped hollow w hich holds
the developing ova.
b Certain areas, particularly the inner bends of meanders,
may be attractively gravel-bottomed in the spawning
season but later becotne silted, sm otbering the ova.
c W here spaw ning areas are inadequate, successive
m ating pairs of fish may use the same spot to dig
their redds, exposing the ova of previous pairs, which
cannot then survive.
To prevent these problems:
a Rake over the spawning beds with a sharp Steel rake
in early autumn, before the spawning season when
water levels are low for easy working. This breaks up
solidified gravei and dislodges mud and vegetation from
the previous srnnmer. Inspect the beds in the winter and
rake them out againif they get muddy. You needto know
what water levels to expectin the spawning season, since
in early autumn some of fhem may be out of water.
b Do not clean out areas likely to suffer siltation, such
as the inner bends of meanders. These should not be
made attractive to spawning fish. Instead, concentrate
on straight lengths of shallows.
c Extend spawning areas, if they are inadequate, by
cleaning out side streams or carriers about 60Omm (2')
wide, rem oving mud down to the gravelly bottom.
This also disturbs any hibernating eels, which prey
on small fish, and sends them downstream.
C oarse fish
Coarse fish depend on higher w ater temperatures for
spawning than do gam e fish, and so spawn later, mostly
in M ay and June. The ova, w hich in m ost species are
deposited on underw ater plants, w ood or am ong stones,
only take from several days to a fortnight to develop,
depending on the species and w ater temperature.
Predation
Fish spawn from several thousand to half a m illion eggs
each season, depending on the species and the size of the
individual. O f these, only a few are destined to develop
into adults. Predators take a heavy toii at all stages, but
especially am ong very young fish which are im portant in
the interm ediate links of the aquatic f ood chain. Predation
becom es a problem only w here angling is involved or in
restricted conditions such as small ponds or feeder streams
where predators are at an unusual advantage.
Amphibians
Am phibians depend on suitable freshwater habitats in
which to breed and to pass the early stages of their life
history. Britain's three species of newt, two toads and
single native frog (plus two introduced species) all face
severe loss of breeding habitat and, to a lesser extent,
increased man-made barriers to migration and dispersai.
Their conservation is usually best served by the creation
and m aintenance of ponds, pools and ditches, with
surroundings free from public pressure and provided
with suitable shelter and hibem ation sites. It is generally
not recommended to transport spawn to unpopulated
waters since the fact that amphibians do not occur in
a given location m ay indicate that conditions there are
unsuitable. Extra care is necessary with species having
limited or scattered distributions, especially the natterjack
toad, w hich occur s only on a few sites, mainly sand dunes.
The edible and marsh frogs are introduced species and
are concentrated near London and in Romney M arsh
respectively and should not be deliberately transferred
elsewhere. Although amphibians are in general rather
sedentary, individuals wandering at random allow the
gradual natural colonisation of suitable new sites within
a mile or two of existing populations.
Life history
Management w orkm aybe very destructive to amphibians
if carried out at the wrong time of year. Dredging,
pumping, extensive aquatic weed control and other severe
disturbance of ponds and ditches should be avoided
during the breeding season and until the tadpoles have
metamorphosed and left the water. Derelict ponds and
marginal areas are usually dug out in wintei; but this may
expose and kill hibernating adults. Where it is known
that a species occurs on site, it may be possible to time
m anagement to accord w ith its life history outlined in the
table on the following page. Details are given in M acan
and Worthington (1972, pp209-17).
Predation
Amphibians are relatively defenceless against predators.
Newts have considerable regenerative powers throughout
their lives and toads and frogs can regenerate atthetadpole
stage. The warty newt is generally left alone because
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS

Name Hibernation1 M ating and spaw ning1' 2 Tadpoles leaving w ater

Warty newt mid M arch - mid July

late October - mid M arch late August - late October
(Triturus cristatus) (early A u g u st)3

Smooth new t early M arch - early June

mid October - end Feb late June - mid October
(Triturus vulgaris) (early A u g u st)3

Palmate new t
m id October - end Feb M arch -
(Triturus helveticus)

Com m on toad
mid O ctober - mid March mid M arch - end A p r il4 late M ay - late July
(Bufo bufo)

N atterjack toad
late October - late Feb mid April - end June 5 early June - mid August
(Bufo calamita)

Com m on frog
mid October - end Feb early M arch - end April end M ay - m id August
(Rana temporar ia)

Edible frog
early Nov - early April early M ay - mid June mid August - end October
(Rana esculenta)

M arsh frog late August - early Nov

early Nov - early April late M ay - early june
(Rana ridibunda)

Notes:
1 Dates vary from year to year, depending on weather conditions.
2 Some species remain in or near the water most of their active adult life. Others are highly terrestrial except at the indicated season.
3 Dates in brackets indicate extended aquatic llife of adults after spawning.
4 Spawns in deeper water than frogs, though it may shdre the same pond.
5 Spawns in very shallow water in areas which often dry up in summer.

of its poisonous skin; the common toad also secretes a

distasteful fluid but many predators have learned to eat
it and leave the skin.
AII amphibians are most at risk in the early stages, when
they fall prey to w ater beetles, dragonfly larvae and
sticklebacks as well as to the larger fish, snakes and water
birds which eat them as adults. Frogs and toads are easily
caught when they gather in large numbers to breed. When
on land, newts are eatenby hedgehogs, stoats, weasels and
rats. The common toad is prey ed onby crows, magpies and
grass snakes, and the natterjack toad by voles and herons.
Toads secrete a poisonous substance in their skin, which
reduces the num ber of predators to those which can either
skin or disembowel them. Frogs do not have this ability,
and therefore have more predators than do the toads.
Man, while not directly a predator, takes his toii. Thousands
of frogs and toads are run down each year while Crossing
roads to return to their spawning ponds.
Birds
M anagement for waterways and wetlands birds may
range from intensive hand-rearing of wildfowl, in order
to replenish shooting stocks, to setting aside vast reedbeds
for a single breeding pair of marsh har riers .The emphasis
here is on the creation of suitable nesting sites and, for
w ildfow l and to a lesser extent waders, provision of
feeding and resting areas. Itis also im portant to recognise
that management may involve culling, especially on
village ponds or small lakes in amenity areas. Feeding
of ducks and geese by the public can quickly encourage
le vels to rise to above that which the pond would naturally
support. This results in destruction of pond andbankside
vegetation, and eutrophication of the water. Numbers
m ust th en b e reduced and feeding discouraged to allow
the pond to recover.
Breeding and nesting

Amphibians, like fish, depend on their great fecundity
to persist. In special circumstances it may be necessary
to discourage predators, such as herons which frequent
natterjack spawning pools, but protection from. human
disturbance and provision of habitat at all stages of the life
history is usually the best way to ensure their survival.
Below is Information on general requirements and some
examples of techniques to encourage nesting. Publications
of the RSPB and W ildfowl and Wetlands Trust should be
consulted for further details.
 3 M ANAGEM ENT FOR CONSERVATION & AMENITY
Artificial n est sites fo r b ird s o f op en ground
Most waders, and other species such as terns, can be
encouraged to nestby providing suitable protected areas,
such as small Iow-lying islands (p93) of sand or gravei,
vegetated or bare according to the preferences of various
species. It may be necessary to supply nest or lining
materials such as the cockle or oyster shells required
by oystercatchers. Some species have more complex
requirements for successful raising of young. For example,
adult avocets prefer patches of open w ater w ith shallow
islands, while their chicks require gradually slopingbanks
inlight plant cover for feeding. This m ay also attract terns
and gulls, b u tb o th species can be discouraged by winter
flooding of the islands. Gulls are frequent unwanted
occupants of nest sites designed for other species and
it may be necessary to destroy their eggs. In this, as in
other matters of detailed site management, the regional
office of English Nature should be consulted.
N est sites for w aterfow l
M any species of w aterfow l adapt readily to nesting rafts
provided with suitable cover or with boxes or baskets
(p95). Combining rafts w ith island. sites may increase the
breeding density still further. The configuration of the
shore and the amount and placem ent of cover plants are
important, since mallard and other waterfow l defend a
nesting territory based on sight lines. The ideal shoreline
is wavy or castellated, w ith many individual 'broodbays'
which can be excavated to the design shown below.
In the breeding areas, food and shelter are vital to the
survival of young birds. Bothnew ly hatched dabbling and
diving ducks require a high proportion of invertebrate
anim al food, the nature of w hich varies w ith the species,
although after a few days dabblers becom e increasingly
vegetarian. The best w ay to ensure a healthy invertebrate
food supply is to ensure a varied aquatic and shoreline
vegetation. The breeding area should be about half plant
cover and half open water. Plants should have food as
well as shelter value (pl47).
Ducklings m ust be able to find shelter at the im mediate
nest site. The ground should slope very gradually, since
even a 50mm (2") step may defeat day-old ducklings.
Rafts should have ramps. Large areas of open w ater
should be broken by clumps of reedswamp or islands
w ith bays w hich provide areas of calm w ater no matter
w hat the wind. It may be necessary to provide shoreline
wave barriers with suitable openings or ramps (p89).
N est sites fo r k ingfîshers, sand m artins and
sh eld u ck
Kingfishers and sand m artins nest in near-vertical, stone-
free sandy banks. They dig their nest holes at least 1.
2m (4') above ground level and up to lm (30 deep to
escape predators. Sand martins live in colonies, and
require extensive areas of bare sand, which are created
by fresh vertical cutting from lateral erosion of a stream,
rather than by slumping. After sever al years their nest
holes becom e enlarged to the point where sparrows and
eventually starlings can take them over. As this occurs and
vegetation gradually encroaches on the face, the colony
diminishes unless the cutting is renewed.
Existing or potenţial kingfisher and sand martin banks
can. be im proved by cutting or building, depending on
the problem at hand. W here an existing cliff has slumped
or becom e overgrown, the fîrst step is to clear all scrub
and trees from the face. Next, the face should be cut back
to vertical, using mattocks. The spoil, in m ost cases, can
be simply pushed to the bottom. Renew a high bank in
a series of terraces to avoid having to shift too much
material:
SECTION
Cuh lop terrace firsl'- -/
r
fc
777777
s/£—3rn
Cuf lower ferrace / V/
as required __ o
7
T rrrrT 7 7 7 7 n rm < //
Where a potenţial siteis toolow, it can bebuiltup provided
enough sand is available nearby. Secure corrugated iron
shuttering at the top of the existing bank with long stakes
driven along the face of the bank. Pack stone-free sand
behind the shuttering, tapering the ends of the bank and
stabilising the new material w ith logs held by stakes.
(Diagram overleaf).
If possible, build the bank in auturrm and leave the
shuttering in place until ju st before the nesting season
next spring, to give it a chance to consolidate.
Shelduck dig tunnels in more gradual sandy banks or
more of ten take over old rabbit burrows. Kingfishers, sand
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS

martins and shelduck all may take advantage of artificial N est box fo r d ip p ers and grey w agtails
ncst tunnels of a size appropriate to each species. These
are especially useful in soil w hich is too soft to support The following small open-fronted nest box is suitable for
a simple burrow. dippers and grey wagtails.

Open-pronhed NJesb Box

t
229mm Roof
Roof

356mm Back

Il4mm Fronf Back Side

* Side

î
254mm Side

Floor Fronh
f
229 mm 5 ide
'i
r
I17mm Floor S
m
1
140mm
Use 20mm soffwood o r marine plywood
The following general pattern can be made out of timber, and 50mm oval nails o r screws
driftwood or slabs of rock. The dimensions must be
adjusted for the species. Lengths of large or small diameter
drain pipe can also be used for tunnels for each of these
species. For shelduck, a length of 150mm (6") dram pipe
can be fitted in the top of a clean 22 litre (5 gallon) can.
Feeding
Note that shelduck nests should be set so they slope
downwards from the bank. Waders find m ost of their food in mud or silf which is
m oist or just covered by water. Bare sandy shores and
steep banks are not attractive to them. Banks can be cut
down as shown to provide w ide shallows.

Excavation or hydrological m anagem ent can be used to

create 'scrapes' of shallow water and mud. Where possible,
two or more hydrologically separate scrapes should be
provided, so that one can remain flooded, while water
in the other is gradually draw n down to provide areas of
very shallow w ater and w et mud for feeding. The draw
down should coincide with the m igration periods. For
detailsseeM erritt, A(W ildfowl and Wetlands Trust, 1994)
and Burgess, Neil D and Hirons, Graham JM (1990).

Waterfowl can be classified into two groups: dabblers,
which take mainly vegetable food, and divers, which are
carnivorous. Food plants are included in the tables which
start on page 147. Choose plants which provide food
requirements through all seasons and remember that some
plants, suchas reedmace (Typha latifolia), whose seeds are
not utilised, are still im portant because they supporthigh
numbers of invertebrates needed by young ducklings and
nesting females. Dabblers require 400-600mm (l'6 "-2 ')
of w ater for feeding. Species such as widgeon and geese
prefer gradually sloping open banks for access to shoreside
grazing are as. Divers need at least lm (3') and can use up
to about 4.5m (150 of w ater for feeding.
A site's attraction for dabbling duck and geese may be
increased by supplementary feeding with mixed grain,
pulped potatoes, acorns etc. In many cases it is undesirable
to influence natural population distribution in this way, and
feeding must always be limited to avoid taming the birds
and making them reluctant to fly. The general rule is to set
out feed half an hour before ducks fly in each evening and
to feed only as much as can be eaten by morning. About
5 kg (121b) of food each day is sufficient for 70-80 ducks,
where the food rests on a hard bottom, or somewhat more
on a marshy bottom where some food is lost in the mud.
Temporary winter flooding of shoreside grazing areas can
be very beneficial because it liberates seeds still clinging to
plants and makes them available to ducks and geese.
Flighting, resting and moulting
Dabbling and grazing waterfowl, outside thebreeding and
moulting season w hen fheir movements are necessarily
limited, tend to establish regular daily routines in which
they fly to one w ater body or a safe area of open water
at dawn to spend the day. Most w ildfowl shooting is
centred around the feeding areas since the resting areas
must remain undisturbed except for three or four shoots a
year at most. Ponds, to be attractive, must be near enough
to flighting areas to be noticed. Sometimes flyways are
cleared leâding in towards a pond. These should be based
on the observed pattern of wildfowl flighting and should
never be developed to the extent that all tree shelter is
removed. T lig h f or feeding ponds can be as small as 15
x 6m (50 x 20'), so long as they have the depth of w ater
needed by different species. Resting ponds should be at
least 0.8 hectares (2 acres) in extent to provide safety and
freedom from disturbance.
Shelter is essential, particularly on large bodies of water
where duck are unable either to feed or to rest if they are
constantly blow n downwind. Islands provide the best
shelter on large ponds, especially if arranged to create
areas of calm w ater betw een them. Ponds should be
surrounded by a belt of reedswamp or marsh vegetation
for shelter and to provide a trap for seeds blow n over the
area. Large ponds need a screen of trees 18-28m (20-30
yards) back from the shore.
M ANAGEM ENT FO R CONSERVATION & AM ENITY
Waterfowl require Toafing spots' to rest during bad weather
and to sun themselves in summer. These are relatively bare
areas of island, spit or mud flat which are sheltered and
free from disturbance and predation. They can be easily
incorporated into islands managed for feeding or nesting
by uprooting coarse vegetation or use of herbicide, or by
placing polyfhene sheets under the topsoil to keep plants
from rooting. Beginning in June, first drakes and fhen
ducks moult and are flightless for several weeks. During
this period they are highly vulnerable to predation and
need dense cover for hiding as well as safe areas of open
water.
Predation, competition and disturbance
The main predators of ground-nesting birds are, in order
of destructiveness, crows, rats and foxes. Weasels are not
usually significant but feral mink, where they occur, can
cause great damage. Providing birds with islands or raft
nest sites foils mammalian predators, while Dutch nest
baskets and boxes designed with anti-crow 'porches'
keep nests hidden from avian attack (p97). Gulls are
both predators on the young chicks of shore birds and
competitors for nest sites on open sand or gravei. Pike
take a heavy toii of ducklings in some waters.
Competitionfornestingsitesbetweenmem bersof the same
species which use the same habitat is largely una voidable.
The territories of colony-nesters vary from as little as the
length which a sitting bird can reach to a few metres in
diameter, depending on the species. The only way to
encourage more nests is to extend the area of suitable
terrain. Waterfowl can be 'tricked' into nesting closer
together by restricting their visibility, as mentioned above.
Swans are notably aggressive toward their own kind.
Ideally, disturbance should be prevented by providing at
least 90m (100 yards) of buffer zone between water birds
and sources of interference. Diving duck prefer to see
threats, and so remain calmly in the middle of open water
while people are at the shore, but dabblers and waders take
flight at the approach of people on foot or their sudden
appearance on top of a bank. Severe disturbance at intervals
of a few days is worse than continuous 'background'
disturbance, since many water birds come to accept
continuous noise or passage of people or machines even
at close range. The danger of disturbance is greatest on
open beaches, where people m ay be completely unaware
that they or their dogs have set up nesting shorebirds and
may be trampling their nests.
Grazing animals, especially goats and cows, mustbefenced
from areas of marginal vegetation otherwise they browse
and trample it until it provides neither food nor shelter
for birds. Cows may crush pasture nests but usually only
on an insignificant scale. M any ground nesters depend
on grazing animals in varying degrees to create nesting
habitat and feeding areas.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
Mammals
The only aquatic mammals native to Britain are the
otter, w ater voie and water shrew. The American m ink
is now well established through much of Britain, despite
efforts to eradicate it. Foxes, badgers, stoats and weasels
and various rodents make use of bankside and wetland
habitat and are im portant as predators or prey within
the food chain, but are not characteristic of the aquatic
ecosystem as such.
The otter (Lutra îutra) w as once w idely distributed
throughout Britain, but suffered serious decline through
the 1950s due to loss of habitat, persecution and pollution.
With the ending of otter hunting, strict control of pesticid es,
improved river water quality and habitat improvements,
otter populations are gradually recovering.
Otters live along rivers and smaller watercourses, marshes
and Coastal areas, particularly in Scotland, Ireland, Wales
and north west and south west England. Otters maintain
a home range which varies in size according to the
type of habitat, food supply and social interaction with
neighbouring otters. O n coasts w ith a rich food supply a
home range may be as small as lk m (0.6 mile), but along
rivers may extend up to 40km (24 miles). Within the home
range, the otter may have up to 30 dens or holts, in the
roots of bankside trees, piles of logs, drains or caves. The
most secure sites are used for breeding.
Otters, particularly females, are generally intolerant of
disturbance. Dog otters are bolder, and may even frequent
urban areas provided there is plenty of cover. Except in
some coastal areas, otters are nocturn al, and the only way
to find out if otters are present is by checking for spraints
and tracks.
The main habitat requirements for otters are mature
bankside trees w ith adjacent w oodland and scrub.
The horizontal roots of ash, oak and sycamorc create
cavities in the bank which are favoured resting sites.
Overhanging trees are also vital in providing the stable,
shady, oxygenated conditions for fish, the otter's main diet.
Alder and willow pro vide useful cover, but their roots are
dense and fibrous and do not form the cavities particularly
favoured by otters. Deciduous woodland, even if some
distance from the river, will be frequented as long as it is
accessible by small streams and ditches.
Provided there is an adjacent breeding otter population,
good w ater quality and sufficient food supply, otters
may move into new areas. Protection and maintenance
of existing tree and scrub cover, tree planting, and other
habitat management which favours many types of wildlife
is also the best w ay to encourage otters. Fencing of banks
against grazing to allow regeneration of scrub and trees
is a useful technique. If possible, fence sections of bank
with existing isolated mature trees, which may be used
in the future for holts. Piles of logs, brushwood, rubble
and other material may be used as resting sites. Where
overhanging trees have to be cut back for navigation or
flood preventi on, the trees should be pollarded or coppiced
so that the root systems remain intact. Management should
be done in autumn or winter to minimise disturbance,
and w ork should be concentrated in one area at a târne,
over several years as necessary. Access may need to be
limited to avoid further disturbance.
River catchment management plâns for otters have been
drawn up and implemented by partnerships of various
organisations, includingEnglishNature, theEnvironment
Agency (or their equivalents), Wildlife Trusts and angling
organisations. Any habitat work affecting otters should
only be done as part of an overall river catchment
management plan. Artificial hoit construction has been
successfully undertaken on several sites. For details of
hoit construction and other management work see NRA
(1993) and RSPB, NRA and RSNC (1994).
The water voie (Arvicola amphibius) was once common
throughout England, Scotland and Wales, though absent
from Ireland. In recent years it has suffered a decline, in
spiţe of general habitat and w ater quality improvements
w hich have favoured other aquatic species. The decline
o iî
may be due to predationby mink. The water shrew (Neomys
fodiens), unm istakable with its long snout, lives on various
aquatic invertebrates and, occasionally, the spawn and fry
of fish including salmon and trout. Both voles and shrews
live in burrows in banks. Watercress beds are particularly
favoured by shrews. Voles and shrews fall prey to pike,
weasels, various hawks and other predators.
The American m ink (M ustek vision) was first recorded
e
breeding in the wild in Britain in 1956, on the River Teign
in Devon, and is now widespread through much of Britain.
M ink catches most of its food around rivers and streams,
preying on fish, birds, small mammals, frogs, toads, snails
and insects, as well as poultry, game birds and waterfowl.
To some extent its great destructiveness may be due to
o i
an instinctive attempt to store food for the intense North
American winter which never comes. M ink have a more c u
general diet and less exacting habitat requirements than
otters, and are more widespread than otters. However,
mink do not attack otters and in many areas they co-exist, f i ;;
and it is thought they have little effect on otter numbers.
M ink are easily trapped, although they are now so well
established fhis has little effect on numbers. Hunting C t
tends only to disperse the m ink and encourages them to
increase their range.
C "B
O f the fifteen species of bat found in Britain, five are
particularly associated with rivers, lakes andponds, where
they forage over open water and bankside vegetation. f 1
M ature trees, especially those with holes and cracks are
important as summer roosts. The retention of existing trees,
plus management to favour a w ide range of invertebrates r ■
is the best way to ensure that bat populations survive or
increase.
4 Waterways, wetlands and the law
The vital im portance of fresh w ater to all aspects of life
is reflected in the complex legislation which regulates
the use of w ater and the m anagem ent of waterways
and wetlands.
Agencies w hich may need Consulting are listed below,
together w ith their areas of responsibility.
a The Environm ent A gency (England and Wales),
the Scottish Environm ent Protection Agency or the
D epartm ent of the Environm ent for Northern Ireland.
- see below.
b The local planning authority - planning permission.
c English N ature, C ou ntrysid e C ouncil for Wales
or Scottish N atural H eritage, D epartm ent of the
Environm ent for N orthern Ireland - Sites of Special
Scientific Interest (or Areas of Special Scienti fie Interest
in Northern Ireland), species protection, European
Union Conventions and Direcţives.
d Internai D rainage Boards (England and Wales) -
maintenance of w ater flow through ditehes designated
as 'm ain drains' (see ditch maintenance below).
e Local w ater company - w ater supply and disposal.
f Voluntary conservation bodies such as the wildîife
tru sts, R SPB - ad vice and exp ertise on nature
conservation.
g Health and Safety Executive - notification of some
construction projects, w hich m ay include ponds,
ditehes and dams, that involve five or more people
on site. (p37)
Environmental regulation
In April 1996, tw o new government agencies were formed
which aim to provide a comprehensive approach to
the protection and m anagem ent of the environment by
combining the regulation of land, air and water.
The new agency for England and Wales is the Environment
Agency (EA), formed by merging the expertise of the
National Rivers Authority, Her Majesty's Inspectorate of
Pollution, the Waste Regulation Authorities and several
smaller units from the Department of the Environment.
The new agency for Scotland is the Scottish Environment
Protection Agency (SEPA).
In N orthern Ireland, the Environment Service (formed in
1990) of the Departm ent of the Environment has a wide
range of responsibilities in developing and implementing
environm ental policy. These include the control of
pollution of air, water and land, the conservation of the
natural environment and the protection of monuments
and historic buildings.
Responsibilities
EA' s responsibilities with regard to the water environment
include the following:
a Preser ving and impro ving the quality of rivers, estuaries
and coastal w aters through its pollution control
powers, including 100,000 water discharge consents
and regulation of more than 6000 sewage works.
b Actiontoconserveandsecureproperuseofwaterresources,
including 50,000 licensed water abstractions.
c Supervising all flood defence matters, involving over
43,000km of defence works.
d M aintenance and im provem ent of salmon, trout,
freshwater and eel fisheries, including issue of about
one million angling licences.
e Conserving the water environment, including areas of
outstanding natural beauty or environmental sensitivity
extending to nearly 4 million hectares, and promoting
its use for recreation.
f Maintaining and improving non-marine navigation,
including licensing some 40,000 boats.
In addition, EA has responsibility for regulating many
industrial processes, regulating w aste disposal and
advising on air quality.
EA has eight regional offices covering England and Wales,
who should be contacted for further advice. A 24-hour
emergency hotline (pl59) is available for reporting all
environmental incidents relating to air, land and water.
SEPAhas similar responsibilities in Scotland, administered
through a network of three regional and 17 local offices
(pl60).
In Northern Ireland, the Environment Service of the
Department of the Environment (DoE (NI)) has similar
responsibilities.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
Pond creation
Planning permission
Small garden ponds are not subject to regulation. Ponds
in school grounds are not normally subject to planning
permission, but any w ork should be done in consultation
with the Education Authority.
The situation regarding farm ponds is unclear. On
agricultural holdings, classified as agricultura! land over
0.4ha, pond creationfor agricultural or nature conservation
purposes may be regarded as a permitted engineering
operation, and not subject to consent. Pond creation for
other purposes may require permission. Agricultural
purposes include supplying water for livestock, storage
of water for firefighting and fish farm ing. A pond created
for any other use, or a pond w hose use changes from any
of the above uses, may be subject to planning permission.
As a general guide, if the pond can be created using
machinery normally available on the farm, and is for nature
conservation or agricultural use, it willnot require planning
permission. It must not however be within 25m of a trunk
or classified road. If heavy machinery is needed, or the
pond is greater than 0.25 ha, the local planning authority
should be consulted in case consent is needed.
Other permissions
Any work on a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI)
or, in N orthern Ireland , A rea of Special Scien tific
Interest (ASSI) is subject to approval by the statutory
nature conservation body (English Nature, Scottish
Natural Heritage, Countryside Council for Wales or the
Department of the Environm ent for Northern Ireland).
Pond creation in N ational Parks in subject to approval
by the National Park Authority.
Any pond creation on the floodplain of, or close to, a
watercourse, can only be done in consultation with EA,
SEPA or the DoE (NI).
Water supply and
abstraction
Small garden ponds can be filled by rainwater or by mains
supply During drought, the use of hosepipes for filling
or topping up may be banned. Any ponds stocked with
fish are not subject to hosepipe bans, as fish are regarded
as livestock.
Water supply to ponds, lakes or wetlands, unless filled by
ground w ater or surface run-off, is subject to regulation. A
licence must be obtained from EA (or equivalent), either
to impound a w atercourse or to fiii an off-stream pond
^TT ]
or wetland by abstraction from or diversion of a nearby
watercourse. A licence is also required to abstract w ater
from a well, borehole or su rface excavation. An exemption
( 1 .
may be water abstraction for a pond for agricultural
purposes, but the advice of EA (or equivalent) should
be obtained. t »
r
t I
Statutory wildlife r
protection
The Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 applies to England,
€ r.
Wales and Scotland. In Northern Ireland, the Nature
Conservation and Amenity Lands (NI) Order 1985 and
Wildlife (NI) Order 1985 includes the protection of plants
t 1
and animals.
f »
SSSIs and ASSIs
Under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, SSSIs are
et
identified by the relevant nature conservation agency.
In Northern Ireland, the designation of ASSIs is the r
responsibility of the Department of the Environment.
Identified sites m ustbe notified to the landowner, occupier,
EA or SEPA and the relevant planning authority.
r
SSSIs and ASSIs include many areas of waterway and
wetland. Eor example, in England, English Nature has
t
selected 26 rivers for notification as SSSIs. Notification is
carried out in consultation w ith EA and riparian owners,
following w hich management objectives are drawn up.
These objectives may include improved water quality, the
r
reduction of abstraction or other measures to maintain
or increase flows, and projects to improve the habitat
r
of the river and the land alongside it. From the 26 river
SSSIs, six pilot sites have been selected for the Water
Fringe Habitat Scheme, administered by MAFF, under
which 10 or 20 year agreements can be made to manage
e
waterside land in a way w hich benefits wildlife in the
water and on the bankside.
t
Species protection
£
Under Section 1, Part 1 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act
1981 it is an offence to take, damage or destroy the nest of
any wild bird while the nest is either in use or being built.
£
Section 2 permits the killing or taking of certain birds,
outside the close season from February Ist to August 31st,
including coot, tufted duck, gadwall, goldeneye, Canada
e
goose, greylag goose, pink-footed goose, white-fronted
goose (England and Wales only), mallard, moorhen, pintail,
golden plover, pochard, shoveler, common snipe, teal
e
and widgeon. Section 9 makes it an offence for a person
intentionally to take, kill or injure any wild animal listed
in Schedule 5 of the Act, or to damage, destroy or obstruct
e
access to any place used for shelter by such an animal. Great
t

crested newts, natterjacktoads, otters, sturgeon, medicinal
leech, fairy shrimp and fen raft spider are amongst those
fully protected, w ith other species receiving parţial
protection. Under Section 13, it is an offence to intentionally
pick, uproot or destroy any wild plant narned in Schedule
8 (a list of threatened species requiring special protection),
or, notbeing an authorisedperson, to intentionally uproot
any wild plant, This means that no wild plant may be
dug up without the landow ner's permission, and even
the landowner may not uproot a Schedule 8 plant. Under
Section 14, it is an offence to release or allow to escape into
the wild any animal not normally resident or a regular
visitor to Great Britain. Section A also makes it an offence
to plant, or allow to becom e established, giant hogweed
or Japanese knotweed.
International Conventions and European
Directives
International Conventions and European Directives may
also apply to the UK, and are im plemented through a
combination of wildlife protection legislation, general
statutory duties and guidance from central government.
Of particular note is the Convention on Wetlands of
International Im portance 1971, know n as the Ramsar
Convention, w hich aim s to conserve w etlands and
prom ote their sustainable use. European D irectives
include the EU Directive on the Conservation of Wild
Birds (1979), and EU D irective on the Conservation of
Natural Habitats and of Wild Flora and Fauna (1992).
These internaţional agreements require measures not
only to classify and protect sites, but to incorporate
conservation measures in land and w ater policies and in
decision making procedures. The protection of sites for
migratory birds is of particular importance.
Under the EU Directive on the Conservation of Wild Birds,
over 77 sites have been designated in the UK as Special
Protection Areas, and 69 sites have been desi gnated under
the Ramsar Convention. Som e of these sites are included
under both, and m ost are also SSSIs or ASSIs.
Fish
P ond s created fo r fish farm in g are exem p t from
planning Controls, but the business must by registered
with the Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries or Food (or
equivalent).
Under the Salm on and Freshw ater Fisheries A ct 1975,
consent m ust be obtained from EA (or equivalent) to
introduce fish or spawn to ponds (other than small
garden ponds), lakes or watercourses. This includes fish
reared for food as well as ornamental species. M AFF also
regulate the introduction into the wild of any fish or spawn
of fish not ordinarily resident in Great Britain or listed
in Schedule 9 of the W ildlife and Countryside Act 1981.
4 WATERWAYS, W ETLANDS & THE LAW
The Salmon andFreshwater Fisheries Acts 1975spedfies that
any person letting angling should ensure that all fishermen
possess a rod licence issued by EA (or equivalent).
Maintenance of ditches
Various agencies have responsibility for the maintenance
of watercourses and drainage ditches, to ensure the flow
of water for drainage purposes. The responsibilities in
England and Wales are outlined below. Contact SEPA or
DOE (NI) for details regarding Scotland and Northern
Ireland respectively.
EA has permissive powers to maintain 'main rivers', as
covered under the Water Resources Act 1991. The Internai
Drainage Boards have similar permissive powers on
designated 'main drains'.
Management of other 'ordinary watercourses', including
sm aller streams, ditches, drains and dykes, are the
responsibility of the landowner fronting the watercourse.
Under the Land Drainage Act 1991, EA, Internai Drainage
Board or local authority have powers to require landowners
to carry out maintenance work if the proper flow of water
is impeded. Under the same Act, consent is needed from
E A to con struct any structure which might obstruct or affect
flows, including dams, weirs, mills, channel diversions
and culverts.
Other relevant statutes
Construction (Design and Management)
Regulations 1995
Some ponds and ditches, and most dams or large earthworks
are classed as construction projects under the above
legislation. If the project involves more than five people
on site, or where the work will last for more than 30 days,
or involve more than 500 person hours of work, the project
m ustbe notified to the local office of the Health and Safety
Executive. Notification and compliance with the regulations
are the responsibility of the client, contractor, designer and
planning supervisor. For further Information, contact your
local HSE office.
Environmental Protection Act 1991
Under the Duty of Care Regulations (Environmental
Protection Act 1991), the removal and safe disposal of cut
aquatic weed is required in order to avoid deoxygenationof
water. The cut material mustbe removed to a location from
which the liquor produced during decomposition cannot
re-enter the watercourse. Transport and disposal costs of
cut weed add considerable expense to aquatic vegetation
management.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS

Particular care must be taken with poisonous plants.

Livestock tend to avoid eating poisonous plants because
they are unpalatable, but cutting, spraying or dredging
of poisonous plants may increase the risk to livestock in
se veral way s. Cut or sprayed and dead plants may become
palatable to stock, whilst still being poisonous. Dredging
may puii plants and roots up onto the banks where they are
accessible to stock, and cutting may mix poisonous species
with others so they are eaten accidentally. Under the Duty of
Care Regulations, cut poisonous m aterial must.be removed
from a site and disposed of at a registered disposal site.
Landowners working on their own land are exempt.
The following plants remain toxic after cutting, digging
or treating with herbicide:
Ancient Monuments and Archaeological
Areas Act 1979
Some ponds may in factb e remains of moats or mediaeval
fish ponds, and may be scheduled as Ancient Monuments.
Prior to any work being carried out which may affect a
scheduled site, Scheduled M onument Consent m ust be
obtained from the Secretary of State for the Environment
or the appropriate Secretary of State for Wales or Scotland.
Work w hich is essential for the purposes of health and
safety is exempt, although the relevant Secretary of
State m ust be informed before work commences. In
Northern Ireland, at least six months notice of any work
on a Scheduled Ancient M onum ent must be given to the
Departm ent of the Environment.

Bracken Pteridium aquilinum

Common ragwort Senecio jacobaea
Cowbane Cicuta virosa
Foxglove Digitalis purpurea
Hard rush Juncus inflexus
Hem lock w ater dropwort Oenanthe crocota
Horsetails Equisetum spp
Yellow iris Iris pseudacorus

Reservoirs Act 1975

Large areas of above ground water storage, capable

of holding 25,000 cubic metres of water, are subject to
regulations concerning their design and management.
This would include, for exampJe, a waterbody Ih a in
area and 2.5m deep, im pounded by a dam. Although
mainly applicable to reservoirs, this has affected the
management of some ornam ental lakes on large estates,
many of w hich were constructed a century or more ago,
and w hose m anagem ent is now subject to regulation.
or^-^ani^^njnjnnriinririroninrr
5 Safety, equipment
and organisation
Basic points co verîng safety, equipm ent and organisation
are described below.
Safety precautions
General
a Have a suitable first aid kit on hand at the w ork site
(see below).
b To retain im m unity to tetanus, booster injections are
required at least every 10 years. Tetanus spores are
present in the soil and particularly in manure, and
enter the skin through cuts and abrasions.
c Leptospirosis is a bacterial infection carried in rat
urine, which m ay contaminate ponds, watercourses
and m uddy banks. Infection, which may lead to
W eil's disease, occurs through cuts, abrasions, and
the lining of the eyes and mouth. The symptoms are
a flu-like illness w hich may lead to kidney and liver
damage, or meningitis. Any cuts should be covered
w ith w aterproof plasters, and further contact with
non-sterile w ater avoided. After contact w ith pond
or river water, wash exposed skin thoroughly w ith
clean water. W ashbefore eating, drinking or smoking.
Hepatitis A w hich has similar flu-like symptoms can
be contracted by ingesting sewage-polluted water.
d Blue-green algae produ ces toxins in warm weather. Avoid
working ne ar thick blankets of algae, and wash off any
that accidentally comes in contact with the skin.
Site risk assessment
The project leader m ust thoroughly assess any risks
associated w ith the site, and advise workers accordingly.
W aterw ays and w etland s have particu lar dangers
associated with them. The depth and flow of water, bottom
and bank conditions should be carefully assessed.
a Artificial ponds sometimes have sumps and sink-holes
w hich may be deep and silted up. Natural waterways
may have unexpected hollows and drop-offs. Wetlands
oftenhide old ditches or peat diggings. Walk through
and check the work-site by probing ahead with a pole,
and mark clearly any hazards w ith ranging rods or
poles before w ork starts.
b Soft peat and deep m uck are treacherous. Corrugated
iron 'duckboards' can give support for work on deep
ooze. Attach ropes for retrieval afterwards.
c Basin or basin-blanket bogs may have sphagnum
moss growing over deep water. The mat is usually
strong enough to support people, but where the bog
moss has been killed, for example by surface flooding
of eutrophic water, the surface deteriorates into a
quicksand-Iike pudding. If you fall through, try to fall
on your back w ith limbs outstretched and 'sw im ' to
safety. Watch out for local soft spots which often occur
in the lee of tilted trees where they have depressed the
sphagnum surface beneath the w ater and killed it.
d Coffer dams (p ll9 ) m ust be properly designed and
built to provide safe w orking conditions.
Work
a Tools can be hazardous w hen used in w ater or in
slippery, muddy conditions. Work at a safe distance
from other people.
b Timber clearance w ork is especially dangerous in water
or on steep banks. Fallen trees may be under tension,
and are slippery w hen wet. Workers m ust wear safety
helmets, and be secured w ith ropes if the footing is
treacherous. Use w inches to extract timber.
c Backs and knees are under stress in heavy clearance
work, especially w hen shovelling sticky mud and
ooze. Any heavy lifting should be done with the back
as straight as possible, bending from the knees to take
the străin on the leg muscles. (See overleaf)
d Never overload a punt or boat. Volunteers should work
from opposite sides at bow and stern to avoid getting
in each other's way. Non-swimmers should not work
from punts. Life jackets should be worn by all occupants
if the water is over lm deep or is fast-flowing. There
should always be at least one person on the bank.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
Wrong R.ighfr'
e Unexploded bom bs are occasionally found in mud and
rough ground, especially near coasts or commons used
in the past for military training. If you do uncover a
suspected explosive device, halt w ork im mediately
and m ove people at least 100 metres away. Inform the
police/and do not return to the w ork area until it has
been checked.
Clothing
Safety and comfort are the main requirements.
W orking in w ater
a In warm weather, the f ewer clothes the better, provided
that feet, Iegs and hands are protected against abrasion.
Cover up against the sun as necessary w ith light
clothing, hats and sunscreen. An old w et suit is ideal
for working in cold weather. Overalls or similar w orn
over the w et suit will protect it from further damage.
W hatever the season, have dry clothes to change into
at the end of the w orking day.
b Wellingtons or thigh waders, depending on the water
depth. Never w ork in water w ithbare feet. D on't wear
w aders if you are w orking alone except in shallow
water. If you slip and they fiii up w ith w ater they
becom e very heavy and are alm ost impossible to
remove due to the suction which holds them on. If
your w aders have straps, it is best not to attach them
to your belt in case you have to get out of them in
a hurry. To puii yourself clear of a wet wellington,
straighten your foot so that w ater gets under it and
breaks the vacuum. This also helps you puii loose
from deep, clinging ooze, w hether or not the welly
or wader stays stuck. Chest waders should not be
used unless absolutely essential. There should be at
least tw o people on the bankside with a rope, ready
to assist if necessary.
c Wear thick rubber w ork gloves for w arm th and
protection when pulling up vegetation by hand, or
clearing rubbish. Use tools as much as possible to puii
out rubbish. Bare hands provide the best grip w hen
using tools.
W orking out of w ater
a Wear overalls or close-fitting clothes. Loose clothing
is a hindrance and is dangerous when using edged
tools. Long hair should be tied back.
b Heavy leather work boots with metal toe caps and
spiked or deep m oulded soles are best. Wellingtons
may be necessary in muddy conditions, but avoid
w earing them when using edged tools or working
aloft. Trainers and light shoes are not suitable.
c Bare hands are best w hen using tools, but for general
protection wear w ork gloves.
d Safety helm ets should be w orn when felling trees,
working aloft, or for construction work involving
heavy timbers.
Tools and accessories
M ost of the tools and accessories Iisted are available from
The Conservation Volunteers (pl63).
First aid &
Keep a first aid kit to hand at aii times. The Conservation
Volunteers can supply standard first aid kits which comply
£
w ith H ealth and Safety Regulations. For up to ten people,
the minimum contents are:
1 guidance cârd
e*
20 individually wrapped sterile adhesive dressings
(plasters) appropriate to the work.
&
2 sterile eye pads with attachments
6 individually w rapped triangular bandages
6 safety pins
r
6 medium sized individually wrapped unmedicated
wound dressings (10 x 8cm)
e*
2 large individually wrapped unmedicated wound
dressings (13 x 9cm)
t .
3 extra large sterile individually w rapped wound
dressings (28 x 17cm)
r
2 pairs fine transparent disposable plastic gloves to
prevent bodily fluid contact
r
1 pair blunt-ended stainless Steel scissors at least
12.7cm (5") long
s
 5 SAFETY, EQUIPM EN T & ORGANISATION

W here clean mains w ater is not available, at least 9Q0ml
of sterile w ater or norm al saline in sealed disposable
containers should be provided. Eye baths should not be
used for eye irrigation.
In addition, the follow ing 'w elfare kit' is useful to
have:
1 pair of tweezers
e Steel garden rake
f Heavy-duty garden fork with YD handle.
g Pick
h Pick-ended m attock for loosening compacted or stony
ground. Grubbing m attock for cutting through roots
and general use.

1 pair of scissors Pick- ended

10 safety pins

needle and thread

sanitary towels

toilet roii

cotton w ool

30 assorted plasters
W heelbarrow. H eavy-duty builders' barrow with
3 finger pouches pneum atic tyre.

rubber gloves Shovelling board. A p iece of plywood or sheet metal,

about 600mm x lm ( 2 x 3'), w hich makes it easier to
insect repellent shovel sticky clay, gravei or stone. Lay the board at
the foot of the w ork area. Puii the spoil onto the board
suncream before scooping it up with the shovel.

barrier cream
Specialist ditching and drainage tools
2 x lOp pieces
a Draining spade, with a long blade to cut deep narrow
whistle trenches.

pencil

General purpose b Rabbiting spade, with long handle for clearing loose
earth from the bottom of trenches and holes.
It's a good idea to paint tool handles a bright colour so
that tools can be more easily found if mislaid in mud or
water. Paint a bând of colour on part of the handle which
is not held during use, to avoid spoiling the grip.

a Square or taper m outh shovel for loose soil, sand, c Tile hook, for lowering and positioning drain tiles in
gravei and shale. the trench bottom

b Heavy-duty treaded digging spade, for general use.

c Trenching shovel. A treadless spade w ith slightly

bevelled blade for general work. Tile h o o k
v
" " 'îi
d D yking spad e w ith triangular, slightly bev elled d Drainage rod and head attachments, for clearing
blade. blocked drains (pl08).
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS

Clearance Construction and fencing

a M uck rake (manure drag, crome). This is the basic tool a Carpenters' hand saw.
for clearing aquatic weeds.
b Hack saw

c Claw hammer

d Lump (club) hammer, 1.8kg (41b) size

e Sledge hammer, 6.3kg (141b) for heavy work

b Bowsaw. The 530mm (21") triangular saw is useful on f Crowbar

small branches or where space is confined. The 760mm
(30") or 910mm (36") D shaped bowsaws are needed g Wrecking bar ('sw an neck')
for larger timbers.
h Meii, maul or Drivall, for knocking in posts
c Axe
i Shuv-holer, for easy removal of earth from strainer
t:
d Billhook post holes

e Slashers. The brushing hooks or slashers with curved j Fencing pliers

r
bl ades are used for cutting long grass and other light
vegetation. The straight-bladed slashers can be used
on woody vegetation, and for cutting rushes and
k Boit croppers
r
reedswamp rhizomes before dragging them out of 1 Tinsnips, for cutting netting

t '
m Screwdrivers, assorted sizes

n Wood chisels, assorted sizes

&
o Brace and assorted bits, for w ood

p Hand drill and assorted bits

q Spirit level, plumb bob and line

e
r Surform plane.

s Tape measure
e
g Scythe, for cutting long grass.
Concreting, bricklaying and pipelaying v
h Sickles or grass hooks for trimming long grass.
a Mixing board, for small amounts of concrete or mortar £
i Grappling hook w ith rope, for retrieving large items
of rubbish. b M echanical mixer, for larger batches of concrete _

j Heavy Steel rake w ith extension piece, for pulling out c Bricklayers' trowel
e
rhizomes from deep water. The extension piece canbe
fitted with jubilee clips, but take care in use to avoid d Pointing trowel, for pointing and sealing joints in £
injury to hands. unglazed pipes

e Brick hammer, for breaking bricks and cutting pipes. £

Hire a pipe cutter as necessary.

f Bolster, used with a lump ham m er to cut bricks

îr g Cold point, for punching holes in pipes

e
 5 SAFETY, EQUIPM ENT & ORGANISATION

Miscellaneous For puddling clay, dew pond makers traditionally

used a tam per with a w ooden 'shoe' angled to avoid
a Winch and accessories, for lifting and hauling, and for back străin, and faced with a plate of polished Steel
scrub and tree clearance. Auseful size îs the Tirfor 800kg to prevent the clay sticking.
or 1600kg winches. See Appendix D.

b Polypropylene rope, 12 or 16mm diameter.

c Sharperting stones. Slashers, hooks and scythes should t?

be sharpened with a cylindrical stone. A xes need a flat,
circular stone.

d Buckets, heavy-duty rubber type

e Scaffold planks
f Rollers, to reduce friction whert winching across a
change in slope. These should be heavy-duty Steel for
pulling heavy items of rubbish from ponds. The design
below could be m ade by a metalworker. Otherwise,
rollers can be im provised out of fencing stakes or logs
to prevent the cable digging into the ground.
From e bends
Tool and equipment
maintenance
a Clean tools im mediately after use. Wash and scrape
muck off blades andhandles. Be sure to wash concrete
off shovels and w heelbarrows before it sets.
b Hang w aders upside down to dry.
c Oii or grease tools after use, to prevent rust.

d Prop up w et w heelbarrows to drain and dry at the

end of the day. Grease the axle frequently, and check
the nuts holding the axle to the barrow frame.

e Clean and lubricate hand winches, wire ropes and

slings after use in wet, m ucky conditions.

f Edged tools are safest w hen sharp. Hone them

frequently during use. Any blunt or nicked tools will
need filing and sharpening in the workshop.

Shabilising bar Groove to toke For further Inform ation on tool maintenance and repair,
75mm wide and winch cable refer to Toolcare - a maintenance and workshop manual
6 mm i-hick 'a '= 2 0 m r p (BTCV, 1995).

High hensile bolK6mm)

togefher with washers
and nylock auto
Plankways
TOP ViEW
Plankways are essential for barrowing over soft, wet
ground and also reduce damage to fragile habitats.
Plankways can also be used to negotiate steep, slippery
banks. Old 205 litre (45 gallon) oii drums are ideal to
support planks where they bridge a gap or slope. Drums,
w hich may be obtainable from garages or farms, should
be cleaned before use to avoid any leakage of oii residue.
g Punner or tam per for firming spoil in post holes and Note the following:
elsewhere.
a Use scaffold planks, which are wide and strong enough
Tam per to take the load.

b Cross supports may be necessary to keep the plank

ends from sinking. Shift the supports frequently before
they sink without trace.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
c When moving spoil up a bank by bucket chain, put a
drum under the plank end to reduce the slope.
d Use extra planks to pro vide gradual if indirect routes
up steep banks. Anchor planks securely to prevent
them slipping.
e A treadw ay is u seful to prevent sloping planks
becom ing too slippery. Tack rope along in a spiral, or
use battens.
f If you have enough planks, a three plank run is ideal.
Place a plank with treads on either side of a smooth
plank along w hich the barrow is pushed. Separate
return plankways keep the w ork running smoothly.
g A hook or J-shaped piece of metal, tied to a sturdy
rope, is useful to help w heelbarrow s negotiate slopes.
Fasten the hook to the front of the barrow. W hile one
person pushes, another stands at the top of the slope
and pulls.
Organising group work
Good organisation and leadership is essential to ensurethat
team w ork is as safe, effident and enjoyable as possible.
Points to note:
a The leader should first explain the project, point out any
hazards or safety points, and set the day's objectives.
Where a project looks dishearteningly big, it helps
greatly to see at the end of the day that a measurable
amount has been achieved.
b A small group should w ork methodically on one task
at a time, rather ihan on several things which may not
get completed in the time available. Larger groups can
split up as necessary on separate tasks.
c Good team work is the key to efficiency and morale.
Don't leave any one out. People of all ages and abilities
must find a place in the team. Find a place for new
volunteers to w ork alongside m ore experienced
workers. W hen organising a bucket chain, put workers
of similar strength in each team to maintain the work
rhythm and reduce the chance of weaker volunteers
straining and injuring themselves. Within the chain,
swap positions at regular intervals.
d Vary the work to suit the weather. If it is cold, arrange
the work so that everyone keeps on the move as much
as possible. Serve hot soup for lunch with plenty of hot
drinks during the day.
e A smooth w ork cycle is better than bursts of activity
followed by halts. In earth-moving tasks, a circular
pattern is more efficient than a linear one. Move full
buckets or wheelbarrows up one route and empty ones
down another so that there is always a container ready
to be filled.
f If some jobs are colder or more tiring than others, switch
people around from time to time to spread the burden.
&
g Where the project and site are suitable and the workrather
monotonous, encourage friendly competitionbetween
two or more groups to enliven the proceedings.
&
&
6 New ponds
Most ponds are unstable and temporary habitats, which
left unm anaged, becom e grown over w ith emergent and
marginal vegetation, eventually succeeding to scrub and
damp w oodland. M any ponds in Britain are not natural,
but have been created for a variety of reasons including
w ater supply industry, flood control and amenity, and
rely on m anagem ent to m aintain them. In creating a
new pond, the purpose of the pond and its subsequent
managem ent need to be planned at the outset. Just like
the land environment, the freshwater environment of a
pond can be m anaged as m uch or as little as desired.
Factors to consider
The nature of a pond is determined by the following
factors:
- permeability of the pond lining
- w ater supply, and the subsequent water levels within
the pond
- soil, silt or other substrate lining the pond
- edge treatm ent of the pond
- depth of the pond
- type and am ount of vegetation
- deliberate introduction of pond fauna, or measures to
encourage or discourage them.
These factors need to be taken into account at the design
stage, although subsequent m anagem ent can be flexible
as the pond devetops.
In general, the more artificial the pond lining and w ater
supply, the more limited are the options for management.
In particular, most artificial linings require fairly constant
water levels throughout the year, as exposed artificial
linings are prone to damage. Seasonally fluctuating
w ater levels are a feature of natural ponds, and a factor
on which many pond organisms rely, but is one which
m ay not be com patible w ith an artificial pond.
A n a rtific ia l p ond w h ich is m an ag ed to rem ain
approximately the sam e from year to year canbe valuable
for education, amenity, and wildlife. Equally valid for
wildlife, especially where there is sufficient space, is
to create a pond and then leave it to develop naturally
through its succession, and then a few years later, dig
another one nearby, resulting in a range of pond and
wetland habitats which change from year to year. These are
more likely to m im ic the natural waterway and w etland
habitats created by geological and biological processes
before m an's intervention in the landscape.
Thus, although there are definite techniques which need
to be followed for the successful creation of a pond for a
particular purpose, the whole range of wetland habitats
from open water, through apparently bare mud to damp
grasslandand woodlandhave their own value. The'dassic'
pond with open water, fringing irises and reeds, amphibians
and dragonflies, is only one of many options.
It is not always best to try and provide the full range of
habitats in a single pond, as there may then be too little space
to support viable communities, especially of invertebrates,
in each part of the range. It may bebetter to develop separate
ponds, each with a distinctive character determined by
factors such as water depth, shade and vegetation type.
Let each pond do one thing really well!
General principles
These are adapted from New Approacheş to the Management
o f Ponds (Biggs J, Corfield A, Walker D, Whitfield M and
W illiams P, 1994), and challenge some of the convenţional
advice on pond management.
a Fluctuating w ater levels are beneficial, as some
organisms rely on the zone between high and low
w ater level. Drying out is not necessarily disastrous
for pond communities.
b Ponds do not need to be deep. Shallow ponds no
deeper than one metre are valuable habitats.
c A pond does not have to include all the aquatic zones,
from deep open w ater to shallow margins, and annual
maintenance to retain this variety is not necessary.
d Ponds do not need to be big, and even tiny ponds can
be valuable.
e Shady ponds are not lifeless.
f 'C hoked' or 'overgrow n' ponds support a complex
and vâluable community, built up over decades, and
digging them out may reduce their value. It is better,
if the space is available, to dig another nearby.
g Limited access by livestock can be beneficial.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS

h Ponds are not self-contained Systems, but need excava ted

sympatheticaUy managed buffer zones around them of
wetland, rough grass, shrubs, woods and other habitats.

Ponds can be defined as sm all bodies of w ater from one

square metre up to two hectares in area, w hichusually hold
w ater for at least f our months of the year. For in vertebrate
interes t, any w ater body that holds w ater long enough
to allow the development of at least one generation of
at least one invertebrate species can be valuable. Thus
minor features such as vehicle ruts, depressions and
hoofprints can be valuable w etland habitat, though not lined
definable as ponds.

Temporary ponds w hich hold w ater for only part of the

year are paradoxically more ştab le in the long term than
'perm anent' ponds w ith constant w ater levels. This is
because the seasonal dryingout holds back the succession,
by suppressing em ergent vegetation, and allow ing
accumulated silt to dry out and blow away.

The following is not a prescription for creating a pond,

but rather a list of factors to be discussed and ideas to
be thought about. M ost ponds which are created by
conservation groups are for a combinaţion of wildlife,
on slream,
impounded
educaţional and amenity value, and because involving
■
people is high on The Conservation Volunteers' agenda, e
interm ittent or annual m anagem ent is seen as a benefit.
The general theme of this chapter is therefore about pon ds i
■
managed for these values, but much of the information e
is also relevant for ponds created for other purposes
such as flood control or w ater supply, and ponds which i
result from industrial activities, and for which frequent e
m anagement m ay be less desirable.

Requirements and siting
The method of construction of a new pond will depend
cbiefly on the landform, substrate and water supply. Other
factors which must be considered include the existinghabitat,
safety, access and underground Services (see below).
The basic types of created pond, determined by landform,
substrate and w ater supply, are shown in the following
diagram.
Water supply
e
W here the w ater table is high, any hole dug in the ground
will fiii w ith water. The le vel of the w ater table varies with
the season, and from year to year according to rainfall.
e
W ater flow ing from springs or in stream s can be
im pounded or diverted into ponds. Such ponds can
e
be described as 'on-stream ' or 'off-stream'. These are
further described below (p51). Any abstraction from e :
watercourses, w ater bodies or underground sources
in England requires an abstraction licence from the

Substrates
Environment Agency, and from equivalent agencies in e
other parts of the United Kingdom.

Impermeable substrates of clay are naturally wet unless
drained, and shallow ponds can be created by exca vation.
Water levels will fluctuate according to the w eather and
season, unless the pond is topped up from a stream or
other supply.
Permeable substrates will need an artificial lining in
order to hold water. Artificial linings are described fully
in Chapter 7.
Ponds w ith artificial linings constructed for amenity and e
educaţional use are usually filled and topped up from the
mains supply. The local fire brigade will often fiii school
ponds initially. Tap w ater used to top up existing ponds
should be left in open containers for 48 hours to allow
e :
the chlorine to evaporate.
f
Rainwater can be diverted from roofs to fiii and top up
small ponds (p50).
e

Run-off from roads and other surfaces in urban areas can
be held in balancing ponds (p50). Waste w ater of many
types including sewage, from residential buildings and
agricultura! and industrialprocesses canbefiltered through
reed beds, and then into ponds or lakes (pl45).
For further information on water supply, see pages 49-53.
Landform
On a sloping site, the obvious place for a pond m ay be at
the base of the slope or in a depression. However, these
sites may already be damp or waterlogged, and valuable
for wildlife as they are. Locating a pond at the lowest point
m ay also cause problems due to excess run-off or silt-
laden water running into the pond, and causing flooding
or silting. Overflows are more difficult to construct if the
pond is sited at a low point on the site. A site part w ay
up the slope m ay be easier to manage.
Existing habitat
The existing habitat should be of lesser wildlife value
than the pond habitat w ith w hich it w ould be replaced.
In particular, avoid destroying wet grassland or marsh
w hich is likely to be of high wildlife value. The w etland
habitat will be com plem ented by a nearby pond.
A 'buffer zone' of rough grass, shrubs, hedgerow or
w oodland close to the pond is im portant in providing
seasonal habitat for am phibians and invertebrates and
in effect greatly extends the pond's area of influence.
Dry stone walls, piles of stones, timber and. other debris
provide hibernating sites for amphibians and habitats
for other animals.
Existing trees should not norm ally be felled in order to
prevent shading of a new pond. Shaded ponds develop
their own particular community of invertebrates and other
organisms. It m ay be appropriate to coppice or pollard
existing trees, or to lay overgrown hedges, in order to
increase sunlight to a pool, but mature or decaying native
trees should be retained, along w ith standing deadwood
that does not present a hazard.
Access
Most ponds are dug by machine, so iniţial access is
needed for an excavator of som e type. W here the water
table is high, a tracked m achine working from supporting
mats may be needed to prevent ground damage, The
contractor will advise on the m ost suitable machine for
the site and the job.
Artificial linings for all but the smallest ponds will need
transporting by vehide as near as possible to the pond site.
6 NEW PONDS
Access for m aintenance will depend on w hat is planned.
Small-scale annual maintenance, as carried out on most
school or village ponds is not dependent on vehicle access.
Pedestrian access is considered below.
Underground Services
The location of gas, electricity, telecommunications and
w ater supply and drainage Services should be checked
for any sites w here ponds are planned. Urban sites may
have many different Services Crossing them, including
redundant ones, and farm ed areas of ten have old
drainage systems w hich the landowner may not know
about. Initially check w ith the landowner, and with the
relevant companies for the Services concerned. However,
underground Services' plâns are not always reliable, as
cables and pipes may 'snake' betw een points, or may
have been moved during subsequent work. If problems
are indicated, request that the Utilities trace the Services
accurately w ith cable and pipe locating devices. Tracing
devices can also be hired that trace live electricity cables,
metal pipes and plastic pipes with a metal tracer laid
with them, and w ater pipes to which you have access
at either end.
Land drains in farmland m ay cause a problem if the
excavation cuts through an old 'dry' drain which results
in the pond mysteriously refusing to hold water. Cutting
through a w orking drain may be an advantage in creating
a w ater supply, but silt traps and overflows may then be
needed. The digger driver needs to watch carefully for
any signs of clay or tile drains during excavation, and for
the more modern perforated plastic pipes. If found, either
block off or make good use of any existing system.
W here land drains are still required to function, it may be
necessary to put in a new drain to intercept the flow, and
to prevent pond water backing up into the system and
creating an unw anted wetland area in drained land.
system dug herringbone
It is possible to drown in only a few centimetres of water,
so all w ater bodies are potentially dangerous. Safety is
a priority for ponds in school grounds and community
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
areas. Most echication authorities will insist on school
ponds being fenced, not only to control access for children
attending the school, but also for younger siblings who
may have access to the school grounds at the begiruning
and end of the school day or during special events, and
against people trespassing on the site.
P o in ts to co n sid er
a For school or community ponds, an open site w hich is
within view of rooms which are in frequent use will give
some degree of supervision, as well as discouraging
vandals and other unwanted visitors.
b The following guidelines are recommended for school
ponds in Surrey (Surrey County Council, 1993), aimed
at ensuring that no pond is too deep for a child of the
relevant age to stand up in.
Secondary schools - one metre maximum.
Junior and m iddle schools - 750mm maximum.
Infant and first schools - 600mm maximum.
Alternaţively very shallow seasonal pools or scrapes
can be created.
c Paving or other su rfacing around school ponds
should be even and non-slip. Boardwalks and dipping
platforms should have toeboards to clearly define the
edge, and to aid safe w heelchair use.
d Raised pools may be appreciated by the elderly or
disabled, as pond li fe can be easily observed. However,
any low raised wall is an invitation to small children to
climb. Raised pools should have sloping banks within
the pool, and access for amphibians to the pool area.
e Lighting may be needed in some situations, for schools
that are used in the evening.
f Any fencing should be 'see fhrough/, so that a child who
gets into the pool area canbe seen. Stocknetting, chain-
link, chestnutpaling or picketfencing are suitable. None
are proof against a determined invader, but will prevent
access by small children. Gates should be lockable. In
certain situations handrails may be useful.
Design
The design details of a pond w ill be determined by
the natural features of the site, and the purpose of the
pond. For most situations, the design will also be closely
dependent on the funds available, especially where
artificial linings are needed. There are no hard and fast
rules. A series of linked ponds and wetlands of different
size, shape and depth, and w ith varying degrees of
disturbance and management, is the optimum where
the resources are available.
Size
Ponds w hich are intended to be fairly 'static' features,
maintained for amenity and education, need to be of
sufficient size to support a stable but diverse plant and
anim al community. The Conservation Volunteers in
Ham pshire w orked w ith the County Council in advising
on the construction of school ponds. They suggest 40 m2
as the minimum, and usually aim at a size of about 60
m2. Their preferred method of construction, w hich uses
concrete (p58), needs to be completed by voluntary 1abour
in one day. They have found that 140 m2 is the absolute
m axim um for com pleting comfortably within one day.
Sm aller ponds, of betw een 20 and 40 m2 can still be
maintained as a useful amenity and teaching resource, and
ponds smaller than this can, with or without management,
provide a valuable habitat w ith seasonal interest for
educaţional use.
Depth
The guidelines on depth given above for safety are also
a reasonable guide for wildlife. Few pond organisms
need depths greater than one metre, and ponds dug for
general conservation and amenity purposes need be no
deeper than this. M ake the deepest point off-centre to
provide a range of slope profiles and encourage water
movement w ithin the pond.
Ponds w ith fluctuating w ater Ievels may need to be
made deeper, if the aim is to retain some w ater during
the summer.
A shallow area, merging into marsh, or a separate but
nearby marsh area will provide valuable habitat.
Ponds dug for other purposes, such as water supply or
quarry ing, will of ten be m uch deeper than one metre, but
their m ain wildlife value will be found at their shallow
margins.
Shape
W here artificial linings are needed, the type of lining
will strongly infiuence the shape and edge treatment
of the pond. Sim ple oval shapes are the easiest and
cheapest to construct, bu t keep the valuable edge zone
to a minimum. Convoluted shapes with a longer edge
develop a more varied community. Within a simple
oval or squarish shape, a variety of edge treatments will
increase the length of edge, and effectively disguise the
original shape. Some gently sloping banks are essential

for amphibians, with 'shelves' for marginal plants. The
spread of marginal plants canbe restrictedby a drop down
to deeper water. A muddy or shingly beach is useful for
invertebrates and birds. Normally, these variations are
built in at the construction stage, and the liner then laid
over the 'preform ed' shape. However, some variation
can be built in afterwards, for example by building up
marginal shelves, spits or reef s of bricks or small boulders.
On butyl-lined pools, use a thickgeotextile liner over the
butyl to protect it from damage, and use stones with a
rounded shape. See the diagram on page 65.
Edge treatment and access
The edge treatm ent of school pon ds is strongly influenced
by the need to accom m odate groups of children with
sufficient room for pond dipping and other investigation.
This will normally need paving, boardwalk, bridge or
dipping platforms adjacent to mainly open water.
Access for people all around a pond is not normally
recommended. A n untram pled buffer zone of marsh,
long grass, shrubs or trees on at least a third of the edge
will allow undisturbed access for amphibians and other
organisms. Fence this as necessary to keep people out,
or include it w ithin the area of safety fencing.
A fenced pond area should be as large as possible, to
include enough room for a class to gather, as well as plenty
of buffer zone. For a pond approximately 10 x 8 metres,
an area of at least 50 x 20 metres should be enclosed.
School ponds or those designed for educaţional use need a
generous amount of space not only for dipping at the pond
edge, but also for gathering groups of children together
for teaching and discussion. Paving, stone aggregate
surfacing or w ood chip surfacing may be needed to
preventthe areabecom ing muddy and unusable. Benches
and tables are also useful.
Boardwalk, dipping platform and path construction for
damp ground are described in Chapter 10. For further
Information see Footpaths (Agate, BTCV 1996).
Water supply
Consult with Environment Agency (or equivalent outside
England), w ater authority and local planning authority
as necessary. Any abstraction from w ater bodies, water
courses or underground sources requires an abstraction
licence from the Environm ent Agency (or equivalent).
Predicting future w ater supplies by gauging existing
flows from w atercourses and underground sources has
becom e increasingly difficult over the last few years in
Britain. Long periods of drought in many a re as have
caused low ering of w ater tables and great reductions in
T?
6 NEW PONDS
flow s in streams and rivers. Abstraction from ground
water supplies has increased to compensate. DIY methods
of flow -gauging and predicting long term supplies
have becom e virtually meaningless in the face of these
uncertainties, and advice should be sought from the
Environment Agency (or equivalent) for any project
which involves abstraction of w ater supplies.
Mains water
Ponds with artificial linings by their very nature are
usually in 'd ry' areas, w here the water table is relatively
low, and there are no surface streams or underground
springs. W here near enough to a mains supply, they can
be filled w ith mains water, provided hose-pipe bans are
not in force. They are then replenished naturally from
rainw ater and som e run-off, together w ith topping
up from the m ains as necessary. For ponds without a
convenient mains supply, the local fire brigade may be
willing to help with iniţial filling, and if any pumping out
is required (p60). The army or the Environment Agency
m ay also be able to assist.
Ponds newly-filled with mains water should be left for
several days for the chlorine to evaporate, before plants
or other organisms are introduced. Similarly, mains water
used to top up existing ponds should be left in open
containers for 48 hours before em ptying into the pond. It
may be w orth constructing a small feeder pool, in which
mains water is stored for a couple of days, before it is let
into the main pond. Topping up from mains supply may
become more difficult due to hose-pipe bans in various
parts of the coun try. N ote fhat ponds containing fish can be
topped up and re-oxygenated with ahose-pipe even where
bans are in force, as fish are classified as livestock.
The normal procedure with butyl-lined ponds is to spread
the soil layer over the liner before the pond is filled with
water. The soil layer is essential for aquatic and marginal
plants to root into. Lay the end of the hose over a large piece
of polythene, to w hich a string is tied for later retrieval,
to prevent the w ater disturbing the soil layer.
Newly-made concrete lined pools need special filling
techniques, to remove harm ful solutes (p60). To prevent
these solutes becom ing locked into the soil layer, the soil
should be added only w hen the w ater quality is suitable.
Shovel the soil layer over the surface of the water and allow
a few days for settling before plants are introduced.
Rainwater
Some ponds are true 'd ew ' ponds, filled by rain alone
without the aid of runoff. The construction of artificial
dew ponds is discussed on page 53.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
S u rface ru n off
Rainwater runoff from pavements, roads and ofher hard
surfaced are as will be polluted to some degree with petrol
and oii residues from traffic, dog faeces, and from other
debris and w aste m aterials. O n new large-scale building
developments, balancing ponds are constructed at the
beginning of the developm ent stage in order to collect
surface runoff, w hich can be very muddy and laden with
silt and im purities during the building phase. These are
then normally filled in, and all future runoff goes into
the surface drainage system. As a better alternative, the
balancing pon d canberetained and planted with reeds and
other plants w hich absorb pollutants, with the purified
w ater feeding into an am enity lake. This can be done
on a smaller scale, gathering the runoff from roads, car-
parks and other hard surfaced areas for example within
a school site, and diverting them into a balancing pond
planted with reeds and other marginals, feeding an area
of more open water as desired. Treatment of polluted
runoff is a major problem for the w ater authorities, who
should be supportive of any system which reduces the
load of pollutants.
R ain w ater from roofs
R a in w a te r g a th ered fro m ro o fs is a u se fu l and
environm entally sound supply for ponds. It avoids
ch armei ling rainwater into drains, and allows the more
natural use of it as open water, seeping into the ground,
or evaporatingbackinto the air. Using rainwater supplies
allows changeover and aeration of water within the pond.
Rainwater can be used for small perm anent artificial
ponds, or to fiii seasonal tem porary pools and scrapes..
Depending on the catchment area of the roof, it may be a
good idea to arrange the supply so that storm flows do not
run directly in the marsh or pond, which can be detrimental
to the pond ecosystem, especially in springor summer. One
method is to run the downpipe into a water butt, which
has a top overflow and a bottom on/off outlet as shown.
During dry weather, stored water can be run off through
the bottom outlet as required. This will then give storage
room for subsequent rainfall and act as a buffer against
storm flows. During 'norm al' rainfall, the overflow gives
a fairly steady supply of w ater to the pond.
Water butts or tanks can also be used with rain diverters
(available from garden centres), which automaţically divert
the overflow back into the downpipe and the existing
drainage system. Seepage hoses or perforated pipes are
another useful material, which can be laid into marshy
areas so that the flow is spread through the marsh.
Alternative m ethods of intercepting roof drainage are
shown below, in outline only.
roof drainage NOT TO SCALE
infijfrahon
dihch-
gravel filled
L-» Y ......... bog g ard en pond
V ă iiJ I ffi,
Waste water and sewage
The treatm ent of dom estic w astes and com m ercial
pollutants through reedbed Systems has been developed
fairly rapidly over the last decade, by groups varying
from alternative lifestyle enthusiasts to major businesses.
For domestic sewage systems, the method is very cost-
effective for small villages, holiday developments and
isolated dwellings not on mains drainage. Domestic waste
w ater can be classified as 'grey w ater', which is waste
from baths, sinks and washing machines, and sewage
from toilets. All this w aste m atter can be treated through
reedbed systems (ppl45-146), discharging as clean water
w hich can feed into ponds or watercourses.
Natural ponds
In areas w ith a perm anently h igh w ater table, any
excavation in the ground will fiii w ith w ater to the level
of the w ater table. However, even for 'perm anent' high
water tables, the level will alter from season and season,
and year to year. Areas w ith a perm anent highw ater table
are easily recognised as peat bogs, damp grassland and
damp woodland, and are likely to already have some

open water. 'Perched' w ater tables, where clay overlays
gravei or other permeable strata can be misleading. The
ground may appear darnp, but any excavation which goes
through the clay layer w ill result in w ater being lost into
the permeable strata below.
Temporary ponds in areas with a seasonally high water
table can be made by excavating shallow depressions.
In grassland areas, these will usually remain vegetated
w ith grass and perennial herbs, with some areas of bare
ground supporting annuals duringthe summer. In shaded
w oodland areas, a w oodland flora will develop, with
areas of bare ground.
Groundwater levels can be assessed by digging a trial
hole or dip well. A dip well is m ade by sinking two 50mm
diameter pipes into the ground, about 500mm apart. Use
a soil auger to make the holes. One pipe should reach
to the proposed full depth of the pond, and the other
to half that depth. Pack tightly around each pipe with
clay. Several dip w ells can be spaced over the area of the
excavation.
cap pipe
Y PLAN
By monitoring of relative levels in the pipes, movement
of water in the ground at depth and near the surface can
be assessed.
buf may be seepage- arfesian
laheral movemenf pond maydryup rîse
For further details on dip wells and other methods of
monitoring ground w ater levels see Burgess, Neil D and
Hirons, Graham JM (1990).
Any excavation is best done during spells of dry weather,
to prevent ground damage by machinery. The operator
should check the ground conditions before w ork starts,
to lessen the chance of machines getting stuck.
6 NEW PONDS
The quality of the w ater will depend on the land use
surrounding the pond. The w ater should be purified of
pollutants as it filters through the subsoil, but ponds in
areas of arable farmland may have high levels of nitrites
from fertilisers.
Springs
Spring-fed ponds occur naturally where w ater rises at
a ' spring line', w hich is where permeable rock such as
chalk overlays clay or other impermeable strata.
On-stream ponds
These are ponds directly fed from surface streams, and
made by excavating or damming the stream. This may
seem a straightforward method of supply, but there are
various problem s associated w ith on-stream supply.
On-stream ponds take the flow from the catchment of
the stream, and need primary outflows and spillways
for storm flows.
The feeder stream, especially when in flood, will bring do wn
suspended matter which causes siltation and turbidity. A
silt trap may be needed. The dam must be sited on stable,
homogenous terrain with an impermeable substrate, to
avoid erosion below the dam undermining it.
For these reasons, on-stream ponds are not usually
recommended for volunteer work. However, very small
stream flows, which do not include storm flows from
catchment areas, can b e used for pond supply. These are
similar to supplies from springs.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
Off-stream ponds
Off-stream ponds can be excavated near streams and
supplied by feeder channels, w hich avoids the problems
outlined above. The pond is excavated near the stream,
and the spoil banked up as shown.
The feeder channel can be constructed in one of the
following three ways.
a The sim plest feeder is a channel with sloping sides
cut through the em bankment. By m aking the channel
double back, the rate of silting should be slowed. A
discharge apron of tu rf or stone pitching will preveni
scouring.
b The more usual method is to build a sluice with a silt
trap on the feeder channel. W hen used with another
sluice on the m ain stream, the supply of w ater can
be controlled despite variations in fiow. An overflow
channel should also be fitted with a weir set at
high w ater level to prevent the embankment being
overtopped during storm flows.
c Alterna tively the overflow w eir and pipe can be fitted
as shown.
Larger channels or feeder pipes should have the type of
concrete headw all or apron show n below. The diagram
also shows how to take a feeder channel through a raised
em bankm ent by m eans of a sealed pipe provided with
anti-seepage collars.

PLAN
5ECTION
Siui ce hop water
If a pipe is used along part or aii of the feeder, it must be
big enough to take norm al flow s and should be protected
at the upper end by an open inlet of the type shown on
page 107.
An on-stream pond can som etim es be converted by
diverting the feeder stream around the outside of the pond.
The advantages are that siltation and turbidity problems
are largely solved, and that the storm overflow of the
on-stream dam need n o tb e m aintained after conversion.
The new inflow should be regulated as discussed for
off-stream ponds.
Dew ponds
Design
Dew ponds occur mainly on porous soils where the rainf all
is about lm (40") per year, and the annual evaporation
from a body of open w ater is in the range of 450mm (18").
The tradiţional dew pond design ensures an adequate
rT _ ! 5 w ater supply from rainw ater alone, by maximising the
pond's catchm ent area in relationto its evaporation area.
The average dew pond is about 18m (20 yards) across its
w ater surface w ith a further collection m argin of at least
3.6m (4 yards).
A typical dew pond contains over 273,000 litres (60,000
gallons) of water, and even under conditions of drought,
should last three m onths before going dry. However, if
6 NEW PONDS
stock are w atered at the pond, the rate of water loss w ill
greatly increase.
The dew pond has a built up rim, w hich acts as a
w ater catchm ent area. The cross section shows how the
evaporation area shrinks as the water level drops. The
vertical scale is exaggerated in the diagram. The maximum
depth can vary from 1.2-2.4m (4-8').
rim of excavahed
material protechive top layer
Y
sh-aw layer
(opţional) puddled ciay
The various layers indicated are those of the 'average'
dew pond, althoughPugsley (1939), found that there were
many variations. Straw is sometimes claimed to be a 'non-
conducting' m aterial criticai to the pond's performance,
but there is no consistency in its use and many successful
ponds have no straw. It is likely, however, that a thick
layer of damp straw spread over the puddled clay would
prevent its drying and cracking before the pond filled. It
m ight also act as binding. The straw would rot eventually,
bu t once the pond filled this would not matter. Some
ponds have a bottom layer of chalk or lime, about 50mm
(2") thick, which may serve to keep earth-worms from
penetrating the puddled clay. Some have a thick top layer
of rubble, broken chalk or stone w hich helps protect the
im pervious layer from anim als' hooves.
Some ponds are made of concrete, and one has a layer of
gas tar, showing the influence of more m odem technology
on an ancient craft.
Siting
In times past, the siting as well as construction of dew
ponds w as something of a mystery, a closely kept secret
am ongprofessional pond-makers, who combinedwater-
dousing with pond-making.
However, most so-called dew ponds are in fact aided
by surface drainage, and locating the pond in a shallow
depression will increase the catchment. Too much runoff
is not desirable, as the pond will rapidly silt up. Ponds
receiving runoff from cultivated land w ill silt up much
more quickly than ponds in perm anent pasture.
It may be possible to take advantage of runoff from m inor
roads and tracks, although this may also cause silting as
well as problems from pollutants such as oii residues.
Site dew ponds w ell away from trees, as their roots may
damage the pond lining.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
Scrapes and marshes
Scrapes
Scrapes are simple shallow excavations in ground with a
seasonally high w ater table, and pro vide areas of standing
w ater or wetland, according to seasonal fluctuations.
They are invaluable for invertebrates, as well attracting
amphibians and w ater fowl. Scrapes can vary in size
from small depressions in rough grassland on farms
or commons, to much larger areas managed to provide
habitat for wintering and passage waders. The latter type
are of most value when situated close to known migration
routes, near the coast or other w etland areas. For further
details see M erritt (1994).
Small scrapes can be excavated in any area where the
ground conditions are suitable. The scrape should be
sited away from all sources of nutrient-rich or polluted
runoff. The size can be varied according to particular sites
or target species, but w ould normally need to be about
7-8m (8-9 yards) in diameter, gently sloping to a depth
of about 500m m (ÎS")- Poaching of the ground by stock
is beneficial in creating bare mud and 'hoofprint pools'
for invertebrates, and bare ground for plant colonisation.
However, too high a stocking density will only result
in a muddy hollow w hich will be of Iimited value and
will certainly look unattractive. The presence of good
wildlife habitats nearby, such as rough grassland, scrub
and woodland, will increase. the value of the scrape.
Marshes
M arshes near to new ponds can be easily created using,
as necessary, the same method of artificial lining as the
pond. A marshy area can also usefully serve as a silt trap
and filter for w ater entering the pond. The lining should
be a minimum of 300mm below water level, backfilled
w ith soil to about the w ater level. See Chapter 7 for more
details on artificial linings. Water can be supplied to the
marsh by an open inlet, or via a perforated pipe below
the surface. Suitable plants are listed on page 68.
Existing areas of damp ground can be improved as a
marshy habitat by slowing the flow of w ater by a low
im poundment, orby divertingrainw ater or stream water
into hollows. Seasonal drying out is not necessarily a
problem. Leaking ponds, especially cracked concrete
ponds, may be best turned into marshes.
For details of large-scale creaţi on of marshes and wet
grasslands: Burgess, Neil D and Hirons, Graham JM (1990).
e
£
£
I
£ ■
I
£ ■
I
£
£
7 Artificial linings

M an-m ade w ater features m ust be sealed w ith artificial c

linings if they lie in perm eable soils w ith an insufficiently
high w ater table. T he Info rm atio n in this chapter
is m ainly related to the construction of ponds for
general w ildlife, conservation and educaţional interest.
However, the techniques u sed are sim ilar to those used
for larger w ater features, including am enity lakes,
reservoirs and canals. Artificial linings are w idely used
in industrial and other developm ents for w ater supply
and storage, sew age treatm ent, control of pollutants
and other applications.

Factors to consider w hen evaluating different types

of lining include cost, availability of materials, labour
req u irem en ts, d u ra b ility and ease of repair. The
advantages and disadvantages of each type of lining are
discussed below.

The integrity of artificial linings is easier to maintain if (vertical scale exaggerafecfl

w ater levels are kept high, so that as m uch as possible of
the lining is kept underwater. Lowering of the w ater level
exposes the artificial lining to potenţial damage.
Measuring
It is im portant to m easure carefully the proposed site of
the pond, and take levels w hich m ark out the predicted
w ater level, together w ith positions of any inlets, outlets,
islands or other features. Any assessm entby eye is likely
to be misleading. The w ork should also b e planned so
that movem ent of spoil is minimised, and w here the spoil
is suitable, good use is m ade of it for impoundment,
landscaping or island creation.
W here a flexible liner is being used, and especially if
features such as dipping platforms or bridges are planned,
accurate scale plâns should be draw n up. W here ponds
are being created by m aking use of the existing landf orm
or disused excavations, then measurement on site may
be all that is needed.
For very small ponds, up to about 5m diameter, levels
can be simply marked out on site w ith a long piece of
timber and a spirit level. Cut plenty of square wooden
pegs to m ark the perim eter of the excavation. Starting
at the highest point of the proposed site, knock in a peg
to the proposed w ater level. Then working around the
perim eter of the site w ith the long piece of tim ber and
spirit level, knock in m ore pegs to the same level. Check
across the centre of the site as necessary. If the pegs
show that a sizeable bank w ill be needed on the lower
side to im pound the water, a fiatter site may prove more
practicai.
The sites of larger ponds, of 5-10m diameter, can be
levelled using a length of hosepipe filled w ith water,
w ith a section of transparent hose at either end. Knock
the pegs in level w ith the w ater in the hose.

A scale plan can be draw n up as show n in the example

below. By m easuring the contoured bottom along the
tw o cross sections A-B and C-D, using a piece of string,
the required dim ension of any liner or other materials
can be w orked out. Allow a safety m argin of at least
300mm w idth for flexible liners, or as advised by the
manufacturer. W hen estim ating volum es of clay for
puddling, rem em ber to allow about a third extra as the Ponds larger than about 1Om diameter should be levelled
clay is supplied unconsolidated (p56). using accurate surveying equipment.
WATERWAYS & WETLANDS
Puddled clay
Puddled clay is the tradiţional m aterial for lining canals
and other artificial w aterw ays, as well as for repairing
leaks in earth dams, and sealing joints betw een concrete
and earth banks.
To puddle simply means to pound clay and water together
in a dense mass w hich resists w ater penetration. Puddling
breaks down the structure of the clay, closing fissures and
forcing out air bubbîes. The clay becom es very plastic,
just as happens when it is m ade into pottery.
Puddling of the clay which lines the canal System in Britain
was done by driving flocks of sheep into sections of the
constructed and lined canal, so their trampling puddled
the clay. Dew ponds and other sm all water bodies were
puddled by sheep or human feet. M echanical puddling
can be done using a dumper or JCB.
A d v an tages
a A puddled clay lining may be very cheap if suitable day
is available nearby. Contact local developers, haulage
contractors, plant hire or skip hire operators, as suitable
d ay may be available as a waste material from local
development schemes.
b No special equipment or tools are necessary, other than
those needed to transport the day. Provided the area
is not too large, puddling is a fun way of involving a
group of people. Children especially enjoy it.
c A successfully puddled clay bottom is virtually immune
to leaks, decay and vandalism, provided it is made
sufficiently thick, and is always covered with water.
d A puddled clay lining can be cleaned by hand of silt
without damaging the lining. However, great care must
be taken if using machinery.
e Leaksinpuddledclayliningscanbetraced andrepaired
relativelyeasily,provided the water level can belowered
temporarily.
D isad van tag es
a Purchase and high transport costs may make day
expensive. It is not always possible to locate a reliable
supply at the time that you w ant it.
b If done by hand, the process of spreading the clay is
heavy andlaborious work. Puddling mustbe meticulous
to be successful, and the lining must be prevented from
drying out while it is being constructed.
c Puddled d ay is liable to crack if the water level falls
and exposes the lining for any extensive period. W hen
the level rises again, the clay is no longer watertight.
This often causes problems on ponds or canals which
are restored after a period of dereliction, and may be
the true cause of continued leakage from ponds where
repairs are undertaken on supposedly faulty dams.
d Cattle or hor ses may damage the lining, although sheep
can im prove it by sealing any small cracks which may
form. N orm ally clay-lined ponds should be fenced
against stock. W here access is required for watering
stock, the clay should be surfaced with a thick layer
of gravei or chalk w ith flints.
P re lim in a ry re q u irem e n ts
Calculate the cubic contents of the lining required. Pond
linings should be 200-300mm (8-12") thick, and thicker
if they are subject to erosive wave action or trampling
by cattle. Canal linings must be 300m m -lm (1-3') thick.
When ordering, allow about a third extra for 'bulking'
as the clay is supplied unconsolidated and much of its
volume is air.
The clay must be of suitable quality, as shown by the
following test. W hen the clay is moistened and kneaded
you should be able to roii it into a 'sausage' which can be
bent into a tight circle w ith no cracks. The clay should be
totally free of stones and any organic material, and should
f cel silky and smooth. When mixed with water in a container
any impurities sudh as sand w ill fall to the bottom. Clay
which contains shiny particles of mica is unsuitable.
The prepared excavation should be reasonably dry and
firm, and free of large stones, stumps and roots. Make all
slopes very gradual, as w et clay banks are very slippery
and dangerous, being easy to slide into but difficult to
get out from.
If puddling withoutmachinery, the only items of equipment
needed are weUingtonboots,buckets for water and shovels.
Some dew pond makers used a special tamper, as shown
on page 43.
P ro ced u ral p o in ts
a The action of puddling clay requires no skill, but it
m ust be done slowly and methodically. Puddle the
clay in thin layers and build it up slowly, otherwise it
w ill not be watertight, and different sections m ay not
knit together,
b Each puddler should w ork on an area of about a square
metre, and puddlers should be stationed so that no
unpuddled areas are left between. The group should
concentrate on one portion of the lining at a time,
rather than being spread out across the whole area.
c Divide the w ork betw een shovelling and carrying the
clay, and puddling. Swap the two groups over from
time to time.

d Shovel the clay as supplied, and as each shovelful is
spread on the square, add just enough water to make
the clay plastic. Excess w ater w ill be trapped in the
clay, weakening it. Keep treading up and down all the
time, working the water and air bubbles out of the clay,
and knitting your area together with those of adjacent
workers. Add another shovelful only after all the voids
have been worked out of the clay being puddled.
e Avoidaddingtoomuch clay atone tune. Thisistempting,
especially when using a dumper, but it results in a
compacted top surface while the clay below remains
fissured and liable to leak.
f Complete the first îayer to a depth of about 75mm
(3"), before starting on the second Îayer. This ensures
that no hard-to-puddle joints occur between different
sections.
g Bring the puddling well up the bank, making the sides
the same depth as the bottom. Be sure to cover any
possibly faulty masonry or joints between different
materials, where leaks are likely to occur.
h The surface m ust be kept w et at all times to prevent
cracks forming, which, unless carefully sealed by
repuddling, may cause leaks. If the task must be
discontinued for even a day or two the clay should be
hosed periodically or flooded in the interim. A small
work area can be covered w ith polythene to prevent
moisture evaporating.
i Don't worry about small amounts of standing water, or
about it raining while puddling. Avoid puddling clay
in frosty weather since it will crack and heave due to
the expansion of water w hen it tum s to ice. If the job
is partly done and frost is likely, it is best to flood the
site deep enough to prevent it freezing the lining.
For information onrepairing leaks, see page 63.
Concrete linings
Concrete linings have been used for all sizes of artificial
lakes and pools, from vast reservoirs of 20 hectares
or more, down to small form al garden pools of a few
square metres. An early use of concrete was in dewpond
construction. Pugsley (1939) discovered that a number
of pre-First World War dew ponds were lined w ith rough
concretes such as clay and lime mixed, flints in mortar,
'3
or alternate layers of cem ent and chalk or flints.
A d vantages
r 3
a Concrete linings are extremely durable if the original
constructionis sound. They canbe dried out or exposed
at the shoreline w ithout harm , and are affected only
slowly by erosive forces.
î 3
7 ARTIFICIAL LININGS
b Concrete linings are vandal proof. This is an important
consideration for ponds in school grounds and other
urban areas.
c Concrete linedponds canbem aintainedw ithoutfearof
damage to the lining. It is possible to wade into the pond
and use tools such as shovels and cromes, which may
damage a flexible or clay lining. Clumps of emergent
vegetation can be pulled out without damage to the
lining. Concrete linings are therefore useful for ponds
which are intended to be maintained at a certain point
in their succession.
d If mixed properly, concrete has consistent quality, and
it can be obtained at any time.
D isad v an tag es
a More skill is needed to install concrete than other linings.
Pondsbigger than about 8 x 5m will need reinforcement,
and an engineer should be consulted on the design and
construction. Concrete sets quickly, and either needs
to be laid 'all in one go', or in sections with special
waterproof joints.
b The cement used in concrete contains Chemicals that
are harmful to aquatic life, and after construction a
seasoning period is necessary during which the pond
must be filled and emptied several times (p60).
c Concrete linings are difficult to repair if they are badly
made, or if they crackdue to settlement. Various products
are available for the repair of non-structural concrete.
d Although concrete linings can in theory be made to fit
almost any shape, complex outlines and internai contours
are much more difficult to construct than simple shapes.
It may be easier to make a dish shaped lining, and then
use stone and other materials to build marginal shelves
and reefs which rest on the concrete lining.
e The permanence of a concrete lining may be aproblem, not
an advantage, if for example, use of the site changes.
For most w aterproof linings, from small garden ponds to
large installations, flexible materials are now used rather
than concrete. This is because they are much cheaper and
easier to lay, and because technological development has
produced materials which are durable for 20-30 years or
more. Concrete, however, still has the great advantage of
being vandal-proof, and allowing management without
fear of damage to the lining. Where vandalismis aproblem,
the technique described below isrecommended. Inthistype
of structure, the concrete is not itself waterproof, but merely
acts as a protective Îayer over the flexible liner. Concrete
is not otherwise recommended. For small ponds a flexible
liner is easier and cheaper, and for larger ponds, technical
difficulties of laying concrete are such that the design and
construction should only be done by specialists.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS

R ead y-m ix con crete

Ready-mix concrete supplied by lorry is the best option
for the vandal-proof ponds described below. Ready-mix
has the advantage that the hard work of mixing is done,
and the product is of consistent quality. It avoids having
to handle or store cement, sand and aggregates and often
works out cheaper. However, vehicle access to the pond site
must be considered, as well as suffkient labour to spread
the concrete before it sets. For school and community areas,
this labour requirement usually fits in well, as it is easier to
organise a big voluntary effort on one day with the goal of
completion, rather than a hard slogby a few people over a
longer time. Suppliers of ready mix concrete are numerous
in most areas, and you shouldbe able to find one who can fit
in with you r requirements for mix, access and deliveiy time.
Extended chutes and pumps are available for sites where
access adjacent to the pond is not possible. Some firms will
supply and mix materials on their lorry on site, while the
customer barrows and lays the concrete, with about half an
hour allowed to take delivery of a cubic metre.
The timing of the delivery is crucial. The pond excavation,
plus any lining, must be finished, and the volunteers ready
for action the moment the lorry arrives. You then need
enough time to complete the laying of the concrete that day.
On the other hand, the excavated surface or lining such as
sand or poly thene must not be ready too early, or it may get
disturbed by weather, vandals or animals. If an excavation
gets filled by an overnight storm before the lining is laid,
you've probably chosen the wrong site!
Some suppliers will not deli ver between mid-day Saturday
and Monday morning, which may limit your options for
a weekend project.
Vandal-proof ponds
n
A technique has been developed by Hampshire County
Council, w orking with The Conservation Volunteers, to
construct ponds w hich are completely vandal and leak
proof. Concrete ponds are vandal proof, but difficult to
construct and liable to leak. Flexible liners are waterproof
and easy to lay, but prone to vandalism and damage
during pond maintenance. The technique uses a flexible
lining for holding water, and a concrete lining on top to
protect it against deliberate or accidental damage. The
concrete layer is not designed to be waterproof.
This is a 'belt and braces' technique, and uses various
specialist m aterials w hich m ake the m ethod seem
complicated. An 'environm ental audit' may question the
w isdom of using such a quantity of materials to create a
feature w hich in other substrates would occur naturally.
However, the technique has so far proved totally reliable
increatingvaluableenvironmental andteachingresources
within school grounds and other areas where ponds would
not otherwise occur. Although complex, the bulk of the
work can be done, and in fact has to be done, w ithin one
day, using voluntary labour w ith skilled supervision.
Over 60 ponds have so far been created.
The following section gives detailed information on
procedure and the organisation of volunteers, which may
also be relevant to pond construction projects using other
types of artificial linings.
The layers of the construction are as follows, listed from
the top layer downwards, as shown in the table below.

r ]

t ■
M aterial Type/purpose

Subsoil from excavation covers construction and provides growing

?j
1 Subsoil

2 Armater
medium for pond plants. 75mm layer.

Retains concrete in cells w hich allow for m ovem ent such as frost heave,
ej
and m akes concrete easy to lay in one operation w ithout slumping.

3 Concrete 1:12 mix. Protects all the layers below.

t |
4 Polythene m em brane Prevents concrete soaking into geotextile layer. e ■
5 G eotextile m atting Synthetic fabric for reinforcem ent against w eight of concrete.
e j
6 W aterproof m em brane Polyethylene liner.

7 Builders' sand
Acts as buffer betw een subsoil and w aterproof mem brane. e 2
Prevents damage from stones in subsoil.

t -

tonstrucWon
depth noo to
lîjo m m
wgter level
subsoil
9 arm ater and
concrete
polyt-hene
e— geotexHIe
polyei-hYlene
noh to scale
Note ori materials
Ham pshire County Council recommend the Hi-Lastic
poly ethylene Iiner. O ther good quality w aterproof liners
may also be suitable. For suppliers see page 163.
Armater is a honeycom b lattice material, supplied in
sections 12 x 12.5m. The size required is 2m smaller in
both dim ensions than the polyethylene liner. Any extra
can be sold to another school.
The concrete m ix is 1:12 (1 cement:12 ballast), know n as
'kerb m ix'. Only sufficient w ater to mix should be added,
as too much w ater w ill cause the mix to slip under the
bottom of the A rm ater cells, leaving a pool of concrete in
the middle. O rder from supplier of ready-mix.
Further inform ation on the materials is given below.
D esign an d p lan n in g
To create a pond which is ecologically stable as well as
diverse, and suitable for practicai teaching purposes,
Hampshire County Council recommend that school ponds
should be a minimum of 60 square metres, and do not grant
aid for anything smaller thanthis. Anything larger than about
140 square metres is difficult to construct in one day.
The preference is for a maximum finished depth of750mm,
with the deepest part off centre to give a variety of gently
sloping profiles. Steps and planting ledges are avoided for
safety reasons, and because they are difficult to construct
using Armater fabric. The design gives the fullrange of depths
up to 750mm for marginal plants and other organisms. As
marginal vegetation can be removed as necessary by hand
pulling, the shelf down to deeper water is not needed as a
method of a control of marginal vegetation.
AII weather access and dipping platforms to accommodate
6-8 children are included in the design (see p90).
O rgan isation
Order all materials in advance, and confirm the delivery
7 ARTIFICIAL LININGS
date w ith the suppliers. Liners m u stbe stored in a secure
location, and away from sunlight w hich can damage
them. Have a site m eeting w ith the supplier of ready-mix
concrete prior to delivery, in order to check the access.
Timing of the delivery is crucial.
Construction of a 60 square metre pond needs at least 12
people for the day, and up to 20 canbe usefully occupied.
They w ill need to w ear stout w aterproof boots, and long
sleeved tops to protect arms against concrete mix.
The following tools are needed:
spades 12
shovels 12
forks 12
rakes 8
wheelbarrows,
6+
heavy duty
buckets, heavy duty 12
mattocks 5
gloves, preferably
a pair for each person
gauntlet type
E xcavation
M ark the outline of the pool, checking the levels carefully
(p55).
If possible, arrange for the excavation to be made on
the day before the lining is to be constructed, in order
to lessen the chance of disturbance to the excavation, or
of it collecting rainfall. JCBs or other excavators should
only be drivenby skilled operators, w ith attentionbeing
paid to the safety of other users of the site. It should take
about 4-5 hours to excavate a 60 square metre pond. If
possible, the project officer should stay on site throughout
to supervise and sort out any problems. A trench around
the excavation, norm ally made to secure a flexible lining
(see p 61), is n ot needed, as the concrete secures it. Retain
sufficient subsoil for the rooting zone within the pond. The
rest of the spoil should be rem oved for use elsewhere on
the site, or tipped into skips for removal off the site.
Using a surveyor's level, check that the rim of the
excavation is level all around. Note where any minor
adjustment will need to be made by hand, or by the
placing of the liner. Remove protruding stones or other
debris from the excavated surface.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
C on stru ction
1 Brief volunteers on pro ce dure, tool use and safety
considerations. Stress the need to avoid all unnecessary
trampling on the layers as the construction proceeds.
2 Lay a single layer of old carpets, first removing any
tacks. Do not use rubber-backed carpet as this may
give off a gas. The carpet prevents stones from working
their way up through the sand layer and damaging
the lining. Alternatively, geotextiles such as Terram or
Bidim can be used. Newspaper is not very successful
as a substitute, as it is difficult to get even coverage
on still days and im possible w hen it is windy!
3 Lay the sand, raking it to an even 75mm layer, and
pressing it up against the edge of the excavation.
4 Open up the liner away from the pond and check for
holes. This also dispels static electricity. Crease it up
again w ith the outside edges accessible, carry it to the
pond and lower it onto the sand.
5 Repeat for the geotextile and polythene sheet. Don't
cut off any excess until the end of the day. Aim to be
at this stage by 11.30am for a day's project.
6 Open up the Armater fabric and cut to size as necessary,
using a craft knife or fabric shears. Lay it onto the
polythene sheet.
7 The ready-mix is delivered and dumped on a large piece
of building membrane or similar as near as possible
to the pond. Form a bucket chain. D on't overfill the
buckets, but keep to a weight that the least strong
person in the chain can safely manage.
8 The chain leads out to the m iddle of the pond, with the
people at the end of the chain standing with each foot in
a 'cell'. D on't get the toe of the boot under the cell wall,
or the concrete will slide underneath and you will end
up with a very shallow pond! Great care must be taken
to avoid back injury w hen handing the buckets along
the chain, as m ovem ent of the feet is restricted by the
cells, and the polythene surface is slippery. Avoid any
Sfarhing af
cenfre, fiii
areas in
order
shown
frim
leaving
Complete
cells
Jf / finish wifh
each cell ' <collar of
h Flexible linings
is 100mm concrete
I
deep by approx. / all round
350 mm across
action w hich tw ists the back, and don't take a loaded
bucket until you're perfectly balanced. Start filling the
cells from the centre, then radiate out in 'bulges' as
shown. This minimises trampling, whilst keeping the
honeycom b fabric in shape. It should take 2-3 hours
of hard w ork to shift 4.5 cubic metres of ready-mix.
9 Before you fiii the outerm ost ring of cells, trim off the
excess Armater, leaving complete cells. Trim butyl.
10 Fiii outer cells, and finish w ith a collar of concrete to
the edge of the excavation. Edge with turves to give
a neat finish.
F illin g
Water dissolves solutes from the new concrete, which
raises the pH of the water, and will limit the range of
organisms which the pond can support. Although ponds
of a high pH, above 8.5, occur naturally in limestone
areas, a pH below 8.5 is usually suitable for most ponds
to encourage a wide range of organisms.
Gi ven time, the water will stabilise, but most pond crea tion
projects for schools and community areas require that
planting is done as soon as possible after filling, in order
to create a 'finished' pond. D on't put any soil into the pond
until the pH is correct, or the solutes will then become
locked into the soil, and almost impossible to remove.
Various products are available to treat or waterproof
concrete. Plasticisers can be added du ring mixing, or
sealants painted on after laying. However, these are not
always reliable, and the safest method, although rather
tedious, is to fiii and empty the pond several times until
a suitable pH is reached.
Initially fiii the pond, and leave it for about two weeks.
Check the pH, which may be as high as 12, depending
on the source of the aggregate. Pump the water out and
refill. Leave for a w eek and check the pH again. If it's
below 8.5, the loss of solutes from the concrete is low
enough to proceed. Pump the water out, put in the soil
layer and any features, and then refill. If it remains above
8.5 at the second refill you can proceed as above, but a
few weeks after planting pump out half the water and
then top up, preferably w ith rain water. Water pumped
from the pond should be allowed to soak away into the
ground. It should not be discharged into the sewage
system or into streams or other waterways.
For further notes on iniţial management of new ponds,
see pages 65-72.
Flexible liners made of PVC, polyethylene or butyl rubber
can be used for pond construction.
[
PVCis availableinsingle or double thickness, andinvarious
colours. It is stretchy and easy to fit, but is not resîstant to
ultraviolet light, and eventually deteriorates.
Triple thickness low density polyethylene (LDPE) is more
durable than PVC, but less durable than butyl rubber.
Butyl rubber is the m ost durable, and suppliers guarantee
a life of at least 10 years w ith proper care. Although
more expensive than PVC or LDPE, it is a worthwhile
investment for m ost pond projects. Normal specification
is black, 0.75m m thickness. Butyl is slightly elastic.
V arious o th er rein forced geom em brane lin ers are
manufactured for reservoirs, large ornamental lakes, dirty
water lagoons and other industrial and environmental
applications, and are norm ally installed by specialist
contractors. See page 163 for information on suppliers
of fiexible linings.
A d van tages
a AII fiexible linings are cheap compared with other
types of pond lining.
b Fiexible linings conform to m inor undulations and
will not fail if the underlying soil settles or cracks.
c Fiexible linings are quickto install, requiringno special
skills. Provided the project is properly designed and
supervised, a reasonable sized pond canbe constructed
by volunteers in a day.
d Fiexible linings are w idely available commercially,
and are easy to transport and store.
D isa d v a n ta g es
a AII fiexible linings are vulnerable to accidental or
malicious damage. Polyethythene and PVC linings
puncture easily. Butyl is fairly puncture resistant, but
is easily cut w ith a knife. M aintenance is difficult,
as wading in or using tools to remove plants or silt
can damage the lining. Dogs and grazing stock may
damage linings.
b Fiexible linings m ust be handled carefully during
installation. A layer of sand and old carpets or other
m aterial is needed to prevent stones in the soil
puncturing the lining from below.
c Larger ponds require on-site joining of the sheets, and
this may need to be done by specialist contractors.
f Planting shel ves m ust be carefully constructed before
the lining is laid down, and designed so that any
r substrate laid over the liner holds securely without
slipping. Avoid gradients steeper than 1:3. A general
gradient of 1:6 is suitable.
! " .9
7 ARTIFICIAL L1NINGS
g Problems can occur under the liner. Strong growing
w eeds such as couch can push up through the liner,
and rats and other sm all animals may burrow through
and hole a liner. A geotextile layer beneath the liner
will help prevent this. Take specialist advice if the
presence of methane is a possibility (see below).
M e th o d fo r la y in g b u ty l lin in g
Fiexible liners should be of sufficient size to allow for
a 300m m overlap around the edge of the pond. The
m inim um size of liner should be as follows:
Length of pond = A
W idth of pond = B
Depth of pond = C
Size of liner = (A + 2C + 0.6) x (B + 2C + 0.6) m2
Laying a butyl liner is easier on still, dry days. If there is
a hard frost all day, postpone the work, as the liner may
be damaged if it's laid down on frosty ground.
1 M ark out and excavate the pond, carefully checking
levels (p55). Levelling is very important to avoid
areas of exposed liner above the water line, which are
difficult to conceal. A llow a 300mm m argin around
the perimeter for the pond liner to be overlapped
w ith turf or other edging. Remove and stack the turf
from this margin. Some pond designers recommend
digging a shallow trench around the perimeter of the
main excavation, to anchor the lining and avoid any
risk of it becom ing exposed at the surface. This may
cause a problem on disturbed sites w hich may contain
methane from buried industrial or domestic rubbish,
or from farm waste, as the m ethane is then unable to
escape from under the liner and causes it to bubble
up. Take advice as necessary on the past use of the
land and the likelihood of methane being present.
2 Remove all stones, roots or debris in the soil to avoid
damage to the lining. Tâmp the soil surface to an even
finish.
3 The slopes should not exceed 1:6 gradient. Excavate
m arginal shelves to the dim ension required. An
average of250m m w idth and 250mm depth is suitable
for ponds of about 60-100 square metres.
4 Spread a 75mm layer of builders' sand evenly over the
excavated surface. This acts as a buffer between the
soil and the liner, and lessens the chance of damage.
5 O ver the sand, lay a geotextile or layer of old carpets,
to act as further protection to the liner.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
tiner
^ o ld cârpei or geofexfile
^ 75mm san d
slab on
marginal loomm mortar
Shelf | 7p—smT
25omm2 ~Jî5rnTΣP'k,
jS XsznzziZJ^ animal
hiding place
from “Pond Guideiines'fS.C.C. 1993)
not to scale
6 Carefully unfold the liner away from the pond to check
for faults, and to allow static electricity to disperse.
Crease it up again leaving the edges free, and w ith
sufficient helpers to avoid disturbing the sand layer,
lift the liner into place. As long as the liner is placed
correctly, w ith sufficient overlap at the edges, it does
not have to be m oulded exactly to the contours of the
excavation, as the w ater will do this. Temporarily weigh
down the edges to secure the liner in place, but take
care not to use anything that will damage the liner.
7 M ost suppliers of butyl liners advise the use of a
protective geotextile layer over the butyl. This provides
som e protection against stones or other objects
damaging the liner, especially if underw ater features
such as rounded stones or marginal shelves are being
added. The geotextile layer also helps anchor the soil
layer. Trim the geotextile to below the planned w ater
line, or it will act as a wick, drawing the water out
of the pond. Once the butyl and geotextile are laid,
minimise tram pling on the lining. Wear soft shoes and
work carefully to avoid damaging it. The soil can be
added before or after filling w ith water, depending on
the size and layout of the pond.
8 Fiii slowly w ith water. Avoid disturbing the soil layer
by running the hose over any pebble beach or stony
feature, or by using a sheet of polythene temporarily
anchored over the soil. Once full, cut away the surplus
liner, leaving an overlap of at least 300mm.
9 Replace the turves around the edge to anchor and
hide the liner. Paving, boardwalks or other features
can be added later, but ensure the construction does
not damage the lining (p90).
10 Shovel sieved soil into the w ater if soil was not
spread earlier. Allow to settle for a few days before
planting.
For more inform ationon planting and iniţial maintenance
see Chapter 8.
Bentonite
Bentonite is a very fine powder of clay particles which
swells in contact w ith water to become a waterproof clay.
Two basic types are available, either sodium bentonite or
calcium bentonite. Sodium bentonite is imported from the
USA and is the higher quality but more expensive material,
absorbing five times more water, weight for weight, than
does calcium bentonite. In the past, bentonite was supplied
in powder fonn for mixing into the surface of excavations
to create a waterproof layer, or for sprinkling into existing
ponds to repair leaks. Neither use has proved very reliable,
and many failed bentonite ponds have been subsequently
lined with butyl or other flexible linings.
To overcome the problems of getting even coverage,
bentonite is now supplied sandwiched between two
geotextile layers, called a geosynthetic clay liner (GCL). To
avoid problems of losing the dry powder during transport,
and difficulties with on-site wetting, a further de velopment
is to pre-hydrate the bentonite layer during manufacture.
This product is called Rawmat High Density Bentonite.
M
The great advantage of bentonite linings is their ability r
to self-heal when punctured, as the clay component
swells to fiii the gap. Posts for revetments, boardwalks
I
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and other features can be driven into the lining without r
causing leaks. Sealing around inlet or outlet pipes is a
simple procedure, and joining two sheets of Rawmat is
I■
done by m eans of a self-sealing overlap. €
I■
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I
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c
As Rawmat is supplied pre-hydrated, it is heavy, at about
8kgper square metre. It is supplied in rolls, lm b y 5m length, e
and 2m by 25 or 50m length, with the 2m width needing
machinery for handling. For further details contact the
manufacturer, Rawell Water Control Systems Ltd. (p!63). e
•V- 1
Leaks
This Information can be applied both to new ponds
t
w hich leak, and established ponds and waterways with
damaged and leaking linings.

Water levels that fluctuate w ith the season aud prevailing
weather are not necessarily a problem (p45), but artificially
lined ponds that hold m sufficient w ater even in the wet
season will norm ally need repair. Artificial linings that
are exposed are likely to suffer further damage without
the protective covering of water.
B ad ly le a k in g p u d d led clay lin ers, fa ile d pond s
constructed using bentonite powder, and badly cracked
concrete ponds w ill need a rethink. If a pond is still
required on the same site, the best solution is probably
to reline w ith a flexible liner. The pond w ill need clearing
out completely of vegetation, debris and other material, in
order to start from a clean base, otherwise damage to the
liner is alm ost inevitable. If the space is available, it may
be easier to start again on a new site, and turn the leaking
pond into a marsh. This will probably be happening
any way, but the process canbe made more interesting and
attractive by planting and other management, depending
on the site and available resources. Rearrangem ent of clay
or other m aterial w ithin the site can create dams or smalî
w ater features to retain som e open w ater areas. If the area
is fed by stream flow or run-off, there is the opportunity to
be creative in channelling the water through small pools
or ditches. Failed ponds w hich relied only on mains or
pum ped w ater are possibly best abandoned.
Tracing and repairing leaks
The following procedure for tracing leaks is described
for puddled clay linings, but the same procedure can
be used for other types of linings, and for leaky dams,
retaining walls or earth banks.
1 If the water level has recently been raised above a level
w hich had been norm al for some time previously, it is
likely that the clay above the long-standing w ater line
has dried and cracked. Look for leaks betw een the old
low water m ark and the new high water mark.
2 The lining may have been damaged by disturbance due
to recent cleaning, or from tram plingby horses or cattle.
C heckthe cleaned area, and the trampled shallows.
3 O ncetheareaunder suspicionhasbeenidentified, trace
the leak using fluorescein dye. Fluorescein is available
from chemical suppliers, and comes as a magenta or
coffee-coloured powder, which turns a bright neon
green on contact with water. Localised leaks in small
pools may be traced w ith green ink if fluorescein is not
available.
The amount of fluorescein needed depends on the
volume of w ater to be treated, so it is worth limiting this
if possible to the area around the suspected leak. For a
water line leak, scatter the powder along the w ater's
edge, not out away from the barik. For a leaky dam. or
retaining wall, scatter powder within a few feet of the
3
7 ARTIFICIAL LININGS
installation. For a holed bottom, it helps to drain the
pond so that only a few inches of water cover the lining
before sprinkling the dye. Use your own judgement
as to quantity. A tablespoon of powder dyes about a
quart of water.
4 If you suspect that moisture on the outside of a dam or
bank is due to a leak through from the other side, wait
to see if fluorescein-tinted water penetrates to the damp
spot. This may occur within a few hours, but more often
takes a day or so. The advantage of waiting is that in this
way even an indirect leakage route can be established.
If, after afew days, nosignof green water appears outside
the bank, the leak may be slow and extend some distance,
so that the dye has been absorbed en route. Alternaţively,
the damp patch may be not due to leakage.
5 After allowing the dye to work for a day or two, drain
the water from the pond. Rake off the lastbit of standing
water, using a rake to which a wooden slat has been
fixedtoform a flat, toothless scraper. Observe the surface
of the clay as you rake. Any cracks should show up as
green lines in the clay.
6 Dig away the clay where it shows green, following the
dyed crack as far as you can. Remove this clay and
repuddle it carefully, adding fresh clay as needed.
C oncrete
M inor cracks in concrete canbe repaired as follows. Locate
the crack and clean thoroughly. Using a cold chisel, cut
out a rough V shaped groove at least 75mm wide along
the line of the crack, and at least a third the depth of the
concrete. Use a rubber orbitum enbased sealant to seal the
crack below the groove, and then fiii the groove w ith a mix
of 1:2:4 cement/sand/fine gravei with a waterproofing
bonding agent. Wetthe sides of thegroovebeforemortaring.
Leave to dry for a few days, and then paint over with
pond sealant.
l.Cul' V-shaped groove
min
Aconcrete pond which has become porous but is otherwise
intact may be repairableby using a waterproofing sealant.
The concrete surface m ust be cleaned and primed first, in
accordance w ith the instructions on the sealant.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS

Flexib le liners

Punctures or small tears in butyl and other flexible liners

can be repaired w ith patches and adhesive. Contact the
supplier of the liner for details.

Watch out for couch grass, bram ble, bamboo and other
plants which spread by underground shoots and may
puncture a flexible liner. Rem ove any that are spreading
near the edge of the pond.

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8 The planting and management
of new ponds
This chapter covers the planting and iniţial m anagement
of new ponds and other waterbodies. Apond management
plan is included on page 71.
Left unm anaged, new ponds w ill eventually support a
variety of plant and anim al species w hich will spread
naturally from other areas. This process of natural
succession is of value and interest, but may not be the best
option for most sites. N orm ally the process will be too
slow, and will leave the new pond looking unattractive for
a long period, and more Iikely to b e a target for vandalism
and dumping of rubbish. W hen vegetation does become
established, it may be dom inated by one or two species
and lack the variety of a planted pond.
Carefully planned planting will attract a range of insects,
birds.and other organisms, as w ell as im proving visual
amenity. Planting protects the edges of ponds from
erosion, and helps protect the liner from accidental and
malicious da mage. However, planting moves the pond
succession forwaxd, as the vegetative matter itself, and the
silt and other m aterial it traps, w ill reduce the volume of
water, turning small, shallow pon ds rapidly to marsh and
scrub. For most created ponds, vegetation introduction
and subsequent m anagem ent will be essential.
Iniţial planting should leave som ebare areas of mud which
are valuable invertebrate habitat, and for birds to drink
and gather m ud for nesting. Subsequent management
and use should ensure that there are always some areas
of bare mud. Beaches of gravei or rounded stones are
useful invertebrate habitat.
Preparing for planting
Soil
The new pond should have a layer of subsoil or similar
material to provide a habitat for pond organisms and
a rooting zone for plants. This layer is necessary over
concrete, flexible linings and new ly-puddled clay. Clay
is an inhospitable substrate for m ost organisms, and any
plants that do root are Iikely to damage the clay lining.
Avoid using top soil, as this is Iikely to be nutrien t-rich,
and w ill release unw anted nutrients resulting in algal
blooms and other problems. Norm ally the subsoil from
the excavation should be suitable, but avoid using very
stony subsoil or any that contains rubble or other debris. A
layer about lOOmmthick is suitable, but this canbe varied
to provide a range of conditions. The soil can either be
spread before the new pond is filled, or can be sprinkled
on the surface afterwards. Ensure that concrete is fully
'cured' before soil is introduced (p60).
Soil can also be introduced in planting baskets, or by using
some of the turves dug up during pond excavation. A turf
can be tied to a marginal or submerged rooting plant, and
then either placed or thrown into the water, where the turf
will act as a rooting medium for the plants. D on't use too
many turves, because of the enrichment they may cause.
Reefs and beaches
Underwater reefs of stones or other material which leave
gaps for newts, frogs, toads and other organisms provide
a valuable habitat. Rounded stones can be placed in piles
or ridges in deeper water, or leading up to beaches at the
w ater's edge. Stones can also be used to retain the soil on
marginal shelves. Use either large single stones, or smaller
stones built up as a 'dry' stone wall. Bricks and blocks can
also be used, but place them with plenty of gaps.
In deeper ponds, tyres c a n b e used as reefs, and to make
shelves or containers for planting.
Water quality
If the pond has a new concrete liner, test the water to check
that the pH is suitable for the type of pond you require
(p60). Initially, w ater in any type of new pond will be
turbid and may have scum on the surface, and will turn
green as algae multiply. This w ill happen rapidly in warm
weather. The w ater quality will improve as oxygenating
plants and other organisms establish. Excessive algae
growth in established ponds can be prevented (p69).
Pond plants
The following lists are of plants suitable for newly-created
ponds of between about 30-100 m2, designed for general
wildlife, amenity and education purposes. Normally variety
and diversity are the aim, but ponds or other water features
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
for particular purposes may need a particular range of plants,
or in the case of reed beds, a single species. Avoid non-nati ve
plants, and for smaller ponds, avoid the vigorous native
plants, listed below, which will rapidly fiii the pond.
In general, keep planting simple, as you want to avoid
creating a pond that w ill be choked w ith vegetation after
only a couple of seasons. Start with about 8-10 different
types of plants (not including marsh plants), see how they
establish, and then add a few more types the following
year as desired.
Pond plants are categorised according to the zone of the
pond in w hich they grow, and by the type of growth. The
following plants are fairly common, and obtainable from
suppliers of pond plants, or from nearby ponds (with
permission). Further details of plants are given in the
vegetation tables on pages 147-155. W here the species is
not given below, check in the tables for the species which
is ty picai of your area and pond conditions. Some species
are hard to identify and naming may vary according to
source! Names here and in the tables are consistent with the
Excursion Flora o f the British Isles (Clapham, AR, Tutin, TG
and Warburg, EF. Cam bridge University Press 1968)
Free floating
Bladderwort ( Ultricularia spp)
Frog-bit (.Hydrocharis morsus-ranae)
Hornwort (Ceratophyllum demersum)
Avoid the follow ing vigorous species:
Duckweed (Lemna spp)
Water fern (Azolla filiculoides)
Subm erged rooted p lan ts
Curled pondw eed (Potamogeton crispus)
Starw ort ( Callitriche spp)
Water-crowfoot (Ranunuculus aquatilis)
Water violet (Hottonia palustris)
Flo atin g-leaved rooted p lan ts
Broad-leaved pondw eed (Potamogeton natans)
Fringed water-lily (Nymphoides peltata)
E m ergen t p lan ts
Amphibious bistort (Polygonum amphibium)
Arrowhead ( Sagittaria sagittifolia )
Flowering rush (Butomus umbellatus)
Lesser spearwort (Ranunculus flammula)
Lesser w ater-plantain (Baldellia ranunculoides)
Sweet-flag (Acorus calamus )
Water plantain (.Alisma plantago-aquatica)
Watercress (Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum)
Avoid the following vigorous native species:
Com m on reed [Phragmites australis)
Greater reedm ace (Typha latifolia )
M are's tail (Hippuris vulgaris)
Unbranched bur-reed (Sparganiurn simplex)
M argin al p lan ts
Bogbean (Menyanthes trifoliata)
Brooklime ( Veronica beccabunga)
Butterbur (Petasites hybridus)
Creeping Jenny (Lysimachia nummularia)
Gipsy-wort (Lycopus europaeus)
Kingcup or marsh marigold (Caltha palustris)
M arsh cinquefoil (PotentiUa palustris)
M arsh pennywort (Hydrocotyle vulgaris)
Reed-grass (Phalaris hybridus)
Rushes (Juncus spp)
Sedges (Carex spp)
Water forget-me-not (Myosotis scorpioides)
Water mint (Mentha aquatica)
Yellow flag (Iris pseudacorus)
Yellow loosestrife (Lysimachia vulgaris)
Obtaining plants
Obtaining plants from nearby ponds and waterways is
possible, provided permission has been gained from the
owner. Depletion of existing stocks is not usually a problem,
and plants can be obtained when ponds are being cleared
of excess vegetation. Only accept plants from sources
with which you are familiar, or else you run the risk of
introducing unwanted plants and other organisms.
Pond plants can also be purchased from specialist
suppliers of aquatic plants.
P rop agation
M ost native w ater plants are easily propagated from
pieces of root, or in the case of floating plants, by simply
breaking pieces off. If plants become available before a
new pond is ready for planting, or if you wish to build up
stocks, plants can be stored or grown on in any suitable
large container, filled to the appropriate depth for the type
of plant. An old piece of liner or other large waterproof
sheet can be laid on the ground supported at the edges
by blocks or timber to make a shallow temporary pool.
Keep topped up, preferably with rainwater.
Where alarger quantity of plants are needed, some species
can be grown from seed, either propagated in a nursery,
or spread directly onto the wet margins of the pond. For
detailed information on propagation of reed for reedbed
establishment, see Hawke, CJ and Jose, PV (1996).
r
8 THE PLANTING AND M AINTENANCE OF NEW PONDS
Planting mettiods
The best planting timp is M ay/June, w hen plants will
quiddy establish. A ltem atively, choose September/
October, w hen pond clearance w ork may provide a
source of plants. Normally, planting should be done a
few weeks after the pond is constructed, having given
time for the w ater to stabilise. Ideally, the submerged
oxygenating plants should be established firstbecause of
their im portance in m aintaining w ater quality. For ponds
in school grounds, it m ay be a good idea to plant at the
end of the summer term , w hich should give the plants an
undisturbed sum m er holiday to get established.
Pond plants can be planted either directly into the soil
layer in the pond, or planted in mesh containers which
rest on the soil layer, into w hich the roots spread. The
method of construction for m ost w ildlife ponds make
containers unnecessary, as there should be suffident
depth of soil in the pond to anchor the plants. Containers
make planting easy, as they can be simply lowered into
position ready-planted. They can also help restrict the
growth of vigorous spedes, bu t are only appropriate for
small and frequently m anaged ponds, and those without
suffident soil for rooting.
An exception may be w hen planting lilies, whose vigour
is usefully controlled by a container, and w hich should
be planted below w ellie depth at 500-750mm. Line the
container w ith a piece of hessian sacking or similar, fiii
w ith garden soil, and then plant the Iily with a layer of
gravei on top to preveni the soil w ashing out. Thread t wo
lengths of strongtw îne through the container, and place in
the shallow w ater for a w eek or so to allow the leaf stems
and shoots to lengthen. Then, w ith a person standing
either side of the pond, u se the twine to low er the lily into
its final position. Puii the tw ine free. Altematively, the
planted lily can be kept in a tank or similar for a couple
of w eeks, w ith the w ater level gradually raised to its final
depth, and then lowered into the pond in one operation.
This is advisable on sites where it may be stolen from the
accessible shallows.
Other deep w ater aquatics can be planted into soil-filled
hessian bags, w eighted with som e stones. Wade in and
lower the plant into position, or throw the plant in from
the bank.
r n S p acin g
| Planting distances for em ergents and marginals depend
f ^ on the purpose o f planting. For most wildlife ponds,
^ plant in groups, w ith individual plants about 300mm
1! J (12") apart. D on't interm ix vigorous and slow-growing
types, as the latter w ill r apidly be swamped by the growth
of the former.
O n larger ponds, w here planting m aterial m ay be
insufficient to plant in one season, concentrate on getting
a few stands of vegetation growing well. These can
then be thinned out and used to plant other areas the
following season.
W here m arginal and em ergent vegetation is being
established for bankside stabilisation, plant closely at
about 200m m (8") spacings.
New reedbeds for commercial and wildlife interest are
usually planted with seedlings at lm (3') spacings, to
give full cover w ithin one year. Pots containing clusters
of seedlings will spread rapidly in all directions, and can
be spaced at 2-3m (6-10') intervals.
Achieving good w ater quality will depend on many
factors, including the nutrient status of the water, aeraţi on
and the amount of shade. As a rough guide, the following
should be suitable for a pond of about 10 m2:
3 floating leaved plants /lilies
45 submergents /oxygenators
15 emergents /marginals
Protecting new plantings
N ew plantings m ay need protecting against erosion
from m oving water, or wind-generated erosion on lakes
and ponds. Any w aterfow l will have a great impact
on new plantings of marginal and submerged plants.
Bottom -feeding fish such as carp and bream can destroy
submerged rooted plants.
Geotextile rolls (p84) or w avebarriers (p88) canbe used to
protect ne w plantings against erosion. Fence new plantings
against grazing stock, and against trampling by people.
Waterfowl m ust be fenced out using temporary fences
of chicken wire, rigid wire m esh such as rWeldmesh', or
w attle hurdles. In m ost situations this fencing must be
erected to completely enclose the plantings and prevent
access both from the bank and from the water.
To protect new submerged plants from being eaten by
dabbling waterfow l and fish, the London Lakes Project
(report due to be published in 1997) used large willow
baskets.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
Marsh and buffer zone
plants
Marsh
These plants grow in damp ground, not necessarily near
open water. They may be found in damp meadows,
marshes, ditches and near streams and ponds. The design
of a new pond can include a marsh are a, or a separate
marsh area can be constructed. See page 54, and diagrams
on pages 50 and 55.
Forget-me-not (Myosotis sp)
Greater spearw ort (Ranunculus îingua)
Hemp agrimony (Eupatorium cannabinum)
M arsh w oundwort (Stachys palustris)
M eadowsweet (Filipenduîa ulmaria )
Peppermint (Mentha x piperita)
Purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria )
Skullcap ( Scutellaria galericulata)
Spearmint (Mentha spicata)
Water speedw ell (Veronica anagallis-aquatica)
Watermint (Mentha aquatica)
Plan to complete a m arsh area in spring or autumn, and
plant immediately after completion to reduce competition
from other plants. Planting distances should be fairly
close at about 200m m (8")/ to reduce competition from
coarse grasses and other unw anted plants. If necessary,
concentrate planting in a few clumps, leaving the rest
to vegetate naturally. Once established, dig up rooted
pieces from the existing clumps, and use them for new
planting. Unwanted growth of grasses or other plants
can be dug up or sprayed w ith glyphosate as necessary.
Bare areas of m ud and small temporary pools within
the marsh are useful habitat for invertebrates and other
organisms, as well as providing a substrate for seeds to
germinate, hopefully of desirable species.
Docks, thistles, nettles and bram ble are likely to appear
fairly soon, and although they have wildlife value, you
will need to keep them under control. As a first measure,
remove the heads of unw anted plants before they seed.
Docks, nettles and some thistles can be pulled up or dug
out w hen small, but large clum ps of nettles and creeping
thistles are more difficult to deal with. Cutting with a
scythe, strimmer or m ow er w hen near full growth will
help reduce their vigour. Nettles, docks and thistles can
be killed with a translocated herbicide such as glyphosate,
but this is non-selective, so ensure the spray does not touch
any vegetation you w ant to keep. Treat in late spring,
at near m axim um growth. Bram bles are best cut back,
and the cut stems treated w ith glyphosate. For general
Information on herbicides, see page 138.
Grazing is the best way of m aintaining marshes and w et
grassland, but this is im practical for many small areas.
Otherwise, cut in late summer with a scythe, strimmer,
hover mower or w heeled rotary mower. M ake use of
any dry spells of w eather when access is easier without
causing damage to the ground.
Vegetation can also be m anaged by seasonal flooding. For
further details see Burgess, Neil and Hirons, Graham JM
(1990) and M erritt (1994).
Buffer zone
Ensure that part of the pond edge is bordered by long
grass, shrubs or other vegetation w hich discourage
access by people, and encourage access by animals. An
area fenced to exclude people and left unmanaged will
rapidly grow up w ith brambles, nettles and so on to
provide suitable cover. Once bram ble is established the
fence can be removed, and edges mowed or cut back to
prevent further spread. Alternatively, a variety of native
or introduced shrubs can be planted according to species
typical of the locality. Suitable natives include dogwood,
guelder rose, hazel, holly, butcher's broom, hawthorn,
privet, sallow and wild rose. In parks and school grounds,
garden species may be appropriate, but choose ones which
f j
have flowers or berries that are attractivc to wildlife.
Watch out for vigorous plants w ith underground stems
growing at the edge of ponds w ith flexible liners, as
the shoots can come up from underneath the liner and
puncture it. Couch grass, bramble, blackthorn, cherry
* !
and some garden plants such as bamboo and sumach
(Rhus typhina) may cause problems.
Alders and willows are typical of damp ground near natural
ponds and streams, but may not be appropriate for ground
near artificial ponds, which is likely to be free draining or
e
dry in summer. Willows and alders are fairly tolerant of
drought once established, and look right near ponds. The
normal advice is to not plant trees too near to ponds, as the
e
shade will reduce the variety of pond life attracted, and
falling leaves will hasten silting of the pond. Ho wever, shady
ponds have their own particular associated organisms, so a
choice may be made to create some shade. Shade suppresses
the growth of marginal and other aquatic plants, so slowing
the rate of succession and siltation of a pond.
Choose native tree species w hich are local to the area
and appropriate in ultimate size. Purchase young plants
(whips or transplants), plant firmly, and keep a square
metre of bare ground around the young tree for the first
few yearsby usingm ulch or herbicide ( Trees andAftercare,
BTCV, 1991). Trees and shrubs should never be planted
on earth dams, as their roots can penetrate and weaken
the dam, and the growth also disguises any early signs
of slippage or failure of the dam. Keep the dam as short,
mown grass. Trees should also not be planted within
3.5m (12') of canals, to prevent dam age to banks and lock
walls, and to allow access along towpaths.
7“i^i“ jnj~in2non]ninininin]n]ninjnj_ij'iJiî“
8 THE PLANTING AND MAINTENANCE OF NEW PONDS
O n larger ponds, lakes and gravei pits, an 'instanT
deadw oodhabitat canbe providedby hauling convenient
fallen or felled trees to the w ater's edge, and placingthem
partly into the water. The deadwood not only supports
a range of invertebrates and other organisms, but the
branches provide potenţial nesting sites for coots and
moorhens w ith sheltered w ater for their young.
Cover for hibernating toads and newts is easily provided by
leaving some piles of timber, logs, bricks, stones, leaves and
other material. If they are likely to be disturbed by vandals,
letbrambles or nettles grow over to cover. Compost heaps
attract hibernating amphibians, reptiles and other animals,
and may be used as breeding sites by slow-worms or grass
snakes. To avoid disturbinghibemating or breeding animals,
use the compost either in early spring after emergence of
hibernators (look out for spawn in the pond showing the
adults ha ve emerged) or in early autumn before hiberation.
Build at least two compost heaps.
Pond fauna
Pond organisms such as beetles, insects, snails and other
invertebrates will eventually colonise a new pond, but
this can be speeded up by bringing, w ith permission, a
few bucketfuls of pond sedim ent from a nearby healthy
pond of the type you w ish to create.
Amphibians w ill find their w ay to the pond if there is a
population in the neighbourhood. Because of the risk of
transferring 'red-Ieg' and other diseases of frogs, it is not
generally recommended to transfer spawn from one pond
to another. Your local w ildlife trust will be able to advise
on the incidence of frog diseases in your area.
M ost children are fascinated by tadpoles. Try to harness
this enthusiasm by encouraging them to protect an
establishing population against collectionby other small
children w ith jam jars! Toads will return to breed in the
pond in which they w ere tadpoles, so adult toads should
never be collected. AII native species of amphibians are
protected under the Wildlife and Countryside A ct 1981,
and itis illegal to sell adults, eggs or larvae. The natterjack
toad and great crested new t are further protected, and it
is illegal to collect or disturb them at any stage in their
life cycle. Their habitats are also protected.
It is also illegal to introduce non-native amphibians into
the wild. Some exotic species are established from earlier
introductions and escapes, along w ithterrapins and other
exotics. D on't introduce fish, as these will eat the spawn
and tadpoles of amphibians.
Ducks may be attracted to a new pond, but should not
be encouraged on ponds under about 100 m2. Ducks
look appealing, but rapidly make the water turbid by
their activity, and eat subm erged and emergent plants.
Discourage them landing by stretching strings or old
netting across the pond. Herons are usually welcome
visitors, unless the pond is stocked w ith fish, but they
do also prey on frogs. Herons can be discouraged by
placing a plastic heron (available from garden centres)
by the pond, so a heron flying overhead thinks the pond
is already occupied! Some cats will amuse themselves by
stalking and 'playing w ith' froglets and adult frogs. Try
the bucket of w ater technique.
Algae
Algae of various types that occur naturally in ponds are
an im portant part of a pond ecosystem, as they provide
food for animals at the bottom of the food chain. However,
growth can easily becom e excessive, covering the pond
surface and shading out submerged plants beneath.
A m at of algae also prevents oxygen mixing into the
water, harming aquatic life, and decaying algae further
deoxygenate the water. Am ass of algae looks unattractive,
and blocks inflow and outflow pipes. Some blue-green
algae give off harmful toxins.
Algae can be categorised into three main types, as foliows:
Filamentous algae or blanket w eed may occur in miner al-
enriched (eutrophic) water, and in clear conditions,
germinate in early spring on the pond bottom, and can
spread to quickly dominate the pond. As the plants
mature they becom e detached and float to the surface,
suspended by trapped oxygen bubbles, producing
unpleasant-smelling mats of algae.
Single-celled planktonic algae are usually mobile, swimming
to light areas of the pond. They prefer muddy, enriched
waters, such as duck ponds. Growth tends to be in brief
periods or 'blooms', usually following sudden enrichment
of the water. Blooms can harm other aquatic life.
Blue-green algae can occur in blooms that look like spilt
paint on the pond surface, or as slimy encrustations on
rocks, and despite their name, may also beyellow,red, violet
or brown. Some species produce toxins than can be fatal to
small animals and cause serious illness to humans.
For a healthy, well-balanced pond, w ith algae kept in
check, follow the guidelines below:
a A rtifidally high levels of nitrogen and phosphates
should be reduced before they reach the pond. This is
most likely to be a problem with ponds that are fed by
run-off from farmyards or fertilised farmland. Curing
the problem at source w ill require m ajor changes to
farming practice and land drainage, which may not
be possible. Either divert the run-off a way from the
pond and use w ater from another source, or divert
the run-off into a reedbed and then into the pond. The
reedbed (p l45) will take up a large proportion of the
nutrients, as well as various pollutants.
WATERWAYS & WETLANDS
b Existing high nutrient levels in the pond can be
reduced by cleaning out accumulated silt in autumn.
Any disturbance will initially release nutrients and
possibly cause a brief bloom , but levels will drop as
the pond settles.
c Ensure there is a good species mix and number of
oxygenating plants, w hich compete with the algae
for nutrients. About one third of the pond surface
should be shaded by floating leaved plants (p66) or
by trees. Em ergent vegetation provides a habitat for
algae-grazers such as w ater fleas (Daphnia).
d Avoid attracting ducks to the pond, and don't feed any
existing ducks or fish in the pond. Fish eat daphnia,
thus reducing a control agent of algae.
e If blooms do occur, algae can be raked out as a
temporary measure. Leave the algae beside the pond
for a day or so, to allow mobile organisms to return
to the pond. Then compost the algae well away from
the pond, to avoid run-off washing nutrients back in to
the pond as the algae decays.
f Aerate the pond to increase the levels of oxygen.
Fountains and waterfalls are the method for garden
ponds. In large ponds and lakes, aerators linked to air
compressors can be installed in the bed of the lake.
These bring the w ater from the bottom to the surface,
increasing the level of dissolved oxygen and allowing
the aerobi cbreakdow n of organic m atter from the lake
bed. Where fish are present, oxygenated w ater is vital
for their survival, especially in warm weather. The
London Lakes Project (report to be published inl997)
has installed 16 aerators in the 6 hectare (14 acre)
Battersea Park Lake, resulting in an improvement in
the water quality.
Barley straw
As a further preventative measure, the use of barley straw to
control algae isa well-established technique, developedby
the Aquatic Weeds Research Unit and others. It is effective
inflow ingand still water bod ies, large and small, including
reservoirs, lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.
W aterlogged, deqomposing barley straw gives off a
substance w hich inhibits algal growth and reduces its
spread, but does not dam age other pond organisms. The
anti-algal activity requires warm temperatures, a high
level of dissolved oxygen in the water, and sufficient
sunlight on the w ater surface. The anti-algal effect starts
about one month after the straw has been put in the water,
and lasts about six months. There is no evidence of adverse
effects, except where excessive doses of at least 100 times
recommended levels have caused deoxygenation of the
water. If the straw starts to smell there is too m uch straw
in too little w ater and the straw should be removed.
The submerged straw attracts and supports invertebrates,
which may inturnsupportgreater populaţi ons of tadpoles,
fish and other organisms, butbecause of increased vigour
of plants and animals, appears to keep the ecosystem in
balance. Suppression of the algae allows emergent and
submerged plants to recolonise, w hich in turn suppress
the algae so the need for straw treatment declines.
A p p lica tio n rate
An application rate of about lOg per m2 of water is
suggested. For many garden and wildlife ponds this will
only am ountto a few handfuls. A pile of loose straw about
300 x 300 x lOOmm (L x 1' x 4") weighs about lOOg (4oz).
The anti-algal effect is strongest if the straw is floating, with
plenty of oxygenated water around it, and not touching
the mud. Put the straw loosely into a plastic mesh sack,
such as an onion sack, with a plastic bottle or ball in it to
act as a float, and then anchor it by a string and weight
so that it floats just below the surface. Place it near the
inflow where w ater m ovem ent is higher. On ponds over
about 50 m2, make two or more nets and anchor them
at regular intervals around the pond, avoiding the most
sheltered and still areas of the pond.
water surface .
weighh £ IL
O nlarger ponds, the rate is equivalent tofivenorm al-size
25 kg bales per hectare of w ater surface. The straw can
be retained behind a screen forming a loose dam at the
point of inflow, so that oxygenated water is continually
flowing through it.
T im in g
Straw should be applied in late autumn or very early
spring, so that it is activated by the time algal growth
starts in late spring. Further applications should be
made at six-monthly intervals in autumn or spring. Algal
growth can recover quickly once the straw has lost its
effect at about six months, or if it rots away completely.
It's therefore im portant to leave the old straw in place
for at least a m onth after the new straw is put in, and to
im mediately add more if the straw rots away before six
months. The following tim etable is suggested:
February-April Is t application
Sept-Nov 2nd application
r
p 8
Febxuary-April 3rd applicatîon and remove
Is t application
Sept-Nov 4th application and remove
2nd application, etc.
I£ dense mats of algae already exist, the anti-algal activity
will only be eflrective on the area closest to the straw. Using
more straw at this time may worsen the problem. The advice
is to rake off as much algae as possible, apply straw at the
normal rate, and then rake off again after about six weeks.
In the autumn start a regular programme of prevention.
Information sheets givingfurther advice are available from
the Centre for Aquatic Plant M anagement (pl61).
Pond management plan
The following is a general outline for managing a wildlife
pond for amenity and educaţional use. Other ponds may
be left to their own devices, or managed for particular
purposes such as wildfowl or fishing. Any plan should be
flexible, and take account of the varying ways in which a
pond may develop.
1 Remove anyrubbish from the pond as soon as you notice
it, before it attracts any more.
2 M ow or scythe any areas of long grass or wild flower
meadow in late snmmer, to prevent them becoming
grown o verwith woody plants. Mow other areas of grass
required for access more frequently as required. Avoid
any mow irig during the period when y oung frogl ets are
emerging from the pond.
3 Weed and mulch any newly planted shrubs or trees in
the buffer zone adjacertt to the pond.
4 Autumn leaves falling or blowing into the pond will
increase the rate o f siltation. Each autumn, rake off
floating leaves, and remove some of those that settle on
thebottom.
5 From aboutFebruary onwardsinthe south, and somewhat
Iater in nortly look out for frogspawn, toadspawn and
adult amphibians in the pond. A walk around the pond
on a mild night witfo a torch should hopefully show a
mass of amphibian activity. Early spring is a good time
for observing life in the pond, as the water is dear and
not yet obscured by marginal and aquatic growth, and
the newts, frogs and toads still are very active.
6 Apply barley straw (see above) between February and
April as a preventative measure against excessive algal
blooms. This îs easy to do, and is probably worth doing
routinely each year. Even if the weather conditions for
■
9 an algal binom do nofcthenmaterialise, the rotting barley
straw will prove a magnet to invertebrate larvae and
tadpoles.
5 9
THE PLANTING AND M AINTENANCE OF NEW PONDS
7 Check the survival of any marginal and aquatic plants
planted the previous year. If the survival rate is poor,
try and establish what has gone w rong before doing
any replanting. Grazing by waterfowl may be the
cause, or fish may have been put into the pond by other
people, to the detrim ent of aquatic plant growth.
8 Observe the w ater levels during the year. Fluctuation
and even drying out are not necessarily a problem, as
many organisms can survive temporary drying out.
Dry conditions also oxidise bottom sediments and
allow accum ulated silt to blow away, so lengthening
the time before the pond silts up. If w ater is needed
throughout the year for fish or for other reasons, check
for leaks and repair as necessary, or increase the supply
of w ater to the pond in following years.
9 Observe the amount of free-floating and floating-leaved
rooted plants covering the pond during the middle
of the summer. A new pond should not normally be
completely covered in its first year, but older ponds
are not necessarily 'overgrow n' even if there is little
or no open w ater by the m iddle of the summer. As
necessary, remove some of the growth in late summer
as it begins to die down to prevent it rotting down and
enriching the pond.
lO D epen d in g on the original planting density, the
marginal vegetation canbe left for two or three years to
establish. Leave the dead stems and leaves over winter.
There are various regimes by which the vegetation can
then be managed. One option is to clear patches each
autumn in rotation, so that there is always a succession
developing from bare mud.
clear patches in
, annual rotation
.V ear!
¥
pond
/ 2
beach, clear
annualiy as
nece ssa ry ţj\î^r ^ y/r
v n 1
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
Another approach is to clear marginal vegetation from
its 'invading front', onthe inner side of the mar gin. This
Ieaves the landward side as undisturbed habitat. This
method may be the best to use where it is im portant to
keep a solid margin of vegetation to discourage access
to the pond.
On a larger pond, both approaches can be used in different
parts of the pond.
11 Trampling by pond dipping parties or others can be
useful in keeping margrns open, and m aintainingbare
mud or shingle. Encourage or discourage trampling
as necessary by use of fencing.
12 If marginal plants start spreading noticeably from the
margins of the pond into the centre, action will need
to be taken to remove them. Accumulated silt, or a
low ering of the average w ater level may be the reason.
Silt should be dug out in late autumn (see Chapter
9), clearing only a part of the pond in a season. A
lowering of the w ater level m ay be due to lowering of
the w ater table, reduced flow into the pond or a leak in
an artificial lining. Repair leaks and improve the flow
if possible. A natural pond which is drying out due
to lowering of the w ater table can be dug deeper, but
check ground w ater levels before you start digging.
It may be best to leave it to its fate.
13 C heck dipping platform s, bridges or any other
structures to make sure they are safe. Replace any
damaged decking. Keep fences in good repair.
9 Pond and waterway restoration

This chapter discusses methods of digging out and
clearing mud, silt, ooze and rubbish from waterways
and ponds that require restoration. Vegetation dearance
may be required at the sam e tim e. Details on vegetation
m anagem ent are given in Chapter 14.
hidden debris. Follow safety advice, and take care to
avoid back injury. Note the symptoms of Weils Disease
and Hepatitis A, and take measures to prevent infection
(p39). Avoid w orking close to blue green algae (p69), and
wash off any that comes in contact with the skin.

Silted ponds and other w aterw ays have their own

ecological value, and d earance should not be considered Timing the work
as the only course of action. W here there is the option
to create new ponds nearby, a silted pond can be left Periodic digging out or dredging may be needed on
to develop through its natural succession. However, small ponds and sluggish ditches and streams. In general,
often there is not the option of alternative space, and dearance is bestd onein autumn, when any adverse effects
restoring the existing pond or waterway is the only way on wildlife associated with the pond or waterway will
of maintaining the habitat type. be minimised. Water levels should be near their lowest,
making work easier, and conditions for working are still
Restoration may be done for any of the following reasons: pleasant. Em ergent vegetation will be dying down, and
excess growth can be pulled or dug out.
a Diversifying habitat and im proving conditions for
wildlife by rem oving deep bottom muck, silt or dense P on d s
stands of dom inant vegetation.
Village ponds or those in fields or on commons with
b Preventing ecological succession due to silt buildup eutrophic w ater sources may need some dearance every
and in vasionby reeds and scrub, where such succession few years. M anage areas inrotation, clearing no more than
is undesirable. half the pond in one season, and then leaving it for at
least a year before the other half is touched. Other ponds
c Elim inating pollution caused by rubbish and toxic may be regularly managed each year, clearing sections
materials in the bottom sediments. in rotation to maintain a range of conditions from bare
mud to thick em ergent vegetation (p71).
d Improving the flow capacity of a waterway where this
is limited due to siltation or obstruction.
PLAN
e Controlling the current where this has led to scouring
and erosion, or silting and excess vegetation growth. D ra in a g e d itch es 5yr IOyrt random
rota [■ion rotcifion strips
f Controlling access by people or predators to islands Artificial drainage yr1 yrl Wklf/
and other sanctuary areas. ditches need dredging
periodically to prevent 2 2 pool
g Improving amenity. W aterways with public access them silting up. Long
o2 32
are often littered and unattractive. Rubbish dearance or short rotations can i# w/..
and other im provem ents for wildlife also encourage be used, dredging 1 4-
people to enjoy and look after such areas. from different sides pool
alternately, or clearing 2 S
sections in rotation.
3 b
The aim is to create
Factors to consider a varied structure 1 7
with the full range of 1
conditions from newly 2 8
Safety cleared to silted. * a«
Another regime leaves
Before tackling any w ork by hand, consider using a random strips to 1 10
machine to do the heavy work. Clearing and digging out create a series of small
muck and vegetation is potentially hazardous because pools. For further details see 'widfh ^
of the com bination of mud, water, slippery slopes and Kirby (1992). of ditch
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
W atercou rses
Slowflowingstreams andrivers may need periodic dear ance,
depending on various factors including amount of rainfall,
inddence of storms, aquatic and bankside vegetation, and
changes upstream which may alter the flow. 'In-channel'
works can include removal of recently deposited silf, and
also the rem oval or redistribution of gravei. For more details
•see RSPB, NRA and RSNC (1994).
Feasibility
Consider these questions:
a How big is the area to be dug out or cleared?
An area just 9 x 9m (30 x 30') and 600mm (2') deep
in silt provides about 60 tonnes of spoil, enough fo
fiii 2,500 buckets, or two tipper lorries.
b How m uch w ater m ay have to be drained before
bottom clearance can begin?
c How much time must be allowed for preliminary work
such as construction of coffer dams or iniţial drainage?
d How deep is the bottom m uck and how difficult will
it be to work in? Test the w ork area and follow the
safety precautions on page 39.
e Is there adequate access and support for any mechanical
equipm ent needed?
f If a pum p is used, w here w ill the water or slurry be
discharged? Is there any dan ger of runoff into adjacent
property?
g Can spoil be disposed of effectively and without
damage to other areas?
Minimising harmful side effects
a Never clear an entire pond in one season. At the m ost
work on half, and allow that to recover before touching
the remainder. For m anaged ponds and waterways,
limited annual m aintenance is better than a major
clean out every few years.
b Unless the pond or w aterw ay is completely lifeless
from pollution, the bottom mud will contain pond
organisms. Leave some undisturbed. The sediment in
dried out ponds will contam dormant seeds, so if you
are relining the pond, set aside some of the sediment
for use in the new pond.
c Undrained, stagnant or eutrophic waterways should
be disturbed as little as possible inhot weather. Bottom
sediments contain locked-in organic m atter which, if
suddenly stirred into the water, may promote an algal
bloom or directly low er the w ater's oxygen content.
If clearance is necessary at this time, try to confine
activities to only a quarter or so of the area in any
day. W here waterways are seriously polluted w ith
toxic metals or other material, complete and thorough
clearance of the bottom muck should be take by the
Environment Agency or equivalent. Volunteers should
not work where toxic materials are present.
d Take great care not to damage a puddled day bottom
by digging into it or letting it dry out.
e M inimise the effects of trampling around the waterway
by limiting access for w orking to a few defined routes.
Pro vide scaffold boards or other temporary walkways
as necessary.
f Avoid smothering the bank w ith sediment. As work
proceeds, pile the mud, rhizomes and vegetation into
a few locations along the edge of the bank. Leave for
a while to let the w ater drain back into the pond, and
to allow some of the mobile pond organisms to escape
back into the pond. Then fork or shovel the spoil clear
of the bank for removal (see below).
g Choose the driest bank from which to work, if possible.
This is not only easier, but a dry bank is less sensitive
to disturbance, and often less ecologi cally valuable,
than the wetter margins.
h M arshy areas at the edge of a pond are a valuable part
of the ecosystem. Only clear out what is necessary to
prevent the pond silting up. If silting is a problem,
consider installing a silt trap at the inflow point.
i D on 't drain a pond except as a last resort.
Disposal of spoil
a To minimise handling, put spoil into the ultimate disposal
carrier as near as possible to where it is dug up.
b If spoil is to be left on site, place it where it can't be
w ashed back into the w aterw ay or pond by rain. D on't
change the na ture or profile of the bankby piling up the
spoil, unless this is part of the management scheme.
c Some spoil can be TosT by using it as the basis for islands
or causeways. Within the site, spoil can be used to create
banks or other features, or to repair areas eroded of soil.
d Make sure you have perm ission from the landowner
or relevant authority before tipping onto another
property. Roots of marginal plants contained in spoil
will regenerate if the spoil is spread on damp ground,
w hich may be undesirable. Silt containing vegetation
m atter spread onto cultivated, free-draining land

should not cause any problems. See also requirements
of the Environm ental Protection Act (page 37).
e W here the spoil is contaminated, or contains a lot of
rubbish and debris, it w ill need to be tipped into skips
or trailers for disposal. Check w ith the local authority
about arrangem ents for disposal.
f W here clearance involves flushing sediments down-
stream, the Environm ent Agency should b e consulted
because of possible siltation downstream. The use of
'Sedimats' (pl31) isbeing developed to trap waterborne
sediments.
Clearing rubbish
Organisation
a Prior organisation is crucial to the success of large-scale
clean-up campaigns. Along a stream, river or canal,
organise rubbish collection points at bridges or other
access points. M ake sure there is a person in charge
at each collection point throughout the day.
b D ivide the volunţeers into teams, each responsible
for a stretch of the waterway. Very large items which
cannot easily be m oved should be noted, and then
collected later by a team equipped with a winch.
c Arrange for skips or other contain ers to be removed as
soon as possible, and preferably at the end of the day
to avoid rubbish ending up back in the w aterw ay
Procedural points
a Gloves should be worn. Watch out for broken glass, rusty
tins, barbed wire and other sharp objects. These are best
collected into a rigid container such as a dustbin, and
then tipped into the skip at the collection point. D on't
put them into bin bags w ith mixed rubbish where they
can cause injury to someone carrying the bag.
b Small items canbe collected in strong bin bags or fertili ser
sacks. Depending on the volume of rubbish and the
available labour, tins, plastic bottles, glass bottles and
other items canbe put into separatebags for recycling as
they are collected, with one person collecting each type
of item. Otherwise, just put everything in together for
disposal. In winter, check tins and bottles for hibernating
amphibians. Keep an eye out for old bottles which may
have some antique value.
c Larger items of scrap m etal are w orth collecting for
recycling. Order a separate skip for scrap metal, or
if you find more than you expect, pile it up at the
collection point for removal.
9 POND & WATERWAY RESTORATION
d D rag out heavy items with a w inch and cable. M ake
sure the cable or chain is secure, and that the route is
clear of snags before winching in. Once the item is up
on the bank, leave it to drain for a few minutes before
m oving it farther. This lightens it, and gives aquatic
organisms a chance to escape in the runoff water.
e Puddled ponds m ay have a proiective layer of gravei,
paving slabs or bricks over the clay lining. D on't puii
these out as rubbish.
Digging out muck
Water depth, bottom conditions, bank profile and other
features should be assessed carefully when the work is
planned. See also the information on plankways and
organising group w ork on pages 43-44.
Using a spade
a Clean, sharp-edged digging tools workbetter than rusty
dull ones. In sticky ooze or clay the small trenching spade
works well, but heavy-duty garden spades are best for
most conditions. Dip the blade in water occasionally to
help keep material from sticking to it.
b Choose a w ork area on w hich to concentrate. Start
near the edge where the spoil is to be removed and
work outwards, to avoid trampling the uncleared area,
churning it up and m aking it harder to dig.
c Cut down with the spade and work along, keeping a
clean edge. Where there are several layers of sediment
such as leaf-m ould on silt on ooze, cut out each layer
step-fashion. Be sure to cut to the desired bottom
m aterial before moving on.
d Learn to recognise the true bottom material and avoid
cutting too deeply. Puddled clay may be red-brown,
yellow, blue or pale grey and is hard to shovel. Watch
out for any signs of a gravei, stone or brick lining
over the clay A natural bottom of gravei may grade
less perceptibly into the deposited sediments, but as
long as you have removed the thick smothering ooze
and silt the job is done. In peat, the bottom may be
difficult to recognise, and being soft, is easily disturbed.
Peat is spongy and fibrous, whereas silt and ooze are
composed of superfine particles.
e In loose sand or gravei a shovel is quicker to use than
a spade. Compacted sandy or gravelly soil should be
loosened first w ith a mattock. A shovelling board is
useful for clearing stones. Any flat piece of sheet metal
or plywood will do, placed on the bottom and butted
up against the edge of the material to be cleared. Cut
down and puii the material onto the shovelling board,
and then scoop up the m aterial from the board.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
f The average person can throw the first metre or so of
spoil onto the bank. Beyond that, a w heelbarrow team
will be needed.
Using buckets
A bucket chain is one of the easiest ways to remove muck
where you have plenty of volunteers, Supply adequate
buckets, of the heavy-duty rubber type. With teams of
four people, one can shovel, two pass in chain, and one
empty.
As the distance increases, or the mud becomes too sticky
to easily move about in, more people will be needed
to make a chain. Take care w hen passing from one to
another, and m ove your feet rather than reaching too
far, to avoid possible back injury. The buckets should
only be half full.
If the mud sticks in the buckets when they are emptied,
add some w ater in the bottom each time before filling.
Shovel and wheelbarrow teams
With efficient team-work, this system moves the spoil
more quickly than using buckets. The optimum is a
barrow and barrow er for every two shovellers, the
shovellers being stationed. either side of the barrow run.
6 — ■
There should be enough barrows so that an empty one
is always ready to move into position as soon as the
one in front is full. It is useful to have a cross-plank to
support the barrow w hile it is being filled, thus giving
the barrow er a rest.
Pushing barrow s is exhausting, so sw itch positions
frequently. Barrows can be helped up banks with a hook
and rope (p44).
PLAN Barrows
Always checkthe planks are well seated and free of stones
and mud, to make barrow ing easier. If the bank is not
suitable for a circular run, or it is im portant to minimise
bank disturbance, an 'in and out' system can be used.
PLAN
Pumping water and sludge
Consider the following factors:
a It is best to restrict the use of pumping, drainage or
diversion to sites where the bottom ooze is so deep
or the w ater so turbid that little aquatic vegetation is
found during the growing season. Elsewhere, other
methods should b e considered which are likely to have
a less drastic effect on aquatic life.
£
b Pro vide for the water to run off safely without damage
to land or water of ow ner's downslope. Do not just pour
it out over the land, unless you are sure the volume
£
involved will not drown or smother vegetation, cause
23
erosion, or pollute other water supplies. W here a road
borders the site y ou can pum p out into the road drains,
provided you are pum pîng ortly unpolluted water,
and not sludge. M ake sure the drains don't empty
back into the site a few metres further on.
= 3
c Check man-m ade ponds for drains through w hich the
w ater can be released. O ther w aterw ays m ay have
natural cut-off points where w ater can be diverted
= 3
into another channel. These may make pumping out
urmecessary, or reduce the am ount of w ater to be
=d pumped.
d în some situations, such as a small pond on a higher
level than an adjacent channei, it may be possible to
siphon out the w ater instead of using a pump. Use
plastic hose-pipe about 37m m (1.5") in diameter. The
outflow point m ust be low er than the intake.
O ne method is to put the pipe over the bank so that its
outlet is in position. Put an airtight plug in the outlet
and fiii the hose with water from the pond. W hen it
is overflowing, put your hand tightly over the intake
end and put it quickly under water. Take the plug out
to start the siphon. working.
e After draining or diverting as m uch water as possible
by other means, the rem aining volum e will need to be
pumped. Once the water has been drained or pumped
out, cut channels and a sump in the bottom m uck to
allow further drainage. Do not cut into an artificial
lining.
f Let the w aterw ay dry out for an adequate time before
beginning hand clearance of the bottom muck.
Choosing a pump
a Where the need is to remove water, the pump must
get it out faster than it seeps in elsewhere. The rate of
leakage through coffer dams or inlet sluices must be
estimated before assuming that the pump can cope.
Manufacturer's claimsof pumping ability shouldbe taken
as the maximum possible under ideal conditions.
b A pum p w hich can keep a site dry once drained m ay
r7 *9 be inadequate to pum p it out in the first place. It may
be worth hiring a bigger pum p for the iniţial clearance,
and use a sm aller one to keep the site dry.
r ^
c Check the head capacity of the pump, that is the vertical
i:
i
height of w hich it is capable of pum ping water. Ensure
this m eets the conditions on site. The pump w ill need
sufficient length of inlet and outlet hose.
d Check w hether the pum p needs to cope with varying
water levels, which m ay leave the inlet sometimes
exposed to the air.
*3
9 POND & WATERWAY RESTORATION
e Pumps increase in size and weight as the hose diameter
increases. Pumps are supplied with a carrying handle,
full cradle or w heeled dolly as appropriate. A 50mm
(2") pump is easily handledby two workers, and canbe
carried across boggy ground without trouble. An 80mm
(3") pump canbe shiftedby severa!peopletogether, and
is the size most often used on conservation projects.
f Pumpsmaybedieselorpetrol-fuelled.Thebiggerpumps
tend to be diesel-fuelled, and can run for around eight
hours without being refuelled, allowing use ovemight
to keep an area free of seepage for example.
g Standard w ater pumps are designed to pump water
only. Trash or sludge pumps can handle solids up to
about25mm (1") diameter, and are suitable for pumping
out dirty water and sludge. Do not use a pump for sea
water, unless the pump has corrosion protection.
h For major sludge clearance, it may be worth hiring
a larger machine. M ost large farms and agricultural
contractors have tractor-operated slurry tanks w ith
pumps and spreaders, that can handle wet sludge.
A 'gulley deaner' is a pump-lorry combination used
by local authorities and waste disposal companies for
dearing drains and septic tanks. Contact local plant
hire contractors and agricultural contractors to find out
what is avaiîable in your area.
For further details of pum ps used for conservation
management, see Burgess, N eil and Hirons, Graham JM
(1990). Two leading manufacturers of pumps are Sykes
and Honda (pl63), w ith hire, sales and service avaiîable
throughout the UK.
Using a pump
Note the follow ing general guidelines for the use of
portable pumps. Follow m anufacturer's instructions for
use and maintenance, or obtain instructions o n u se from
the plant hire company.
a Pumps must always be sited on firm, level ground,
which may require the placing of atem porary platform
in muddy, soft or sloping conditions.
b Position the pump as close as possible to the water, since
the shorter the inlet hose the better the vacuum.
c Check that the outlet hose has no kinks in it. Once the
pump starts, keep an eye on the outlet hose to ensure
that w ater flow is unrestricted.
d Check that the engine has sufficient fuel and oii of the
appropriate type.
e Prim e the pump as necessary, and drain the w ater in
the pum p after use.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
f After use, w ind up the outlet hose so that the pump
connector ends up on the outside of the roii, for easy
attachment next time of use.
S a fe ty g u id e lin e s
a Due to danger of exhaust gases, do not use a pump
in confined spaces. For operating, place the pump at
least 1 metre from walls or buildings.
b Do not operate near vehicles or flammable objects.
c Do not reptenish fuel during operation.
d Ensure the pum p cannot tip over or drag during
operation.
Mechanical excavation
Excavators and other large m achines are not just used by
developers and drainage engineers, but are now widely
used for the m anagem ent of w aterw ays and wetlands
for the benefit of environm ental interests. They not only
allow periodic dredging and other maintenance work
to be done, but are also essential for large-scale schemes
such as the restoration of reedbeds/ tidal marshes and
w et grasslands. W ork m ay include digging dykes,
constructing banks or bunds, digging ser ape s, or in the
case of reedbeds, an overall low ering of the ground level
over several hectares or more. This type of habitat creation
or restoration w ork is only possible through the use of
heavy machinery.
Details and case studies are given in the The New Rivers
and Wildlife Handbook (RSPB, NRA and RSNC, 1994);
ReedhedManagement (RSPB, 1996); Wetlands, îndustryand
Wildlife (The W ildfowl and Wetlands Trust, 1994); and
Enact (Voi. 3, No 1,1995).
In choosing machinery, the following factors need to be
taken into account:
a Access m ust be suitable, with sufficient clearance
height and width, and suitable ground conditions.
M achines can w ork on mats of expanded metal mesh,
to prevent them sinking in soft conditions. Access
routes should avoid vulnerable habitats. For river and
stream management, some smaller machines can track
along the bed of shallow, firm-bedded rivers, up to
about 300m m water depth. This reduces disturbance
to riverside habitats.
b Dredgers and other m achinery can work from floating
platforms in still w ater or slow flowing rivers.
c The reach o f the excavator arm must be sufficient for
excavating and disposing of the spoil. Usually bigger
machines with a longer reach are more efficient, as
they are capable of doing more work without moving
position, compared with a smaller machine,
d The experience and skills of the machinery operator
are vital for the success of the scheme. In most cases,
land m anaging authorities use local contractors
who become experienced w ith particular sites and
conditions.
1 0 Banks, revetments and access
Bank creation and
stabilisation
Banks m ay need creating or stabilising for various
reasons, listed below. The m ethod of construction, called
a revetment, is basically the same w hether the bank is
being stabilised, relocated or created. Similar techniques
can be used for constructing shelves near w ater level
for marginal and em ergent plants, w hich will greatly
reduce bank erosion. Any bank stabilisation w ork should
be linked closely w ith vegetation establishment and
management (Chapters 8 and 14). High banks can be
stabilised by two or more lines of revetments. A variety
of structures are detailed below, any of which may be
suitable. The choice w ill normally be made according to
the location, materials available and access.
Reasons for bank creation and stabilisation include:
a Erosion of the existing bank. This may be due to
pressure of people or anim als destroying the bankside
vegetation, due to wave action from boats, or from
development upstream causing changes in w ater flow
or silt deposition. Protection is particularly im portant
where erosion is threatening local property or bankside
paths. Norm ally protection or rebuilding of the bank
along its existing line is required.
b Bankrealignm entorchannelnarrow ingm aybeneeded
where reduction in flows due to w ater abstraction
or changes in w eather patterns have resulted in the
channel being too wide for the new w ater level. This
can cause a particular problem in chalk streams, where
the w ater flow thenbecom es insufficientto keep gravei
beds clear of silt, to the detriment of flora and fauna.
channel narrowed and
c Pond, lak e or islan d creatio n m ay require the
construction of revetted or stabilised banks, either where
there is insufficient space for gently sloping banks, or
where steeper probies are required for pond dipping or
visitor access.
d Stabilisation or revetment may be needed near bridges
or other man-m ade structures.
e Bankside diversification. M any artificial banks, either
uniform and steeply sloping earth banks, or vertical
revetments, can be improved by the creation of bays,
ledges and other features to increase habitat diversity.
See p87.
f H istoric features. M ills and other old w aterside
developments include revetted banks, leats, weirs and
other features. As well as their historic value, many of
these sites have developed into valuablehabitats. Bank
repairs and other work m ay be needed to keep them
in working condition, and to maintain their wildlife
value.
Factors to consider
The following points should be considered:
a Is the w ork necessary? Bank erosion, together with
movement of sediments and deposition, is a natural
WATERWAYS & W ETEANDS
process. If erosion is not a threat to property, and is
not apparently causing adverse changes elsewhere,
then it may be best to take no action. After a period of
erosion, the bank m ay settle to a more resistant profile,
with consequent vegetation re-establishment.
b Some steep and apparently vulnerable banks, in hard
clays, cohesi ve gravels and sandstones, are in fact quite
stable. Vertical sandy cliffs m ay provide nesting sites
for sand martins. Eroding areas under mature trees are
valuable nesting sites for otters and other mammals.
Bare areas of mud, silt and gravei are im portant for
invertebrates, and as loafing and basking sites for
other animals. M ature trees that fall into the water
due to bankside erosion are especially valuable in
providing nesting sites and shelter for young birds
and animals.
c Is the w ork feasible? In flow ing water, the erosive
force may be too great for any w ork which volunteers
could undertake. Changes upstream from building
development or other factors may also mean that any
balancing work downstream will need to be of an equal
scale. Take advice from the Environment Agency and
local authority as appropriate.
d W herebankstabilisationisneededtoprotectabankside
path, it may be possible to relocate the path further
back from the bank. W here the path is a right of way,
a Diversion Order will be necessary. Contact the local
authority for advice.
e Use local m aterials w herever possible, both to save
transport, and to produce an environmentally sound
and aesthetically pleasing result. Even in m ajor
engineering schemes, the trend is now away from
'hard' revetments, using concrete, Steel piling and
other reinforced techniques, and towards using 'soft'
revetm ent techniques, inclu d ing w illow spiling,
vegetation and geotextiles. The type of location will
suggest w hat is appropriate. In upland streams and
water bodies, rock is the natural material, either placed
informally to reproduce a natural feature, or used
in constructed revetm ents or gabions (see below).
M arginal vegetation is usually naturally sparse. In
low land areas, tim ber revetm ents or geotextiles,
together w ith m arginal vegetation, is the usual
solution.
f Găining sufficient bulk material for backfil ling behind
revetments is often a major consideration. Bank repair
work is usually combined w ith dredging or other
w orks nearby, w hich produces suitable m aterial
for backfilling. Indeed this type of work may be
interdependent, as disposal of spoil is also a major factor
in the feasibility of dredging and other operations. Bank
reprofiling, island creation and other work is nearly
alway s a 'cu t and filT operation, involving the localised
rearrangem ent of bulk material.
Wooden revetments
a If you have a choice, use oak or elm for durability.
A lderrem ains durable if submerged, so is suitable for
making marginal shelves. Otherwise use whatever is
available locally, and try to combine stabilisation work
w ith pollarding, coppicing or felling in the vicinity.
b Do not apply creosote or other preservative, as it will
pollute the water. Old pressure-treated timbers such
as sleepers and sluice boards can safely be used, as
excess preservative will have weathered off.
c D on't bother to debark timber, unless you w ant to
prevent the sprouting of willow stakes and branches.
The ability of willow to regrow can be very useful in
stabilising banks (see below).
d AII wire, Staples, nails and other fittings should be
galvanised for durability.
e Do not drive stakes into puddled clay bottoms of ponds,
canals or other artificial waterbodies. Even if you have
been told the bottom is naturally impermeable, it is
always worth checking for the tell-tale sticky red-
brown, yellow, blue or pale grey clay beneath the silt
or gravei top layer.
S ta k e or tim b e r p ilin g s
Wooden pilings can be placed vertically or slanting.
The design shown is suitable for revetting banks where
erosion is m ainly due to trampling along bankside paths,
or at access points along waterways or around ponds. It
is particularly used where space on the bank is limited,
and any further erosion would, for example, cause loss
of access. The steep profile does not encourage growth
of marginal vegetation, but shelves can be constructed
below the pilings to allow vegetation growth as required.
Wooden pilings of this type are unlikely to be robust
enough to withstand the erosive forces of fast-flowing
SECTION
e? ■
i
<?
c?
£
 10 BANKS, REVETM ENTS AND ACCESS

water. Any marginal vegetation that can be established
will help protect the pilings. This type of revetment is
easier to construct if the stakes are straight and of an even
diameter. Saw n tim ber such as old railway sleepers or
sluice boards can also be used.
1 Cut stakes of sufficient length that half the stake is
driven into the bottom of the waterway. The height
above w ater w ill depend on the purpose of the
revetment and expected m axim um w ater levels.
2 Start the post holes w ith a crowbar. Then place the
stakes shoulder to shoulder, and drive them in with
a meii. Staple a galvanised wire along the face of the
revetment to discourage vandalism.
3 Fiii in behind w ith gravei or stony spoil that will not
w ash through the gaps, and com pact with a tamper.
A geotextile (p84) can be used behind the stakes to
retain the spoil.
situations vegetation will naturally regenerate from
the seed source w ithin the spoil or from nearby, but
selected vegetation can be planted as required.
6 M arginal vegetation can be established on shelves
con stru cted b en eath v ertical or steeply sloping
revetments. Construct the shelf just above normal
w ater level, to encourage the grow th of typical
marginal vegetation. Intermittent flooding will reduce
the incidence of unwanted weedy species. If there is
marginal vegetation upstream, the newly created shelf
should rapidly becom e colonised from waterborne
seeds and rhizomes. Elsewhere, marginal vegetation
can be planted by hand. This technique may be
suitable for riverbanks or lakeshores. It can also be
used to im prove the w ildlife value and enhance the
appearance of artificial concrete or other channels,
where the resulting reduction in flow capacity is not
a problem.

Stake and eth er revetm en ts

This design can be adapted to use varying sizes of timber,

branches, brushw ood and coppice material as available.
Select the straightest material for stakes, and cut to a
suitable length for the height of revetment required.

1 Drive in the stakes at intervals of about a metre. Drive

them tilting slightly towards the bank to allow for some
movement w hen the material behind is compacted.

2 Rem ove side branches from trunks, and cut up

branched material so that it lies neatly w hen piled concrefe
behind the stakes. Use the largest material at the base.
Overlap the ends of the poles and branches to avoid
creating weak points in the structure.

3 Wire the upper poles or branches to the stakes to 7777777777777Z

discourage vandalism.

TOP VIEW
5p^>il .,^bank
W ired log rev etm en t

I Z T O ------- This design produces a sloping bank w hich should

b ra n ch e s OAc stake rapidly vegetate and stabilise. If willow is used, this will
sprout and root to provide long-term stabilisation. Use
SECTION short stakes w ith wires to secure the material in position.
spoil
Logs, branches or bundles of brushwood can be used as
branches
available.
stake

4 Deposit spoil behind the revetm ent and compact with

a tamper.

5 If possible, erect tem porary fencing to p rev en t

trampling and grazing of the restored bank, and leave
in position until vegetation is well established. In most
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
Willow
W illow sp ilin g
This is a woven structure, using the ancient technique for
building wattle walls and fences. If freshly cut willow is
used, it w ill root to produce a 'living' revetment.
Crack willow (Salix fragilis) or w hite willow (Salix alba)
produces the best material for stakes, w hich should be
about 65-100m m (2.5-4") diam eter for spilings up to
600mm high. For spilings up to 900mm (3’) high, thicker
stakes of 100-130mm (4-5") diameter will be needed.
Withies should be cut from osier (Salix viminalis), goat
willow (Salix caprea) or grey willow (Salix cinerea). The
withies should have a butt diameter of 10-20mm (.25-
.75"), and be of a length equivalent to fi ve times the stake
spacing, to give a elose, tight weave. Where unavailable,
the best alternative m aterial w ill have to be used.
November to February is the best season for w orking to
ensure sprouting of the willow. Stakes and w ithies can
be stored at this time for up to three weeks, provided
they are kept cool and damp. Outside this season, they
are best used w ithin 48 hours of cutting.
1 Pollarding or coppicing of bankside w illow s, or
pruning o f earlier spiling w ill produce suitable
material, as detailed above.
2 Knock the stakes in vertically along the line of the
revetment, about half a metre apart, and so that two-
thirds of the stake is below soil level, and then cut the
tops to the finished height.
3 Weave the withies betw een the stakes, alternating the
direction of the butt ends, and tucking both ends in
so they don't protrude. A t the end of each length of
revetment, the spiling should be run into the bank so
that the last two to three stakes are completely buried
after backfilling.
4 To deter vandals, wire dow nthe top withies and secure
to the stake with a staple.
5 W here there is a risk of backfill washing out, place
faggots (see below) behind the spiling. Backfill to the
required bank profile with soil.
The following alternative design of spiling produces
a looser weave, and is suitable for revetments above
w ater level.
1 Knock the stakes in as described above.
2 To start the weaving, push the end of a short withy
into the ground betw een the second and third stake
from one end. Weave it betw een the stakes. Then push
another withy into the ground next to it, and weave
along in the same direction. The withies will root at
the ends.
3 Continue weaving up to the top of the stakes, ensuring
the top withies are tightly woven to secure the spiling.
4 To deter casual vandalism, wire along the top or down
through the spiling. Erect temporary fencing to exclude
brow sing stock for two to three years.
backfill fo
W attle hurdles
A similar weaving technique can b e used to make wattle
hurdles, w hich are constructed off-site, and then carried
to the bank and positioned to form the revetment. This
is useful where working conditions at the bankside are
difficult. Wattle hurdles for sheep fencing and garden
use are available from hurdle makers, but are normally
too expensive for bankside revetment work. On bankside
revetments they should anyvyay becom e disguised with
vegetation, so a neat finish is not so important, as long
as the structure is strong enough to survive handling
and positioning.
 10 BANKS, REVETM ENTS AND ACCESS

Hazel is the best material for hurdle making, but wiJlow is also
suitable, and its capadty to root is useful in most situations.
If possible, use split hazel for the uprights or 'zales', as they
hold the laterals better than do round poles.
Assemble the hurdles wherever con verde nt, and take
them to the site in ready-m ade sections. A tradiţional
sheep hurdle is 1.8m (6') long by lm (3.5') high, with ten
zales 200mm (8”) apart. For bankside revetment work,
the dimensions are not criticai, but zales should be no
more than 250m m (10") apart to give a sufficiently tight
weave. A hurdle of the dimensions shown below is easy
to handle, but larger sections can be made as required.
buried branches then help consolidate the sediments
against renewed erosion.
W illow faggots will root, w hich is beneficial in most
b ankside situations. Ho we ver, where gro wth may nar row
channels and cause flooding, material other than willow
should be used.
Faggots are norm ally made to the maximum size w hich
can be easily lifted by two people, but smaller ones can
be made as necessary. The tradiţional size is about 2m (7)
long and 300m m (P) diameter, bound atthree points. The
binding can be of twisted willow, baler twine or wire.

To stabilise a bank, the faggots can be laid in a single or

double row, secured by stakes and wire as shown. As
1 Push five 900m m (3') zales about 300mm ( l 1) into the necessary, another layer can be added cross-wise.
ground, evenly spaced in a straight line as shown.

2 Weave hazel or willow rodsbetw eenthe zales, tucking

each end back under itself to lock the wands in place.
Force the w ands dow n w ith your foot to give a tight
weave. It m ay be necessary to wire or tie the top wands
to discourage vandalism.

3 Lift out the sections for transport to the site. Place the
hurdles in position, overlapping as shown, and drive
them in as far as the low er wands.

PLAN r iv e r tw o stakes
4 c u rre n h p e r h u rd le
h u rd le i |
,T li— n Q Smaller faggots, of about lOOmm diameter, canbe bound
together to form 'm attresses', for laying on banks subject
v* ', J " >tu j bank 'h v/''
to boat w ash or strong flows. The faggots should be laid
in position and w ired together, and then wired to stakes
Using two 1.5m (5’) stakes per hurdle, knockthe stakes knocked well dow n into the bank. A large faggot at the
into position on the outer side of the revetment, and base absorbs some of the w ave energy.
wire the hurdles to the stakes.

5 Backfill with spoil as appropriate.

Faggots

Faggots or fascines are bundles of willow or brushwood,

bound together and used for various stabilisation and
revetment purposes. Faggoting is an ancient technique,
undergoing som ething of a revival as the advantages of
'sofT revetments are realised. The faggots slow the flow
of moving water and trap silt and sediment, and the
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS

Geotextiles Woven geotextile w ith pockets for vegetation or ballast.

For example, M M G Pocket Fabric.
The term geotextiles encom passes a vast range of w oven
and non-woven fabrics used for a variety of purposes
in civil engineering. These uses include revetment,
ground stabilisation and reiriforcement, drainage and
revegetation. Geotextiles m ay be made from natural,
biodegradablem aterials, or from long-lasting synthetics,
according to their design and function.

Some of the many designs suitable for revetment, barde

stabilisation and revegetation are shownbelow, but other
makes and designs m ay be suitable. M anufacturers will
supply detailed literature and advice on particular sites.
Horticulture Week, Landscape D esign Extra and other
periodicals are the best source of up-to-date Information
on suppliers.
W oven polyester/polyam ide bags containing silt or
L ightw eight three d im ensional m atting for surface sand, for underw ater repairs and bank protection. For
protection and root reinforcem ent, suitable for banks example, Nicobags.
above water level, and banks below water level in still
or slow m oving water. For example, Enkamat.

Coir fabric rolls and pallets ready-planted w ith native

w etland plants, to protect banks from erosion. For
example, Bestmann Fibre Rolls and Pallets.

Woven geotextile for use w ith timber stakes, to protect

the bases of slopes and vertical banks of watercourses.
For example, Nicospan.

Geogrids of polyester and PVC, or other similar materials,
laid in layers as shown, to stabilise steep banks. For
example, Fortrac.
Dry stone revetments
Dry stone revetm ents are a tradiţional stabilisation
technique used on the upstream side of earth dams,
spillways and banks where there is some current, but
not strong continuous erosion or tidal scour. Another
handbook in this series, Dry Stone Waîling (BTCV, 1986)
provides full details on all aspects of walling.
The main requirement for stone revetments is a good
source of stone, preferably w ithin close reach. You may
be able to get w aste stone from a nearby quarry or from
a demolished stone building.
a Clear away roots and debris and clean out the eroded
area until you have sufficient space for the foundation
layer, w hich w ill norm ally need to be at least 500mm
wide. Choose the largest stones for the foundation
and base layers.
b Place the stones in overlapping layers, w ith each stone
resting securely in position, and slanting slightly into
the bank. O ccasional long stones can be placed with
their long axis locking into the bank.
FACE SECTSON
FACE SECTION
10 BANKS, REVETM ENTS AND ACCESS
c As you build each layer, fiii behind with small stones
to prevent the bank washing out from behind. Do
not force sm all stones into gaps in the front of the
revetment, as they will simply w ash out and leave
the w all weakened.
d Top the revetment with turf to help protect it both from
erosion and from being dislodged by people or animals.
Gradually sloping banks can be reinforced by stone
pitching. Large, block-shaped stones make the strongest
pitching, but sm aller stones of variable size and shape
can be used.
a Grade the bank as necessary to an evenly sloping
profile.
b Excavate a trendh for the largest foim dation stones
and place them in position.
c Lay the stones in overlapping layers, w ith their long
axis into the bank. Try and fit them together neatly to
avoid large gaps, as these may erode and loosen the
whole structure from underneath.
Gabions
A gabion, from the old French word for 'cage', was
originally a wicker basket filled with earth and stones,
and used for fortifications. The modern equivalent is a
wire mesh box, available in various sizes and designs,
w id ely used for roadside revetm ents, river banks,
retaining w alls and other reinforcem ent purposes.
Gabions provide a means of building large revetments
w ith small stones, and provide a strong but flexible and
porous barrier. Although the m eshis not visible until close
up, the 'square' nature of a gabion construction and the
appearance of the rubble it contains means that structures
built of gabions are easily recognisable for w hat they are.
They can becom e disguised w ith vegetation in suitable
locations. M anufacturers of gabions are listed on page
163. Gabion-like baskets or rolls ca n b e made on site out
of Steel or polypropylene mesh.
For low revetments, a single layer of gabions will be
sufficient, set on a level foundation. For tw o layer
revetments, the gabions should be staggered, with the face
of the revetment angled to 10° to increase stability. The face
can be stepped or flush. Engineering advice should be
sought for design of structures higher than two gabions.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
Where scour is likely at the base of the revetment, mattress-
shaped gabions may be needed. Altemati vely, a f oundation
layer can be sunk below the base of the bank.
The minim um size for stone to fiii the gabions is lOmm
larger than the mesh size. Stones larger than 200m m are
not suitable for rough filling, as they will pack unevenly.
To improve the appearance, the exposed face of the gabion
can be carefully constructed like a dry stone wall, with
the remainder roughly filled.
1 Dig out a trench as necessary for the foundation layer,
making the base as even as possible. Finish to a 10“
angle for a two-layer revetment.
2 Assemble the gabions w ith ring clips or wire, according
to the m anufacturer's instructions, and join the first
layer together in situ. For a straight revetment, the
gabions can be tensioned by anchoring one end, and
threading crowbars through the other end of the row
of gabions and then tensioning with a winch.
3 Fiii the gabions in layers, one third at a time, fitting
horizontal wires to tighten.
W here shrubby growth would not be a hindrance to
access, it can be encouraged by inserting fresh willow
or alder cuttings into the gabion during construction.
These will sprout and quickly disguise the gabion. Reeds
and other marginal plants can also be inserted into the
mesh as required.
As well asbankside stabilisation, gabions can alsobe used
for overflow weirs on single spillway dams (see Chapter
13), and as current deflectors or 'croys'.Forthis, the gabions
should be anchored to Steel stakes driven a metre or so
B onkw ork
into the stream bed. Water movements and changes in
the stream bed should be carefully monitored to see if the
gabions remain stable and have the effect intended.
C h ain lin k gabions
Galvanised chainlink fencing formed into long cigar-
shaped gabions have been successfully used at Lindisfarne
National Nature Reserve to protect a tern nesting island
from tidal scour. Sand collects behind the gabions and
vegetation roots in the mesh, further stabilising the shore.
An ad vantage of this design is that it lacks square corner s,
which would create points of scour in tidal conditions.
Rolls 22m (25 yards) long of 1220mm (48") width, 12.5
gauge, 50mm (2") m esh double link fencing are used to
make structures 22m (25 yards) long and about 375mm
(15") in diameter, sewn up w ith wire.
1 Roii out the chain link fencing where the gabion is to
be sited.
2 Place stones a long a central strip, leaving enough
margin for 'w rapping'. Use the largest stones at the
base, carefully filling the gaps with smaller stones.
D on't use stones smaller than the mesh size.
galvanised chain
linK fe ncin g
1
SECTION PLAN
3 Starting at one end, one person w raps the fencing over
the stones so the edges meet, while another person
sews them together with a length of wire, pulled tight
as it is sewn.
As necessary, another gabioncanbe added in the following
year, by which time the first gabion should have stabilised
sufficient material to be partly buried. Place a line of
boulders as necessary to support the second gabion, and
join it to the base gabion w ith wire ties.
Sandbags
The use of hessian bags (approximate size 450 x 600mm)
filled with sand or other material is another tradiţional
technique for building revetments.

The follow ing m ethod has been used for canal bank
repairs in W arwickshire:
1 D ig out collapsed section of bank to fairly firm
foundations.
2 U sing a cem ent mixer, m ake a dry m ix o f aggregate:
cem ent in the ratio 6:1. Shovel into hessian bags,
filling by no more than one half.
3 Place a bag lengthw ise into the bank, tucking the
open end underneath, and flattening the top w ith
the fists or feet. Place the next bag so that it slightly
overlaps the fîrst one, and continue to complete the
first layer.
4 Thoroughly w et the bags, but do not flood with water,
or the cem ent will w ash out.
5 Continue w ith follow ing layers, overlapping the bags
so that each touches tw o bags in the layer below. Fiii
behind w ith rubble and earth.
6 W here three or m ore layers are below w ater level,
tie the layers together by ham m ering Steel stakes
through the bags at 1 m etre intervals. The stakes
should be 300m m (12") long, 16m m (3/4") diameter,
and ham m ered in u ntil the top of the stake is below
the surface o f the bag.
7 Finish top w ith soil and tu rf.
W here the depth of bank to be repaired is higher than
400m m (16"), the sandbags should be tied into the bank.
The ties are m ade of 3m Iengths of 16mm (3 /4")diam eter
steel bar, bent to the dim ensions shown. Two ties are
required for every 3m length of revetm ent.
1 Place the bags up to the norm al w ater level, fixed
w ith stakes as described above.
2 Add one further layer of sandbags.
3 Use a Steel tie to m ark the correct position for the pit,
as show n in the diagram .
4 Dig the pit to the dim ensions shown, and as necessary,
a channel for the ties.
5 Secure the ties into the sandbags w ith U shaped pins
of 16mm (3/4") steel.
6 Fiii the p it w ith dry aggregate and cem ent mix, and
add water.
7 Add further layers of sandbags up to the level of the
rest of the bank, and top w ith soil and turf.
10 BANKS, REVETM ENTS AND ACCESS
channel dry
i6mm sheel fie
aggregate
+■cement
500mm
Steel stakes af
Im infervais
PLAN
canal
^_lm—> Im-
sandbags
channel Steel fie
bank
Bank diversification
In the past, streams and other watercourses have had their
banks straightened and reprofiled for various reasons
including management of w ater flow, and to ease the
cutting of bankside, marginal and aquatic vegetation.
A rtific ia l d ra in a g e ch a n n e ls w ere also n o rm ally
constructed with straight edges and regular bankprofiles.
W here compatible with w ater management, banks canbe
altered and diversified to improve the habitat for wildlife,
and soften their appearance. Reservoirs, dams and other
water-impounding structures may need to retain an even
profile and short vegetation to allow easy inspection of
the structure, and to prevent any erosion.
On banks of natural watercourses and ponds, some bank
erosion may be beneficial to promote habitat di verşi ty.
Eroding banks near mature trees provide particularly
valuable habitat for mammals including otters. Willow,
alder and other bankside trees allow the development of
vertical and undercutbanks, stabilisedby the root system.
Mature trees w hich fall into the water, without seriously
im peding water flow, are also valuable. They create
undercut banks, hollows and other niches, and sheltered,
shady conditions at the w ater's edge, favoured by many
creatures. On some created sites, dead trees have been
dragged or winched into 'fallen positions' at the w ater's
edge, to try and simulate these conditions.
Techniques for b an k d iv ersifica tio n inclu d e b an k
reprofiling by hand or m achine, excavation of meanders
and bays, and changes in vegetation management and
dredging regimes.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
R ep ro filin g
The follow ing diagram s illustrate tw o exam ples of
riverbank reprofiling. Vegetation can either be planted,
or allowed to return naturally. Access and grazing of the
bank may need to be controlled.
i) Riverbank
SEGTIOM
ii) Flood b a n k
SECTION
w e fla n d hab itat
cre.a<ro,â
M ean d ers, b ack w aters an d b ays
In the past, river engineering w orks often involved the
deepening and straightening of rivers, with the loss of
valuable backw ater habitats. Any opportunity to restore
or create them should be used. Even small-scale features
can be valuable. If possible, the design should utilise
the flow of the river to scour the feature sufficiently
to prevent it silting up.Two possible arrangements are
shown below.
Outfall pipes present another opportunity to create a
valuable backwater feature, and to allow the constructionof
a simple outfall, w ithout the bank protection which would
be needed if the outfall fed directly into the river.
For further details on thxs and other diversification features
see The New Rivers and Wiidlife Handbook (RSPB,NRA and
RSNC, 1994).
Wave barriers
Wave barriers, unlike bank reinforcements, are not built
|
into the bank, but lie slightly out from the shoreline to
form a breakwater.
& j
Wave barriers may be used for the following reasons:
a Substituting bank reinforcement, to proiect exposed
& |
shorelines or newly-created islands and promontories.
b Protecting new plarttings of em ergent vegetation.
j
c Providing a substitute for em ergent vegetation where
this has been lost through trampling, water pollution
fr |
or other reasons.
d Providing calm areas of w ater for young wildfowl, in
e* |
otherwise exposed conditions.
e? |
Factors to consider
a W hat local wind and wave conditions m ust the b arrier
e? j
w ithstand? The sandbag barrier described below is
more robust than the stake and batten barrier. ej
b W here it is hoped to encourage breeding of wildfowl,
openings m ust be left betw een sections of the barrier,
or ram ps included, to provide accessbew een the open
e? j
and protected areas.
e !
 10 BANKS, REVETM ENTS AND ACCESS

c It is usually desirable to encourage stands of emergent
vegetation in the calm w ater behind the barrier,
although som e areas of open Jagoon should be kept.
Eventually it may be possible to remove the barriers
and reuse the materials.
Wooden stake and batten barrier
This is an econom ical design, especially if you can use
scrap materials.

Sandbag barrier

Sand, clay or concrete filled bags or sacks make a durable

barrier. After a year or two, willow cuttings or other
vegetation canbe planted in the silttrapped by the barrier,
to provide additional shelter. Like filled-sack bankworks
and weirs, they make up in simplicity w hat they lack in
attractiveness. Points to consider:

a Polypropylene w oven bags are best for barriers

constantly in water. AII bags w ill tend to weaken
and tear where they are subject to temporary drying.
Smooth fertiliser sacks are no good as they slip off one
another. Look in the Yellow Pages under 'Sack and
Bag M anufacturers and Suppliers' for local sources
of supply.

b Sand is normally the cheapest filling, and may cost

you nothing if you can dig it on site, but ensure this
doesn't itself cause erosion problems. Also check that
the sand cannot w ash through the weave. About 20
tonnes of sand are needed to fiii 800 bags.
c Concrete or clay can be substituted for sand if a more
perm anent structure is required. When deciding,
balance the availability and cost of materials against
the intended life of the barrier. It may only be required
until vegetation is established.
d W hen using clay, puddle it and force it well into the
bags. Concrete can be m ixed and placed dry into
porous bags (see page 87).
This design uses logs from local felling operations, or
old telegraph poles. On large w ater bodies, 75-90m (80-
lOOyd) sections can be made up as a unit. W hen fringe
vegetation has becom e established in one location, the
barrier can be unhooked from bofh ends and towed to
the next site.
The logs or poles should be fastened together w ithhooks
and eyes or w ith toggle bolts, and then anchored about
l-2m (4-6') from shore. Ramps should ben ailed to the logs
to give ducklings access to and from open water.

Lay the bags in a double line, as shown, for the strongest

structure.

SacKs of spoi! or concrete

r 3

r . 3
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS

Dipping platforms and decking

boardwalks I50mm x 50mm x l-5m

D ipping platform s, boardw alks and sim ple bridges are

very useful for providing access to w etlands, ponds
and w atercourses, in a w ay that is both safe for the
user and m inim ises dam age to the habitat. Localised
erosion on pond and river banks due to tram pling
can be prevented by providing platform s for viewing,
dipping or fishing.

School ponds and those used for educaţional purposes

should have a generously sized area to give access for
dipping and other pond studies. Various designs can
be used, according to the site. A simple w ide bridge
which spans the pond or watercourse provides plenty
of dipping space, without sacrificing any of the 'natural'
pond edges. W ide b ridge

Note the following points:

a The structure should be built of timber pressure-treated

with a preservative, such as Tanalith. Although more
expensive than untreated timber, it w ill be much more
durable.

b M ake sure the design avoids damaging the pond

bottom or liner. Some types of bentonite lining (p62)
are an exception, and can safely have supports driven
through the lining.

c Provide low edgings or toe-rails, which delineate the

edge, and provide some protection against vandals
removing the decking. D ip p in g p latfo rm

d Inm ostop enlocations, treated tim ber will notbecom e
slippery, pro vi ded water can drain off quickly. In shady
locations, chicken wire or a tar and grit mixture may
need to be applied to provide a non-slip surface. Care
m ust be taken not to affect the vegetation beneath.
This design is cantilevered over the edge of the pond,
to avoid the posts interfering w ith the pond lining.
Platforms or boardwalks over w ater provide 'hideaways'
for amphibians.

e When planning access im provements, take account of

the needs of disabled people and those in wheelchairs.
Fishing is a very popular pastim e for many disabled
people, and access to the w ater's edge together with
provision of fishing platform s is an important facility
(see below).

Some designs are show n above. Further details of

boardwalks and bridges are given in Footpaths (Agate,
BTCV 1996).

Sim ple b ridge This design uses timber revetments backfilled with debris
to make a platform. Any gaps betw een the timbers and
This uses bearers of telegraph poles, with preserved w ithin the backfill w ill make 'hideaw ays' for amphibians
timber decking. and other organisms.
 10 BANKS, REVETM ENTS AND ACCESS

P a v in g ed ge

The diagram shows a typical construction for a paving

edge to a butyl-lined pond.

concrete Hags

silicon seal T r
SECTION

îaS
1i

*0»-

__
c
o
-< bufyl
brick liner
< concrete
branches^ Foundation
Fishing platform

Furniture
Fishing platform s for disabled use should have fiat or
ramped access from car-parks or other access points,
F or sch o o l po n d s and o th ers frequ en tly used by
w ith suitable surfacing. M axim um ramp gradients are
educaţional groups, provide an area of mown grass,
as shown below :
gravei or w ood chips near the pond, where a group can
gather without tram pling valuable vegetation. A simple
Length o f ramp up to 3m 3-6m 6m+
table, stone pier or similar is useful for placing dipping
trays for study, and wooden benches and tables can be
Am bulant disabled 1:9 1:12 1:12
included on sites where vandalism is not a problem.
Independent w heelchair user 1:10 1:16 1:20

W heelchair pushed by a com panion 1:9 1:12 1:20

Causeways
O n damp ground, w hich is not sufficiently wet to require a
Electric w heelchairs 1:16 1:16 1:20
boardwalk, access canbe provided along a causeway. This
should confine trampling, and help protect vulnerable
The surface of the platform can be natural, or constructed
areas. O n pond or w etland creation projects, causeways
of timber, stone or concrete. The area should be at least
can be included in the design, and their effect on land
1.5m square, level, w ith a w heelstop or toe rail 100-150mjm
drainage incorporated in the m anagement of water onthe
(4-6") high at the w ater's edge. W here the platform
site. On existing sites, care must be taken that a causeway
projects over the water, protective side railing should be
does not have adverse effects on w ater movement. W here
constructed, w ith a front rail 350mm (14") high which
necessary, a causeway can have breaks to allow w ater to
does not hinder fishing operations. To allow space for
flow through, crossedby short sections of boardwalk or
casting, the slope of thebankbehind the platform should
bridge. A causeway can also be used as a support for a
not be steeper than 30°. Check access ramps and platforms
boardwalk.
regularly to ensure that they are in a safe condition.
Damage to the path surface or bank from erosion should
be repaired promptly. For further details see Countryside
Com m ission (1994), and contact the National Federation
of Anglers, who actively prom ote angling for people with
limited mobility.
n
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS

The easiest method of building a causeway is to use Where additional height is needed to provide a dry path,
a geotextile to support the path m aterial and preveni a boardw alk can be constructed on a causeway.
it sinkmg into the soft ground below. Many different
geotextiles are available, includingbrands suchas Te rram,
Lotrak and Typar. Suppliers are listed on page 163, or
contact local building suppliers. A typical construction
is shown below.

a g g re g a te o r woodchip boardwalk
su rfa ctn g — mox. wofer
O --. levei
ciay infill .
g e o te x tile f
g eol"exhle~"^ und| rlQV
im perm eable )o9. sa n d b a g o r liner underloY
s u b s fr a te b o u ld e r e d g in g

t i

t e

t e

t e

t e

t e

t e
r

11 Islands & rafts

Islands In areas open to the public, islands can be situated to

Islands, both natural and created, are a valuable habitat
w ithinlarge pondsandlakes. During the breedingseason
they provide safe nesting sites, particularly favoured by
ducks, terns and waders. Waterfowl in moult, w hen fhey
are unable to fly, will choose the safety of an island for
roosting. W intering and passage species are particularly
attracted to islands inbrackish water near the coast. Islands
are not totally secure f rom predators however (see below),
and vegetation has to be carefully managed to maintain
the favoured conditions for particular species.
Islands also increase the am ount of valuable edge and
shallow w ater habitat, on w hich many species of plant
and animal depend. To m axim ise the edge effect, and to
allow diversity to develop, several smaller islands are
usually better than one large island. Islands can also be
effective wave barriers against erosion, although they
themsel ves are liable to erode, especially with increasing
distance from shore.
Islands can either be remnant islands, which are areas left
unexcavated during pond or lake construction, or they can
be spoil or deposit islands, created from material dumped
into position. Site, size, shape, orientation and vegetation
cover will all affect the value of the island as a habitat.
Islands should not norm ally be made in ponds less than
about 0.5ha size, or the island is likely to prove a constraint
on the design of the rest of the pond.
provide good view ing conditions for bird watching, or
sited well away from public areas. Islands can also be
used to screen areas beyond from visual disturbance.
Sheltered locations, to the upwind end of large areas of
water, w ill prove more resistant to erosion.
Shape and profile
This w ill largely be determined by the depth of water, the
material available for construction, and the purpose of the
island. Terns and waders require low islands w ith gently
sloping banks and shallow margins, w hich can normally
only be provided in shallow water. Ducks, geese, swans
and divers can cope with steeper banks, but still require
gently sloping beaches to give young birds access to the
water, and sheltered shallow areas for feeding.
Changes in w ater level and erosion factors need to be
taken into account. Low flat islands may be flooded or
washed by waves in winter, w hich can be an advantage
in controlling vegetation growth, although shingle may
be w ashed away (see below). Steeper banks are more
subject to erosion than shallow banks, and should be
aligned away from the prevailmg wind.
W here steeper slopes are necessary due to water depth,
they should be a m axim um of 1:4 both for stability, and
for use by wildfowl. A shallow landing beach in the most
sheltered location is needed for du cklings. A steep drop to

Regional patterns, together w ith the landform and

vegetation of the island, w ill determine which type of SECTION
birds are attracted. In general, terns and waders tend to
favour sparsely vegetated islands, only just above water
level, in the south and Coastal areas. Ducks, geese, swans
and divers are more num erous on well-vegetated islands
on inland and northern waterbodies.

Location

In general, the more distant from shore the safer the island
will be from predators, and the more attractive it will be to
birds. Stoats and weasels may visit islands less than about
25m from shore, and rats will swim short distances. Foxes
are capable of swimming some way, but generally don't
bother. No island is safe from mink predation if they are in
the area. Ice provides abridge for allmammalian predators,
and stoats, weasels and rats may stay on the island and
wreak havoc during the next breeding season.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
deeper water on one side will prevent the establishment
of emergent vegetation, andprovide sheltered open water
favoured by diving ducks. O n reserves open to the public,
w here good views of birds are important, 'tear-drop'
shaped islands have been found popular w ith birds and
onlookers. They should be aligned as shown, with the
exposed shore sloping gently at about 1:10.
Convoluted edges and bays increase the edge effect and
provide shelter and feeding areas for birds, but are more
difficult to construct and m ore liable to erode than simple
shapes. The direction of the prevailing wind should be
taken into account.
In deep water, island creation is more difficult, as a vast
amount of material is needed below w ater level. Where
water levels are fairly constant, revetm ent techniques
can be used to m ake islands w hich are steep sided below
water level, thus saving on fiii, but w hich slope gently
up to the water line and above. However, revetments
above about 2m height arebeyond the scope of voluntary
involvement.
On a miniature scale, sew er pipes can be used to make
islands suitable for sm all ponds. Otherwise, rafts are the
only solution for safe nesting sites in deep water.
Remnant islands
Remnant islands are those made by leaving material
in situ during excavation of the pond or lake. W here
excavation is being done only for pond creation, this
lessens the am ount of spoil w hich has to be disposed of.
Conversely, for gravei extraction or other commercial
operations, leaving an island may represent a large loss,
and may hinder the efficient working of machinery. In the
latter case, later dum ping of spoil or other w aste material
may be the preferred method.
A spit of land can be turned into an island by excavating
a channel to 'cu t off' the headland. The channel can be
fairly steep sided, provided the resulting island has gentle
slopes around the rem aining perimeter.
Spoil islands
Islands can be created in silted ponds by driving stakes
around the plarmed perim eter of the island, and then
piling in silt and other debris from the clearance. You
may need to w eave willow or other branches through
the stakes (p82) to stop the silt oozing out. Debark the
w illow unless you w ant it to root.
Logs, stumps, rubble and other m aterials can be used as
necessary, but do not use anything w hich may pollute
the water. O rganic m aterial will rot down and ertrich the
water, as well as shrinking, so use inert material as much
as possible. Use rubble or other material for the base of
the island, and top it w ith earth, gravei or turf, depending
on the purpose of the island. Avoid using nutrient-rich
soil w hich w ill encourage vigorous growth and favour
aggressive plant species, adding to the management
w ork needed in future years. AUow for settlement, as
you w ant to avoid the need to 'top up' later, which will
be laborious if the only access is by boat.
decid tree for access
&
&
W here machinery is available, the easiest method for
existing lakes and flooded gravei pits may be for material
to be tipped progressively from the bank to form a spit.
The m achine then works back to the shore, excavating
the neck of the spit and using the material to build up
shallows around the island.
*
Vegetation
V egetation in trod u ction and m an ag em en t is very
significant in determining the type of species w hich will
be attracted to the island.
In general trees are not a good idea, as in shelteredlocations
they will soon dominate the island and cast too much £
shade. They also provide perching places for predatory
birds. In exposed locations trees are unlikely to thrive.
M ature trees only become of value to w aterbirds when
they fall into the water, providing sheltered feeding areas
and nesting sites.
£ -
r
Shrubs and dense, tussocky vegetation up to about 1.5m
(4') tall provides ideal waterfowl nesting sites, and reduces
predation of nests and young ducklings. Remnant islands
may have sufficient existing vegetation. Aim to do any
necessary vegetation m anagem ent before the island is
cut off, when working conditions are easier.
Establishing vegetation on new wildfowl islands may be
difficult, as ducks and geese will soon destroy seedlings
and young shrubs, and turn grass to mud. Fencing
around the margins, with netting stretched over the top
to prevent landing, may be needed for a season or more
to allow vegetation to get established.
In contrast, terns and w aders require bare shingle and
m ud surfaces, w hich require special construction and
management to prevent the growth. of vegetation.
Bare shingle o r m u d islan ds
The RSPB have considerable experience of constructing
shingle islands in shallow Coastal lagoons for breeding
terns and gulls. The m ain problem is keeping the island
free of vegetation, w hilst at the same time combating
erosion which can rapidly attack the unvegetated surface.
The islands are formed of clay or spoil, left to settle
for a year, and then reprofiled w ith a JCB to a smooth
flattened dome. The top is then covered with three layers
of overlapping fertiliser sacks or similar, which helps
suppress plant growth by reducing the supply of water.
The sacks are then covered w ith shingle and sand to a
depth of at least lOOmm (4"). Altematively, mud surfaces
can be created by covering the plastic with a lay er of mud,
50-150mm (2-6") thick. The shingle or m ud may need
replenishing in spring every few years, according to the
amount of erosion over the preceding winter.
locMSOmm layer boulder fo anchor
i ------------- 2 5 m -------------->
Vegetation is rem oved from the shingle by hand pulling
or raking in autumn, or by Rotavating or hand cultivation.
Winter flooding also suppresses vegetation. M ud islands
and islands w ithout a plastic underlay rapidly becom e
vegetated, needing w eeding and cultivation in spring
and autumn.
L ow -gro w in g v egetation
Islands w hich are covered w ith low-growing vegetation
i; of grasses and shoreline plants may attract a variety of
birds, including terns, gulls, waders, lapwing, moorhens
and coots. Cuttingby scythe or brushcuttermay be needed
before and after the breeding season (March and August)
I
11 ISLANDS & RAFTS
to encourage the growth of low-growing species. A cut in
August also improves the grazing for winter wildfowl.
Selective use of herbicides m ay be necessary if plants
such as creeping thistle (Cirsium arvense) or dock (Rumex
acetosa) take hold.
Tal l-gr ow in g vegetation
Islands covered with tussocky vegetation and shrubs up to
1.5m (4‘) tallprovide ideal conditions for nesting waterfowl.
Leave any dead growth over the winter as this provides
nesting cover in the early spring. Areas may need managing
in rotation in late summer to encourage thick growth near
ground level by removing taller scrab and young trees
which will otherwise shade out the growth beneath.
Rafts
Floating rafts canbe provided for nesting and loafing sites in
locations where the water is too deep for island construction,
or where there is no suitable material available. Rafts have
the advantage that their use by birds is not affected by
changing water levels, but they lack the sheltered shallow
margins associated with islands. Rafts can be vegetated,
for use by wildfowl, or covered with shingle for terns.
Tem rafts have been particularly successful in attracting
terns to sites which lack natural breeding habitat. Rafts are
not usually visited by predatory mammals, and so can be
safely situated fairly close to shore.
Factors to consider
It is difficult to make rafts quite as effective as islands,
becau se sev eral co n flictin g requirem ents m ust be
reconciled. These include:
a The ability to float, preferably with the deck just above
the w ater line.
b The ability to rise and fall easily with the water over
the m axim um flood range.
c Stability, so that the raft is not tipped or spun by
currents, w aves or wind.
d A dry, sheltered nest site which does not attract the
attention of crows or other avian predators. The nest
areas m ust be above the level of storm waves.
e Means of access and some protection from waves and
currents for young birds.
f An appearance which does not detract from natural
surroundings.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
Design of rafts
M any different designs have been tried over the years.
Strength and buoyancy are essential, together w ith very
firm anchorage. Constructing a large raft is not an easy
undertaking, and the logistics of construction, getting
it to the site and anchoring it m ust be carefully thought
out. Rafts designed only for breeding are better brought
ashore during the w inter to reduce damage. Rafts used
for loafing during the w inter w ill need cleaning of guano
if they are to rem ain attractive to nesting birds.
M aterials
Timber rafts tend to absorb w ater and sink, although pine
or other light w ood floats better than heavy timber. In
most cases additional floats m ust be used.
Very small rafts can be floated w ith 4.5 litre (1 gallon)
plastic containers or similar. Slightly larger rafts will
stay afloat with 22 litre (5 gallon) drums. Rafts in the
range of 1.2-l.Bm (4-6') in dimensi'on require close-cell
polystyrene blocks, or scraps or polystyrene beads in
w atertight containers. Polystyrene blocks need holding
in place with galvanised netting or strips.
Normally two anchors are preferable to one, attached to
opposite corners of the raft to keep it from swinging in
the wind. However, large rafts in deeper open water may
be better with only one m ooring point, w hich allows the
raft to align itself downwind, rather than being buffeted
by cross winds. Anchor to the bottom, not the shore, to
prevent vandalism and keep rats or w easels from getting
to the raft. Anchors can be made from concrete blocks,
concrete filled containers or other heavy items.
-< 0 5 Kg chain
c o n c re te
X
poiyt-hene tu b
rocks, s c r a p -
m e fa i.e fc -
One method is to secure a length of chain with rocks
or other heavy items in a polythene tub or similar, and
then fiii with concrete. A fter setting, the anchor can be
turned out of the mould and the chain attached. The
anchor shown w eighs about 50kg (lcw t) and is suitable
for smaller rafts. Anchors for larger rafts may need to
be m ade from tw o or more weights joined together, to
avoid the anchor becom ing too cumbersome to be easily
positioned. The design below uses concrete anchors in
buckets each250m m (10") high and 300mm (12") diameter,
connected in pairs w ith lengths of chain. The shackie
for the mooring rope is attached to the point where the
chains cross.
oH-cich shackie
for m o o rin g chain
The anchor rope can be 20mm polypropylene rope,
19mm flexible steel wire rope or chain. Ship's chandlers
can supply suitable ropes, shackles and other fittings,
and any Coastal sailing club or fisherman will have
advice to offer on the subject of secure anchorage and
techniques for low ering anchors into position. Make
sure that all connections are robust so tihat no parts can
be lost. Normally the anchor is the cheapest part of the
construction, bu t is a nuisance to replace. Chains and
steel ropes are expensive. It may be a good idea to secure
a buoy to the rope as shown, so if the raft does come
adrift, the anchor and rope are retrievable. Terns or other
birds are likely to use the buoy for perching. Take advice
on the most suitable length of anchor rope for the local
conditions. If it's too short, the raft may drag the anchor
along thebottom in stormy conditions. Three rafts or more
anchored in a string will need additional anchorage. If you
plan to bring the raft ashore over winter, use a coupling
to the raft which is easy to disengage, and if there isn't
already a buoy in position, secure one to the rope before
you detach the raft to avoid disaster!
£ j
Vegetation
Wader and ternnesting rafts shouldbebare of vegetation,
r
and surfaced w ith gravei or shingle contained within
a rim. On wildfowl and diver rafts vegetation can be £ ;
planted to improve appearance and provide nesting
cover. To supply sufficient w ater for plant growth, either
a generous depth of turf is needed, or some means by £ ’
which water is w icked up onto the raft. Rafts of anchored
floating vegetation are also feasible (see below).
t*

N estin g b oxes
Nesting boxes and duckling ramps can be added to the
raft as required. D utch nesting baskets are designed
w ith an open weave w hich allows the nesting duck to
see in all directions, and an entrance w hich funnels to
abont 150mm (6") to keep away avian predators. Secure
the baskets to the raft, at least 1.2m (4') apart, and facing
away from each other. Place a lining of dead grass inside
each basket to encourage nesting.
Nesting baskets can also be placed on stilts, away from
overhangingbranches along w hich rats could gain access.
W here w ater levels can be controlled, the low est part of
the basket should be200-300m m (8-12") clear of the water.
Where levels cannot be controlled, the baskets must be
well above the norm al level.
Vegetation rafts
A simple but effective technique is to make rafts of floating
vegetation. M ats of em ergent vegetation, up to about 30
sq m in area, can b e cut from the sides of lakes and meres,
and floated into open water. The raft is then secured by
stakes about 2m (7’) long, driven through the vegetation
and into the lake bottom, w hich allow the rafts to rise
and fall with changing w ater levels.
In sheltered locations at Leighton Moss, Lancashire, rafts
have lasted over 10 years. The vegetation, mainly yellow
flag (Iris pseudacorus), is cut annually in late summer, and
stakes are replaced as required. A wide range of waterfowl
use the rafts for breeding and loafing. Vegetation rafts are
not sufficiently robust for exposed locations. The design
below, half-way betw een a raft and an island, is based on
existing clumps of emergent vegetation. After constructing
the floating frame work, addm ore turf as needed to give the
whole thing a semi-solid flooring. The emergent plants will
grow through to provide secluded nest sites for duck.
SECTION
established emergent vegetation
11 ISLANDS & RAFTS
Floating nest
This design, described by Little (1971), and successfully
used on the River Ray, near Oxford, provides a safe nesting
site in flowing water. Chick survival is best where the
floating nest is sited on a quiet backwater with gently
sloping banks, so that w hen a chick leaves the nest, it can
get to shore and climb out despite the current.
Underside, w iih
Frame fo r flo a ts
(Pion) T
carnouR age
the n e ţii ng
E n tran ce
hole-i5omm
Ploaî"5
a tta c h e d
to fra m e
Construction procedure:
1 Drive a suitable length of 50m m (2") diameter steel
pipe into the river bed to provide an anchor pole on
which the floating nest can rise and fall.
2 Cut out a circular platform from marine ply wood, and
cut a hole in the centre to fit over the anchor pipe. Screw
on three boards to make a frame for the floats.
3 Strap three 4.5 litre (1 gallon) plastic containers to the
frame, one each side.
4 Form a superstructure of three metal struts, joined at
the top to a ring w hich forms the bearing on which
the nest rises and f alls on the pipe. Co ver with netting.
The m esh holes should b e small enough to keep out
rats, but leave a 150mm (6") diameter entrance to one
side.
5 If the platform tends to spin in the current, attach a
rudder to the floats to keep it properly orientated. The
entrance should face the nearest bank.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
gr
cp—
I
m

Timber rafts
n
2 Secure 25m m (1") galvanised mesh across the bottom,
w ith diagonal boards as shown to give rigidity to the
S im p le lo g ra fts structure.

Logs or old telegraph poles can be used to make simple
rafts. Place mud or straw betw een the logs, together w ith
rhizom.es of marginal plants. W ithout additional support
the timbers will float fairly low in the water, and should
support a good growth of vegetation. Secure half-drums
or other nesting boxes as required.
3 Turn the raft over, and fiii the middle section with
polystyrene blocks. Cover w ith boards to make a floor,
and construct duckling ramps.
4 Float the raft into shallow water, and fiii the margins
w ith blocks of m arginal vegetation.

Tern raft

22 litre drums, cui* in half, may

Tem rafts require a covering of bare shingle, small shelters
be thafched foram enihy
anchor poinf to give shade for chicks and protection from predators,
and access ram ps for any chicks that fall overboard. The
design show n below is 3 x 3m (10'xlO’), and can support
up to ten nests. The mesh fence prevents ducks from
gaining access. Further details are given inBurgess, Neil
logs, wired D and Becker, Dusty B (1989).
together
or boited

peat or 5fraw
forced between

V egetated tim b er r a ft
T eleg rap h p o le ra ft
PLAN
The following design is for a vegetated timber raft, suitable
for use by nesting waterfow l. Rafts of this type have
survived over 10 years' use in fairly exposed conditions
at the RSPB reserve at Fairburn Ings, Yorkshire. •
*->

Fii
o

The basic fram ew ork is m ade of two telegraph poles w ith

six timber spacers, covered w ith 25m m (1") chicken wire
.

to hold the vegetation. Polystyrene blocks betw een the

spacers provide flotation. ramps 4
I & j
Frame of boards
(zsmmx i5omm)
1 Position the telegraph poles on a suitable flat surface
close to the water. Using 75mm (3") coach screws,
e ţ
attach the spacers in the positions shown.

2 Using proper lifting techniques (p39), and taking care

BOTTOM VIEW polystyrene biocks, i5 0 mm
frj
not to tw ist the structure, lift one pole and roii the
structure over. Attach the polystyrene blocks w ith frj
|
fencing wire, and secure the top spacers with coach
screws. Fix the wire mesh to cover using fencing Staples.
Attach mooring rings to the telegraph poles. &
3 Float the raft into shallow water, and plant with dum ps
of marginal vegetation.

V egetated tim b e r ra ft 5ECTÎ0N anchor poinh

& |
nesting baskefs
fir -
This designhas been used successfully at the Great Linford rush or,
wiiiow
gravei pit reserve in Buckinghamshire.

1 M ake a fram ew ork of 150 x 25mm (6 x 1") boards, to

& |
give an area of 1.2 x l.B m (4'x6'). p o ly styren e
e !
 11 ISLANDS & RAFTS

T e le g r a p h p o le r a f t

PLAN

<------------ IZm --------------- >

Te m ra ft
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS

Welded rafts ottach mesh over and

cover with turves
This design uses welded Steel
flotation tanks secured by Steel
girders. iMechanical assistance
will be required to get
it into the water. The
vegetated platform,
supported by
mesh, floats just
above water level,
and provides
nesting sites for
wildfowl.
. ■**.------ water
' I level

welded Steel extended decking _

flotahon tonK to support ramp A
K ramp support ,
Steel girder

& j

t |
er |

fe [

e- 1
 12 Ditches and pipes
The digging of ditches and laying of pipes may be
necessary as part of conservation m anagem ent in the
following situations:
a To provide a means of regulating the w ater table
of w etland nature reserves, in order to maintain or
diversify habitats.
b To increase the water flow into a pond or wetland area.
c To prevent changes in the w ater regime or to restore an
earlier m anaged regime by repairing existing ditches
and drains.
d To maintain paths and tracks in good condition over
steep or damp ground, thus preventing erosion and
damage. For more information on this subject see
Footpaths (Agate, BTCV 1996).
The principles of land drainage, described in textbooks
of agricultural drainage (Hudson, 1975; Sm edm a and
Rycroft, 1983), also apply to making or keeping land wet.
The procedures of field inspection, levelling and pegging
out, and design of ditches and piped systems, normally
used for drainage, are also relevant for the design of
systems to manage wetlands.
Design
Water supply or drainage can be provided by open ditches
or pipes. They can be classified as shown, according to
their function:
r available from the
W here ditches or pipes function to carry or store water,
rather than to collect or disperse water, sluices or valves
may need to be installed to regulate flow and w ater levels
(Chapter 13).
Supply and drainage lines should be straight wherever
possible, with changes of direction made by smooth curves
rather than abrupt angles. This is especially im portant at
junctions, to help maintain a smooth flow of water, which
reduces damage and erosion w ithin the system.
Drain types
F ren ch d rain s
French drains are trenches filled w ith rubble which allow
w ater to percolate through. They can collect or intercept
water from the surrounding soil, and then drain it away.
French drains are used on steep slopes or other situations
where an open trench would quickly erode, or where
an open trench may present a hazard or an obstruction.
French drains do not function well in peaty soils, as the
rubble becom es blocked w ith fine sediments. French
drains can also be used to disperse water, allowing it to
soak away into the surrounding soil.
7777777777777777-
— Smaiter ston es siow
th e inflow o f silt
an d c la y p a rh c le s
Larger shones mal<e spaces
along which water Ftows
Clean quarry scalpings or locally-gathered scree
material is ideal. In very soft conditions or in peaty soils,
the trench can be lined with a geotextile which filters
out any fine sediments, and prevents the scalpings
sinking into the
soil. Terram, Lotrak
and other types are Terram ,
suitable (p!63).
Full details are coarse fiii
manufacturers,
S to n e and b o x d rain s
Stone drains are built by laying four flat stones in a box
shape. Stone drains may be found w hen old drains are
being rep aired, an d it can still be convenient to build thern
in areas such as North Wales where slate and other flat
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
stones are abundant. The box drain is similar, but made
out of wood. Internai dim ensions of about 150 x lOOrrun
(6 x 4") are suitable.
Stone Box drain SECTION
Pip ed drains
These include tile, plastic, Steel and concrete pipes, and
are discussed further on page 104.
D itches
These are the sim plest m ethod of w ater supply or
drainage, and are further discussed below.
Ditching and drainage
procedures
Hydrological surveys can be carried out by professional
surveyors, to identify soil characteristics, water supply
and other factors, in order to develop a 'w ater budget'
for the site. M odels can be draw n up to produce precise
information on spacing of ditches, pipes, sluices and so on,
to produce particular desired heights of w ater table.
For small schemes, a simple survey should be carried
out to measure the area and ground levels w ithin the
site. A knowledge of basic surveying techniques using a
surveyors's level is required. Dig test pits and take soil
samples as necessary, to determ ine ground water levels
and soil permeability. Draw a scale plan, marking the
position of inlets and outfalls, and design the ditches,
drains or supply pipes to fit w ithin recom m ended
gradients.
M ark out the lines of drainage or w ater supply with pegs,
using a surveyor's level to give the correct heights for
each peg to ensure a smooth gradient. Erect a 'profile'
at each peg to act as a reference point, w ith the sighting
rail at a m easured height above the peg.
A 'traveller' is useful, cut to the vertical height from the
top of the sight rail to the bottom of the ditch. To use the
traveller, set it vertically in the bottom of the ditch as it is
being dug, and if necessary adjust the ditch depth until
the sight rail lines up w ith the next two profiles. Consult
publications on surveying techniques and land drainage
for further advice.
nzzri
qq°' Top of
T ra v e lle r SighMine
F o r pipelaying,
m a rk e x re r nai
B otham
d ia m e fe r
o f p ip e o f difch
Y
Ditches
Ditch design
The design of a ditch is determined by the following
factors:
D ep th
The depth should be appropriate to the function. Asimple
ditch to intercept runoff may only need to be 150mm (6")
deep, although it may need annual clearance to prevent
it silting up. M ost interceptors should be 375-600mm
(15-24") deep, while ditches serving as carriers should
be at least lm (3‘) deep.
B atter and b ottom w id th
Some soils are more stable than others, allowing a steeper
batter or slope to the ditch sides. The batter should never
exceed 1 horizontal to 2 vertical (1:2) or 63°. Very deep
ditches may require abatter of 2:1 (27°) to prevent collapse,
even in stable soils.
The diagram indicates angles of repose, which are the
steepest angles to w hich various types of soil will slide
if unsupported. They can be taken as guidelines for the
m axim um batter of ditches which lack timbering or
revetments. Note that tem porary shuttering is necessary
for safety w hen digging in unstable soils (pl04).
 12 DITCHES & PIPES

shape of the channel may be significant, as deeper water

30°vertical erodes more severely than does shallow w ater flowing at
Moi st" e a ith , 5 0 °
Drained clay o r the same velocity. However, ditches which are too wide
rubble, 45’ for the flow develop shoals and irregular channelling.
Gravei, ho°
Shingle 39* R u nn in g sand
Dry sa nd 38°
Dry earl"b 28° Running sand or silt is seldom encountered but creates
Gravei wifh sand difficult problems where it does occur, most often in
25* alluvial valleys. The sand is so fine and unconsolidated
Weh sand 22*
Wel- clay 16* fhat, when a ditch is dug, the bank slowly slumps no matter
how shallow the angle of slope. Preferably relocate the
ditch. If this is not possible, brushwood can be stacked
against the bank to stabilise it.
For general purposes, ditches should be 300mm (1')
wide at the bottom if dug by hand. This may need to be
modified to prevent erosion or siltation under conditions Digging ditches and trenches
of great or low flow (see below).
W herever possible, it is recommended that machines are
Factors influencing erosion used to dig any ditches ovei* 600mm (24") deep. Manual
digging is only appropriate for short lengths of ditch, or
Ditches may function even if the făli is very slight, but if where m achine access is not feasible.
the flow is too slow to hold materials in suspension the
ditch will silt up, O n the other hand, too rapid a flow will Keep in mind the following points:
erode the bank. The table below shows approximately
the velocity and slope at w hich erosion starts to occur in a The tools required depend on the terrain and soil.
various soil types. The figures for maximum slope are Spades are sufficient in topsoil, but usually forks and
based on a m ean hydraulic depth of 300mm (1'). picks are needed to break up the subsoil. Use a heavy
metal fork wifh long tines. Several specialist types of
So il type M axim um velocity M axim um slope spade for digging narrow trenches are described in
Chapter 5. A bottoming spade or tile scoop is useful
Sandy soil 600mm /sec 1:600 for cleaning the bottoms of deep ditches. Keep tools
sharp and clean. W hen digging in clay, dip the shovel
Loam 900m m /sec 1:300 into a bucket of w ater frequently to prevent the clay
sticking.
Clay 1.2m/ sec 1:150
b Usually a trenchshouldbe dugby ateam of tw opeople
If a ditch is dug and scour occurs, there are two possible working as shown.
Solutions. The capacity of the ditch can be increased by
widening the channel, while m aintaining or increasing LONGITUDINAL SECTION
the depth. Alternatively, the slope can be reduced by Order of digging
building small dams or w eirs along its length. Each
dam holds back water, so slowing the overall velocity. A
breakw ater or apron is needed at the foot of each dam to
prevent erosion, and silt w ill need removing periodically
from behind the dams.

c Work from the outflow point uphill. If the outflow is

New ditches are m uch more vulnerable to erosion than into a waterway which is likely to back up into the
established ditches. Ditches through disturbed ground ditch, leave the very end of the ditch uncut to act as a
are particularly unstable. Clean w ater erodes to a greater coffer dam, until the ditch has been extended above
degree than does w ater heavily laden with sediment. The the level of the waterway.
WATERWAYS & W ETLAN D S
d Set the turf to one side to be re-used. Unless it is to be
backfilled soon afterwards, place the spoil downhill of
the ditch where it will not block runoff front reach ing the
ditch. Place the spoil at least 300mm (1') from the ditch
so that it w on't slip back in during the first heavy rain.
e Stand in the bottom of the trench w hen digging, not
on the sides, except w hen digging a very deep narrow
trench.
f Keep the ditch line straight. A line of sand sprinkled
on the ground is sim pler than pegs and lines, which
tend to get knocked.
g W here subsidiary ditches are brought into a larger
ditch, m ake sure they enter it at a gradual angle to
prevent erosion opposite the irtflow point. The bottoms
of the inflow ditches should be slightly above that of
the larger ditch.
h W here the ground is w et or unstable, avoid trampling
close to the trench sides.
Shuttering
Any trench dug in unstable ground, or if over lm (3’)
deep, should be supported w ith shuttering to provide
safe working conditions. This should be inserted as the
trench is dug. Such trenches are not suitable for volunteer
work.
Pipes
Pipes are either porous or non-porous. Porous pipes
are used wherever w ater needs to be absorbed from
the ground, or allow ed to soak away into it. Land
drainage Systems, in agricultural land and elsewhere,
are constructed of porous pipes w hich collect the water
from the ground and drain it away. Porous pipes are also
used for soakaways, w here water is allowed to soak out
of the pipes and into the ground.
Non-porous pipes are used wherever leakage is undesirable,
either from the pipe outwards, or from the ground into the
pipe. This includes w ater supply Systems, and parts of land
drainage systems w hich pass under roads or elsewhere
where leakage is n ot wanted. Non-porous pipes are also
used to carry sewage and other waste water.
Porous pipes
Tile drains
Plain ended clayw are pipes, called 'tile drains' have
been used for land drainage for m any years. They are
laid unjoined so that water seeps in through the gaps.
A small amount is absorbed through the pipe walls.
The m ost common sizes are 75mm (3"), lOOmm (4") and
150mm (6”) diameter.
P erf orated p lastic p ip es
The usual type are corrugated perforated pipes, supplied
in coils for small diameters, and straight lengths for
larger diameters. Sm ooth rigid perforated pipes are also
available, in straight lengths. The great advantage of
uPVC (unplasticised polyvinyl chloride) pipe is its light
weight. Perforated plastic pipes canbe used for water table
control, surface drainage and for interceptors. For large
scale underdrainage schemes they are laid by specialist
contractors using 'trenchless' drain laying machines. For
small schem es they can be laid by hand, cut as necessary
with a hacksaw and joined w ith push-on fittings.
Non-porous pipes
Non-porous pipes should be used for water supply pipes
and carriers, and where a steep gradient would cause
internai scour in porous pipes. Non-porous pipes should
also be used through ground containing pollutants or
other aggressive substances.
Non-porous pipes include vitrified clay, plastic, Steel and
non-porous concrete.
Vitrified clay p ip es
The Hepworth range of pipes are widely available from
bu ilder's merchants, in 100 and 150mm diameters, with
a range of flexible push-fit polypropylene couplings.
P lastic pipes
Sm ooth uPVC pipes for water supply are w idely available
from builder's merchants, in 82,110 and 160mm diameters,
w ith a range of bends, couplings and other fittings.
Flexible, corrugated, unperforated pipes are available
from agricultural m erchants and specialist suppliers of
pipes, in a range of sizes up to 310mm diameter. They
are used for culverts, sluices and other large capacity
water carriers. Corrugated pipes have ahigher hydraulic
roughness and require a 20% increase in diameter to
carry the same flow as smooth pipes. Cost per metre
of smooth and corrugated pipes with similar transport
capacities is about equal, since more plastic is needed to
make a sm ooth pipe compared to a corrugated pipe of
the same diameter.
r
Pipelaying
r* G rad ien t
In theory, drains can function down a slope as gentle as
1:660. In practice the slope should be 1:250 or steeper, to
account for local variations.
The gradient should be uniform over the System. If you
cannot avoid a sharp lessening in gradient, install a silt trap
at the break in slope. Otherwise the water will drop sediment
at the point where it slows, creating a blockage.
B ed d in g
Beddingm aterial should be placedunder pipes to support
them where they traverse stony ground w hich cannot be
made entirely sm ooth and regular. Bedding can be pea
shingle, sand, clinker or stone chippings, of a size no
larger than lOmm (4") diameter.
P roced u re
Do not lay plastic (uPVC) pipes w hen the temperature
is below 5°C, as they are brittle when cold.
1 Place the granular bed, if one is required, in the trench
bottom. Every few feet check that it is the correct
thickness by placing the end of the traveller (pl02)
against the top of the bedding. Make sure that the
traveller is held vertically and that the T plece lines
up w ith the sight rails of tw o adjacent profiles.
2 Prepare each section of pipe for joining as necessary,
before setting it in position (see below).
3 If an inspection cham ber or silt trap is to be built at the
outfall end, the first section of pipe should start at the
inside face of the w all of the planned chamber. Drive
a pin in at this point to provide a 'stop' for the pipe.
O therwise the first section tends to shift as successive
pipes are inserted.
4 Low er the pipes into position, starting at the outfall
end and w orking uphill. Traditionally, a special tile
hook w as used to install sm all-diam eter pipes in deep
narrow trenches. You can substitute a pickaxe, using
it to m anoeuvre the sections together. Otherwise just
position the pipes by hand, trying not to damage the
trench. Pipes over 225m m (9") diameter, other than
lightw eight plastic and Steel pipes, should be lifted
mechanically. This is m ost easily done w ith an iron
'hairpin' attached to a w inch or crane line.
5 Join each section as it is positioned.
6 Inspect the alignment of the finished pipeline and adjust
if necessary. A flat w ooden tamper or board is useful
for this.
12 DITCHES & PIPES
7 M ortar any joints w hich must be closed against tree
roots or other disruptions (see below).
8 Backfill enough spoil to secure the pipe in position,
up to about the m idpoint of the pipe's diameter. If the
pipe is large diameter, add only enough spoil to tâmp
into a 150mm (6") layer. Add more spoil, after the first
layer is compacted, to fo rm another 150mm (6") layer.
Be careful not to disrupt the pipe while tamping.
9 If perm eable fiii is to be used, place this in the trench
over the pipe. Otherwise continue to backfill in layers
until the pipe is covered w ith 150mm (6") of tamped
spoil. Then backfill the trench to ground level.
Ju n ction s
Junctions are normally made withpurpose-made junction
pipes, b u t this is not possible w hen tapping a new pipe
into an existing pipe and is unnecessary w hen connecting
a pipe to aninspection chamber or silt trap. In these cases,
and w hen purpose-made junctions areunavailable, pipes
can be joined by cutting and mortaring. In m ost cases,
junctions should be made so that the angle of entry is
w ith the fall of the existing pipe.
C u ttin g p ip es
M echanical cutters can be hired for cutting clay and
concrete pipes. Vitrified d ay and concrete pipes can be
cut by hand, provided you are careful and patient. These
pipes are brittle and have a bard outer skin with a softer
centre core. Follow this procedure:
1 Check that the pipe is sound by lightly tapping it with
a brick hammer. A sound pipe gives a clear ringing
note, an unsound pipe a dull note.
2 M ark the pipe w ith chalk at the length required.
3 Carefully chip off the outer hard skin along the chalk
line using either a brick hammer or hammer and cold
chisel.
4 Stand the pipe on end. Fiii the pipe w ith sand or well
tamped top soil. Chippings may be used but are less
effective. The filling absorbs some of the shock while
cutting and helps keep the pipe from breaking except
w here it has already been weakened.
5 Continue to chip away the softer centre core along
the groove, w orking round and round the pipe until
it breaks along the groove.
Tapping in to existin g p ip es (d a y o r cem ent)
This is usually done to fit a saddle connection or to fit
a small pipe to a larger existing pipe. It cannot be done
w ith pipes of equal diameter. T he connection described
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS

under 'Fixing a saddle', below, is not water-tight under
pressure and so should be made on the top half of the
existing pipe w henever possible.
1 M ark with chalk on the existing pipe the area to be
cut out. Leave the existing bed undisturbed.
2 Punch a small hole through the pipe in the centre of
the area to be cut out, using a hammer and cold point.
The point m ust be sharp or else the pipe may crack.
5 Remove any m ortar which may have squeezed into
the pipe by reaching your hand through the saddle
opening. Wear a glove to protect your hand from the
sharp edges of the cut pipe.
6 Haunch around the saddle flange with fine concrete
(1:2:4 cement:sand:aggregate).

3 Enlarge the hole until y ou can work wi th a pick hammer

and cold chisel.

4 First cut or chisel the under material. As this is chipped

away the outer skin cracks and breaks off.
7 Allow the concrete to set and cure before adding pipes
onto the saddle. In hot weather, cover the concrete
haunch w ith a damp sack to keep it from drying out
and cracking. Protect the joint against frost.

O u tfa lls

The last 1.5m (5') of any drain should be a solid length of

5 As you near the lim it of the area marked, carefully cut
away the hard outer skin until the sides of the hole
are square to the pipe.
f e - S
durable pipe w hich will resist frost damage. The outfall
pipe should overhang the ditch and be at least 150mm
(6") clear of the ditch w ater level to preveni it backing
up in times of heavy runoff.

SECTIONS A brick, stone or concrete block headwall must be built

Righl" ^ Wrong around the outfall pipe to stabilise the bank, and to block
seepage from the ditch around the pipe.

F ix in g a sad d le

1 Remove any debris from the pipe.

e :
2 Check that the hole is the right size by offering up the
saddle.

3 Spread m ortar (1:1 mix) around the hole so that it

is w ide enough to bed the flange of the saddle. The
mortar should be about lOmm (4") thick.

4 Insert the saddle into the hole so that the flange rests
on the mortar. Press down gently until the flange has
sunk evenly into the mortar.

SECTJO N

£ :

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 12 DITCHES & PIPES

These designs require a concrete foundation at least
lOOmm (4") thick, or a minim um 50m m (2") thickreinforced
concrete base plate. Dry stone w ith d ay caulking may also
be used, or pre-cast concrete for a high-Ievel outfall for
pipes up to 225m m (9") diameter.
channels where they merge, or just before they empty
into a body of still water. The simplest inspection
chamber is a vertically-placed section of large diameter
sew er pipe.
An inspection chamber can be built of 150mm (6") thick
concrete blocks, or of brickw ork 200m m (8") thick.
Cylindrical chambers may also be built of brick.

The cover shouldbemade of removabiereinforced concrete

slabs, a minimum of 63mm (2.5") thick if450mm (18") below
ground, or at least 50m m (2") thick if above ground. In situ
concrete floors should be lOOmm (4") thick, while factory-
made reînforced slabs should be 50mm (2") thick.

The m inim um area of the chamber should be 0.5 square

metre (6 square feet), and no deeper fhan1950mm (61) deep.
Cylindrical chambers should be a minimum of 750mm
(2'6") diameter. The silt trap below the pipes should be
at least 300mm (12") deep. Place a concrete lintel over
pipes of 300mm (12") diameter or more.

O pen inlets, in sp ectio n ch am b ers and silt trap s

A simple open pipe is not an adequate inlet on larger

drains. The inlet needs a silt trap or 'catchpit' and hinged
grating. Construct w ith 150mm (6") thick concrete blocks
on a lOOmm (4") thick concrete base. Fit a concrete lintel
over the pipe. The 300m m (12") drop from the outlet
pipe to the bottom of the chamber provides a settling
chamber for silt.

SECTION View along d ifch

w&q PherprooP capping |
Pre-cast concrete chambers are also available.
End of

Maintenance and repair

Locating pipes and drains

a If a pipe has collapsed or infilled, there may be increased

777777777777Boiiorrt o f d itd i local waterlogging, or an indication of a surface channel
where the land has subsided in line with the pipe. Note
Inspection chambers should be installed wherever two however, that spring outlets often shift over time so that
or more sub-drains jo in a large main, or where a main boggy areas do not necessarily indicate a broken pipe.
drain w ith a steep gradient suddenly changes to a
much flatter gradient. b W here a w et patch is caused by a broken pipe, the
As w ith open break is usually just uphill of the wet patch.
inlets, large d \ a m e t e r
inspection s e w e r pipe c To track a specific drain, first try to find its outlet.
chambers Som etim es drains are curved near their outlet to
should slow the flow of water, so go a few metres along the
contain a silt trap. supposed line of the drain before attempting to locate
Traps should also it. Locate it again at a second point, and then line up
be installed on open these two points to indicate the drain's alignment.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
d To follow the exact ]ine of a pipe, thrust a pointed metal
pole or rod into the earth every few metres along it,
until you hit the drain. Tile drains should leave a trace
of red clay on the tip of the rod. If you miss, work out
to either side, m aking sure your holes are more closely
spaced than the drain's diameter.
e Pipe-locating devices can be hired for tracing water
pipes to w hich you have access at either end.
Causes of drain failure
D rains m ay fail for one or m ore of the follow ing
reasons:
a A blocked outfall, indicated by seepage from under
or around the sides of an outfall headwall. If the
blockage cannot be removed w ith drain rods, it may
be necessary to uncover the pipe for a few metres
back from the headw all, and relay it or replace it as
necessary. Use a length of rigid plastic pipe to prevent
seepage underm ining the headwall.
b A blocked entry point.
c Poor grading during pipelay ing, resulting in dropping
of silt where w ater flow is slowed.
d Settling of pipes due to poor installation or unstable
soil conditions, causing siltation due to uneven flow,
and ingress of material betw een the pipes.
e Erosion due to a failure to use sealed pipes in erodable
soils.
f Surcharging where the pipe is too small or the head
of w ater too great, causing w ater to back up before it
can get through the pipe.
g Blockage by 'ochre', w hich forms when previously
waterlogged soil is aerated, causing iron in the soil
to oxidise. Pipes in soils prone to ochre may need
frequent cleaning out.
h Blockage by tree roots. Avoid laying pipes near trees
if possible. If not, use long lengths of rigid plastic pipe
through the rooting zone.i
i Blockage by sm all mammals w hich have entered the
pipe. Install grids on outfalls and open inlets.
Clearing blocked drains
D rainage rods
D rainage rods w ith various m etal attachm ents are
available from builders' m erchants and agri cultural
suppliers. Head attachments are of two main types:
corkscrews for pushing through and loosening solidly
blocked drains, and scrapers for pulling material clear.
U se of drainage rods
1 Choose a point as near to the blockage as possible to
begin work. If you do not know where the blockage
is, start at the outfall end and work upwards.
2 Attach a screw head to the end rod, and insert it as
far as it will go, adding sections as needed. Stand
sideways-on to the drain and work the rod back and
forth continually to puii loose material towards you.
Once more than one section is in use, keep turning in
the same direction so they stay tightly joined, which
will be clockwise for a right-hand thread. 'Lockfast'
rods stay attached whichever way you turn them.
3 After two or three sections are in, back them out of
the drain to clear loose dirt, using the same motion
as when inserting them. Then work them back in and
add more sections.
4 After you have added ten or so sections the rod may
becom e too flexible to push through a hard blockage.
If this happens, remove a section of pipe at the point
you have reached, and start again from this point.
5 Once the worst of the blockage is broken up, remove
the rod and replace the screw head with a scraper head.
Push this past the blockage and scrape the material
towards you, trying to tw ist the scraper head as little
as possible.
£ -
e r:
e r_
er
 13 Dams, weirs and sluices

'This chapter describes simple dams, weirs and sluices,

the construction of which may be suitable for involving
volunteers. Some of these stmctures may come within
fhe Construction (Design and Management) Regulations
1995, and will require to be notified to the Health and
Safety Executive (p37). The Environment Agency (or
equivalent) may also need to be consulted. Engineering or
other specialist advice may be necessary for some projects.
Canal locks and sluices are too specialised to be included,
and advice on these installations should be sought from
British Waterways or the Waterways Recovery Group. Note that w ater pressure is independent of current. The
higher a dam the greater the pressure behind it and
the stronger it m ust be whether the water is flowing or
Factors to consider stagnant.

Environ mental effects
a How will the installation affect exis ting habitats?
Dams frequently flood wetlands upstream while at
the same time drying out wetlands below. Even minor
impermeable banks across marshes, bogs or wet heaths
may subtly alter drainage pattems, often to fhe detriment
of existing communities of plants and animals. This
m ay be balanced to some extent by the development
of new seepage marshes at the foot of the dam.
b Sluices allow w ater levels to be controlled and are
often incorporated into dykes in order to manage
wetland w ater tables. The likely effects on plants and
animals adapted to the existing w ater regime should
be studied first so that changes can be timed to be least
destructive to ground nesting birds.
U p th ru st p ressu re
Water also creates an upthrust pressure on non-porous
installations w hich are not keyed into impervious strata.
The upthrust is proporţional to the head and, if greater
than the weight of the installation, may cause it to float,
shift or crack. The rule of thumb is to make concrete or
brickwork at least half as thick as the head, i.e. if the head
is 'h ' the weir or sluice m ust be 0.5h thick. The maximum
head over non-porous weirs and sluices of the sort which
volunteers can easily construct is about 4,-5’ (1.2m-1.5m).
Even at this head, concrete or brickwork m ust be 2'-2'6"
(610-760mm) thick.
S E C T 1 0N

c O n-stream dam s and high w eirs may block the

movement of migratory fish and must be equipped
w ith suitable fish passes, approved by the relevant
w ater authority, if on a trout or salmon river.
Hydrological factors
The following factors m ust be considered in the design
of any water barrier.
W ater p ressu re
Sheet piling or a concrete cut-off wall can be embedded
at the upstream end of the installation to force seepage
water ţo come up farther downstream, lessening the
upthrust on the installation and allowing the use of
thinner slabs. However, placing the footings requires
either a pile driver or the use of pumps to keep the cut-
off trench dry while pouring and curing concrete, and is
usually beyond volunteer capabilities.

Pressure is a function of the 'head' of water. Dams which C urren t

fail due to pressure always do so at the base, where the
pressure is greatest. Therefore the bottom of the dam
must be its strongest part. The Top w ater' of the upper
foot or so seldom poses a threat unless current rather
than pressure is the dom inant factor.
Current exerts a force upon objects in water just as wind
does upon objects exposed to air. For most dams this
force is insigniticant compared to that exerted by water
pressure. Structures in swift watercourses, however, may
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
fail due to current alone. This is especiaUy likely in the
case of very small dams, weirs and sluices made of weak,
often improvised materials the strength of which cannot be
adequately assessed relative to the force of the current.
Current can erode earth or sandbag dams and weirs and
concrete barriers which have not had time to set fully. For
this reason it is important to divert the streambef ore building
an on-stream dam and to protect the finished embankment.
Tidal barriers must usually be protected over the range of
the tides since they are subject to continuous scour.
Sometimes the failure of an on-stream dam in a flood
appears to be due to the current itself but is actually
caused by a combination of increased water pressure over
an inadequate spillway and erosion aided by flood-borne
debris.
P reventing erosion
An earth dam which is overtopped usually fails because the
dry face of the dam is rapidly eroded by falling water. This
may happen to sea walls overtopped by excepţional tides.
Weirs and sluices may erode where a change in slope causes
the current to accelerate, or where turbulence occurs, Proper
sluice design is largely a matter of preventing turbulence
during normal flow as w ell as occasional floods.
Erosion is also a problem just below a weir, which can
quickly be undermined and collapse. Small weirs in slow-
flowing streams where the velocity is less than about
200-250mm (8-10") per second may be protected with a
simple breakwater. This m ay consist of a stone slab laid
at a 45° slope against the downstream face, a num ber
of chunks of stone or concrete which project above the
surface of the water below the weir or several upright
stakes of varying lengths to scatter the overspill, driven
into the bottom just below the weir.
Where the velocity is likely to be greater than about 200-
250mm (8-10”) per second, erosion can be reduced by
designing the weir to the general shape shown below:
SECTION
It is necessary also to harden the channel at the downstream
toe of the weir, as shown. The simplest method uses a double
layer of stones too big to be shifted by the current, packed
together from the toe to a distance about half again as far as
the estimated area of scour, e.g. 600-900mm (2-3') for weirs
having a head over the crest of a foot or two. The stones form
aflexible mat which sags in front as the channel bottom starts
to scour and in this way prevents erosion from progressing
farther upstream towards the weir itself.
S eepage
Water seeks its own level. W hen unable to overtop a
barrier it attempts to seep under, through or around the
ends. Seepage through porous soils or wet peat causes
them to become unstable and slump. This, rather than
simple Teakage', is why barriers mustbe made of relatively
impermeable material unless they are stone, brushwood
or gabion weirs w hich are deliberately designed to allow
the flow -through of water. Internai erosion of a dam, or
'piping', is most likely to occur where tw o materials meet,
as where pipes run through the dam or where it joins
the bank or substratum. Piping is treacherous because at
first only the finest particles are carried away but by the
time it becom es noticeable it may be capable of rapidly
eroding the remaining material.
W hile it is almost im possible to prevent seepage it can
be minimised by forcing seepage w ater to travel the
longest possible distance. This is done by 'keying' the
barrier well into an im permeable base and bank and by
providing seepage collars or other obstacles to the flow
of water along the outside of pipes. Even the smallest
barrier shouldbe carried at least 150mm (6") into relatively
impervious material on either side. W here the barrier is
e :
keyed into earth there may be a problem with voles and
rats tunnelling around the end and causing a leak. Adding t .
a hard corner to the barrier serves to protect the bank at
tlris point. A corner also helps prevent seepage where the
bank is so hard that is cannot easily be cut away for a t
keyed joint. Small gaps between the barrier and the bank
can be sealed w ith clay or even packed with earth.
t -
W ind an d w aves
Wind can cause erosive wave action at the water line unless
a barrier is well Consolidated or protected by vegetation
or stone pitching. A dam must be designed with enough
freeboard to avoid being overtopped by wind-whipped
waves.
Im p u rities and acids e
M ortar and concrete remain w eak and may not bond
properly if they are mixed w ith w ater containing much
organic material or silt. If mortar or concrete is likely to
come in contact with acids in w ater or soil it is best to
use sulphate-resistant cement.
Siltation
e*:
Any barrier to the flow of w ater causes it to drop its load
of suspended solids. These build up and may drastically
shorten the barrier's useful life. Improperly designed
inlet channels w hich suffer erosion m ay contribute to
siltation and turbidity.

Safety and practicality
Any water barrier is in som e degree hazardous. Even
quite a small instaUation may cause a minor disaster if it
fails. For this reason, volunteers should attem ptto design
and construct only those dams, weirs and sluices w hich
fall well w ithin the lim its suggested below.
a Under the Reservoirs A ct of 1975 and more recent
legislation, any dam w hich im pounds more than
25,000 cubic metres of w ater m ust be constructed
and operated under the supervision of an engineer
approved by the D epartm ent of the Environment.
This would include for exam ple a lake of 2.5 hectares
(6 acres) of one m etre depth. Annual inspections and
monthly logs of w ater levels are also required.
b O n-stream dam s must be designed w ith suitable
overflows to handle runoff both from normal rainfall
and occasional storms. The size of the catchment area
needs to be taken into account. Take advice from the
Environment Agency as necessary,
c The overall size of concrete installations is limited
by the need to provide sealed joints and reinforcing
m esh or bars in slabs larger than about 3m (10') in any
dimension (less for upright or structural slabs and
where the concrete is under tension).AII reinf orcements
must be covered by at least 50m m (2") of concrete.
Size and design of concrete barriers is further limited
by difficulties in erecting formwork or shuttering
for large or irregular slabs. Shuttering is difficult to
place in cramped conditions and even more difficult
to retrieve despite being w ell oiled beforehand. Try
to use the cheapest w ood you can given the required
strength if you are uncertain about being able to get
it out afterwards. Calculate the weight of the concrete
before deciding on how strong the shuttering must
be. W here the design calls for curved surfaces or
bevelled corners, sheet m etal can be used for flexible
shuttering, held in place by w ooden struts and staked
to the ground. Le ave the shuttering in place for at least
a week to allow the concrete to strengthen.
d It is wise to have an expert check the plan and siting
of any earth dam before beginning w ork since this
type may fail if built w ithout the necessary skill and
experience.
For further advice see The Game Conservancy (1993).
Dams
Dams are barriers w hich block w ater but w hich are not
designed to be overtopped by it except where an overflow
is provided.
13 DAM S, W EIRS AND SLUICES
Why dams fail
Dams most often fail for one of the following reasons:
a Notenoughallow anceism adeforthesettlingofsoilinan
earth dam. The result is that the dam is overtopped.
b The overflow capacity of an on-stream dam is too small
so that the dam is overtopped in a storm. Overflow
design is discussed further below.
c The top is not wide enough or there is erosion from wave
action, or both. The result is a breach in the dam.
d Unsui table materials have been used which, combined
with internai seepage, causes the dam to give way from
within. A similar effect can be caused by the sudden
drawdown of the reservoir's water level, leaving the
water level within the dam higher than that on either
face.
e Internai erosion ('piping'), often due to seepage along
a pipe, causes the dam to collapse from within.
f Retrogressive erosion occurs atthe spillway or outflow
below the dam caused by steep slopes or inadequate
channel protection. This may occur naturally where a
dam isbuilt above a point of active stream rejuvenation
but more often it results from faulty construction of
the overflows themselves. The result is that the dam
is underm ined from the front or that it is outflanked
and w ater pours out of its eroded edge.
g The barrier is not properly keyed into the banks and
side so that it either fails due to seepage or continues
to stand but functions poorly.
h The materials of a wooden, brick or concrete barrier
have deteriorated due to age.
Earth dams
This section applies in general to all impermeable earth
em bankm ents, although not all require outlets and
overflows. Very small spoil dams, w hich are less difficult
to construct, are discussed at the end of the section.
S ite selectio n
G eneral factors influendng site selection have been
discussed in the chapter on 'N ew Ponds'. To further
investigate the location, dig anum ber of trial holes, sinking
them well below the depth of any proposed excavation or
in any case at least Im (3’) deep. Dig a hole in each corner
of the site. It is best in the case of a long dam to dig holes
every few yards along the centre line in order to locate
any old hidden stream beds which often run across valley
floors. Note the following:
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
a If the subsoil is permeable, a core trench must be dug
and Hlled with clay to key into the core of the dam. If the
substrata is rock, the construction will be costly because
a-cut-off trench must be dug or blasted along the line
of the dam in order to block seepage which otherwise
would occur through fissures in the rock.
b Most soils are sufficiently stable to bear the weight of
an earth dam but peat, topsoil or soil containing organic
matter is unsuitable and m ustbe stripped from the site.
It is also best to level the site, even though dams are
only likely to slip due to horizontal tihrust of water on
very steep sites.
Test and preparafion of dam m aterials
The tests below give an indication of soil quality. W hen in
doubt send a sample to a soils laboratory for testing.
The 'w orm test' gives a general indication of clay in the soil.
Take a small handful of soil, pick out any large pebbles and
roii the soil betw een open palms as if making a clay worm.
Sui table soils for homogeneous earth dams become moist
on the surf ace and rather plastic w hen manipulated, while
soils with too little clay fall to bits. In addition, suitable
soils become slightly sticky w hen wet, stain the hands
and have a gritty feel when rubbed between the fingers. If
the soil lacks 'fines', especially clay, an impermeable core
must be provided. Suitable clay for the core, as well as for
puddled pond linings, is plastic when moist, tenacious to
handle and contains at least 30% clay fractions.
The 'rapid sedimentation test' gives a more accurate
estimate of the percentages of clay, silt, sand and coarser
partides in the soil. Take a handful of soil, pick out and
discard the larger stones and put the remaining soil in a jar
or, preferably, a graduated cylinder. Top up the container
w ith water, shake it to mix the material and set it aside
to settle undisturbed for 24 hours. If possible, add a few
drops of sodium silicate (waterglass) to speed the process.
The coarsest partides immediately settle while a small
proportion of the clay may persist in suspension after
the period is up. Silt and clay may appear very similar in
partide size but they are noticeably different in colour and
the clay comes to rest on top.
The best soils for homogeneous earth dams are loams,
clay loams, sandy clay loams, or 'hoggin' (mixed sand,
gravei and clay) having not less than 20% nor more than
30% clay, with the rest being well graded sand and gravei
having, ideally, 30%. of the total as fine sand and 50% as
coarse sand and fine gravei. Adequate though less good
soils contain 10-25% clay and not more than 30% silt for a
total of not more than 50% clay plus silt.
Soil with a very high clay content expands when wet and
shrinks and cracks on drying. Such soils should only be
used in zoned or diaphr agm constru ction to prevent surface
cracking and erosion without excessive maintenance.
Peat is too w eakto use in dams, especially if subject to wave
action or disruption by tree roots. It can, however, make a
relative] y watertight bank provided it is well Consolidated
and packed. It works best where the bank represents the
last of the original peat still in place while the peat has been
dug out and removed to either side. Seepage through wet
peat is very slow, so it acts as a buffer between water lying
to both sides. If the water level drops on one side it takes
some time before the oiher side begins to filter through
to compensate.
G eneral d esign req u irem en ts
The general design requirements of a typical onstream
dam are discussed in Chapter 6 and shown in the diagram
on page 51. The dimensions and slopes indicated in the
diagrams w hich follow are minimal. The w et slope, for
example, should be no steeper than 1:2.5 and preferably
1:3. The normal freeboard should be at least 1m (3’) below
the dam crest although very small dams where waves are
unlikely to be m ore than a few inches high could allow
less. W here a dam is built next to an excavation there
should be a 3m (101) 'berm ' (shelf or shoulder) between
the excavation and the dam for adequate stability.
H om ogen eou s dam s
The diagram below shows a hom ogeneous dam on
im perm eable soil.
SECTIOM rem ove
c a m b e rh o p surface
f la y e r o f soi!
Rifer Place a n y c o a rs e material
in d o w n s h re a m sechon
The diagram below shows a hom ogeneous dam on
permeable soil, with a cut-off.
SECTIOM c a m b e r hop
¥
minimum
Im perm eable subsoil wihh ah ieash
20% clay conhenh
 13 DAM S, W EIRS AND SLUICES

Homogeneous dams are constructed of im permeable The diaphragm construction should be m ade with a
soil throughout. This is the cheapest method if the soil is puddled clay core.
suitable, i.e. w ell graded w ith 20%-30% clay and with the
non-clay fraction containing a fairly high proportion of SECTION Diaphragm 600mm
min. w id th
coarser particles to increase stability and aid compaction.
The clay content must not be too high or the soil will
shrink on drying and be uns table.
perm eable
Seepage w ill occur b u t should rem ain at an acceptable
a keyed Foundation
level given suitable soils. If seepage w ater passes through Varies from 600mm
the dam to emerge on the dry slope it m ay erode this Im perm eable
if fo u n d a tio n soil ►
is dense clay, hoH, Foundation s o il-
slope and eventually weaJken it. The solution is to draw
minimum Z 0 % clay
down seepage paths so that the w ater em erges at the fo r 2,0%-'bQ%> clay soil
toe of the em bankment. This can be done, if necessary,
by replacing the soil at the toe w ith an inverted filter of B la n k e t d am s
evenly graded m aterials as show n above. Erosion may
occur on the w et slope if the pond w ater level is drawn W here suitable im permeable soils are available only in
down more than 150mm (6") a day. very limited quantities the dam may bebuilt of permeable
soil w ith a w aterproof blanket on the w et slope. Suitable
Z on ed and d iap h ragm dam s blanket materials are dense clay, PVC or butyl rubber
(see Chapter 7).
These types are m ade of p erm eable soil w ith an
im permeable core. The perm eable soil m u stbe ştab le but SECTION W a te rp ro o f blanket
(clay o r PVC requires
it is the core w hich forms the actual seepage barrier. If
s o il c o v e r )
supplies of im perm eable soil are adequate it is best and s lig h tfa l]
cheapest to build the zoned design, w ith the permitted 4-------
core widths show n below. The more permeable the soil
used in the core the wider the core must be to provide fi/ / Ftermeable soil
an adequate seepage barrier. illi/im iiiiiiii
Keyed F o u n d a tio n — ^
The diagram below shows a zoned dam on impermeable
P e rm e a b le fo u n d a fio n soil
soil.

C on stru ction
SECTION & to p w id th xam ber
Earthdam construction work m ustbe carriedoutinstable
conditions. The best time is summer, especially May and
June w hen rain is least Iikely.
im perm eable;
— — s|rÎ600mm minimum 1 Strip the topsoil over the area of the dam. Set it aside
p e rm e a b le
soil k e y e d fo u n d a tio n for reuse. Grub up trees and shrubs as necessary.
----------------$
min. c o re w id th H (fo rd e n s e clay) 2 Scarify the sub-soil along the line of the dam using a
to 2H (fo r 2 0 % _30% cla y soil)
plough, disc harrow or hand tools. This improves the
Max c o re w id th
seal betw een the dam and the foundation by creating
The diagram below shows a zoned dam on permeable parallel corrugations at right angles to the line of
soil. possible seepage flow.

3 Key the dam into im permeable subsoil, or if this is too

S E C T IO N deep, dig a cut-off trench as illustrated above.
/z top w idth
xam ber
4 If the dam is to have a bottom outlet pipe (p ll6 ), this
should be laid in a narrow trench excavated in the
impermeable, foundation soil to a depth equal to two pipe diameters.
c o re
k^CUt-OfF ^y////. p erm e a b le ) The concrete anti-seepage collars should pass through
l\dv the trench walls into undisturbed soil. After laying the
x _ -$ 600mm minimum
pipe, refill the trench with soil of a high clay content
. 2m
minimum and thoroughly compact the soil around the pipe and
M inim um core w idth a s b e fo re collars.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
When building an on-stream dam the stream must be
carried through the work area by way of a bottom outlet
pipe or a by-pass channel. These may be temporary or
designed as perm anent features. It may be necessary
to divert the stream by m eans of a tem porary dam
located upstream and d e ar of the toe of the permanent
dam. If there is no low -level outlet and the dam is
long, the tem porary by~pass channel should be shifted
progressively towards the eventual primary overflow,
in order to keep the stream fiowing w ell around to the
side of the enlarging dam. The old stream bed should
be filled in across the line of the dam.
5 Build the dam in layers extending over the full w idth
and length of the em bankment. The layers should be
spread about 150mm (6") thick and then compacted.
Compaction can be by hand, or rather by heel, but this
is extremely laborious. Im perm eable soil to be 'heeled
in7 should be in a plastic condition.
It is most efficient to compact the soil mechanically.
For fairly small dams this can be done w ith a roller, or
w ith a power tamper, available from hire firms. Large
dams can be compacted by m eans of heavily loaded
rubber-wheeled vehicles w hich impose concentrated
loads on the soil. Tracked earth-moving vehicles are
less goodbecausethey exert less pressure. Impermeable
soils should not be plastic if they are to be compacted
mechanically. Squeeze a small ball of soil in the hand;
it should not be so soft that it deforms to the shape of
the hand nor so dry that a small dent cannot be made
by pressing hard w ith the thumb. Do this test w ith a
freshly dug sam ple because soil dries rapidly when
handled.
If the dam is com posed of an im permeable core with
permeable outer layers, build up the core at the same
rate as the rest of the dam. The core should be of the
consistency already indicated for hand or mechanical
compaction. The permeable outer soil should notbe so
plastic that a deep depression is formed by the heel,
but it should be possible to just dent it with the heel.
6 W hen work is left overnight or at weekends, the top
of the structure should be given a slightly cambered
profile. This allows rain to run off and m inimises any
damage should the stream breakits temporary bypass
channel. If the work is left for sever al days in very dry
weather, the surface should be watered, harrowed and
recompacted before adding more fiii.
7 The dam settles after com pletion so it must be built
higher than its specified final height. Allow 10% extra
height for settling after mechanical compaction or 20%
for settling after hand compaction. Finishthe dam with
a slightly cambered profile to aid rain runoff.
8 Replace topsoil on parts of the dam not below the
anticipated w ater level.
P ro tectin g the finished em b an k m en t
a Spread grass seed immediately uponfinishing the dam.
This helps stabilise the soil and minimise erosion as
well as prevent the growth of coarse weeds, scrub and
trees. Remember, though, that theuse of ordinary grass
seed mixtures may introduce new species into areas
of natural interest where they would not otherwise
occur. W here this is not a problem, the best grasses
are strains of creeping bent (Agrostis stolonifera) and
rough-stalkm eadow grass (Poa trivialis) which flourish
in w et or dry conditions and are fairly low growing.
Their seed costs more than ordinary grass seed and the
banks must be covered with fine soil before sowing.
b Small herbaceous plants, rushes and aquatic grasses
m ake effective shoreline stabilisers and m ay be
planted to give a 'natural7 look to a small dam, but
some species spread and may need later control. Do
not plant anything deep-rooted.
c If the soil is highly saline, as is often the case in Coastal
barriers, vegetation may be very slow to take hold. Wire
netting or a suitable geotextile can be staked across
the face of the bank to help to keep it from slipping
until vegetation is established.
d The area around the w ater line may need special
protection against wave erosion. Use stone pitehing
or floating or fixed wave barriers.
e The intersection of an im pounding dam w ith its valley
sides forms natural drainage channels. This area may
need special attention to prevent erosion.
f Fence the dam as necessary to keep off people and
large animals.
f j
M ainten an ce ţr:
Inspect the dam periodically
a Check the overall stability and general condition. Watch
for gullying, slips and undue settlement which may
indicate internai weakening.
b Fiii cracks w hich appear during dry weather.
T - -
c Check for seepage. If this is slight and confined to
the area downstream of the toe it is not serious.
But if seepage increases rapidly you must correct it
immediately, before the dam erodes from the inside. To
correct dangerous seepage, excavate the toe and replace
it w ith an inverted filler of evenly graded materials,
as shown in the diagram of the homogeneous dam on
page 112.
d Weed any trees and shrubs on the embankment and
spillway.

e Check the conditions of the overflow spillway and
outlet pipes, and restore eroded areas, damaged
concrete and silted catchbasins.
Sm all spoil dam s
Dams can easily be made by sim ply heaping up and
compacting the spoil from a pool excavated upstream.
They should be kept under about 300mm (1') in height
unless they are built to the same standard as full-scale
earth dams.
The main problem is seepage, especially when the dam
is made of turf or peat. Polythene sheet held against the
upstream side w ith turf or additional soil may be used
to form an im perm eable barrier. Old doors, discarded
sheet metal and so on can also be used and work well
as long as the structure is so small that no joining is
needed betw een these items. W hatever the im permeable
material, its bottom edge should be placed in a trench
and anchored w ith puddled clay or compacted soil to
minimise seepage underneath.
Overflow and outlet design
Basic overflow req u irem en ts
Off-stream dams do not require overflows provided
they receive little runoff from surrounding higher land
and provided that the inflow can be controlled. On-
stream dams m ust have adequate overflows to prevent
overtopping and failure during floods. There are two
basic design requirements:
a The overflow m ust be adequate for a defined level
of catchm ent runoff, including an allowance for very
occasional catastrophic storms, w ithout the dam being
overtopped.
b The overflow m ust w ithstand erosion under all
conditions. The calculations of catchment runoff and
overflow capacity are complicated, and expert advice
should be sought on the construction of any new on-
stream dam.
Single v ersu s d u al overflow
V arious designs and d im ensions of overflow may
accommodate the calculated catchment and storm runoff.
The simplest approach is to build the dam w ith a single
overflow designed to take all runoff levels. This is best
where the catchm ent is m ainly permeable and the terrain
flat and well vegetated. Here there is only a slight variation
in flow betw een norm al and storm conditions so there
is no need to build the overflow wastefully large to take
occasional extraordinary levels. Because itis incontinuous
use, the single overflow m ust b e paved, concreted or
otherwise protected. It may be ashort steep chute ending
13 DAMS, W EIRS AND SLUICES
in a stilling basin, a long low w eir or a sluice w ith gates,
depending on the situation.
W here a single overflow m ust be made impracticably
large to handle storm runoff or there is a great difference
between norm al and storm flows, a dual system is cheaper
and simpler. A dual overflow incorporates a primary
overflow to take normal runoff and a storm overflow
(spillway) w hich comes into occasional use after storms.
The prim ary overflow may be identical to but smaller
than the overflow of a single overflow dam, or it may be
a brick or concrete weir chamber, in w hich case water is
taken out from under the dam via a pipe.
P rim ary overflow w e ir ch am b er
This design has a capacity of 3 cusecs per foot length
of w eir at 300m m (1') head. It can be made of brick or
concrete, and should be located at the edge of the pond
near the opposite end of the dam from the spillway. A
pipe w ith w atertight joints carries the flow from the
weir under the dam to the downstream watercourse.
The pipe should be laid at an even slope in the existing
ground and should end at a bottom outlet bay such as
that shown on page 117. ’
The primary overflow should b e able to discharge 1/10
cusec per acre of catchment, provided that sufficient
f reeboard is left betw een the level of the primary overflow
and that of the spillway crest, i.e. 300mm ( l r). The spillway
can thenbe designed as a gently sloping grass bank taken
around one end of the dam. The spillway's capacity
depends on the 'control section', a level straight portion
of channel extending about 7.6m (25') downstream from
the spillway crest. There should be 600m (2’) freeboard
betw een the spillway crest and the top of the dam.
SECTION fhrough Spillway
, LEVEL
ÎContnol sech'on ;
TWL 300mm 7-6m
1 _ T
*K)
S p illw a y e n ira n c e , 150-22Smm beiow
norm al top w a te r level
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
PLAN -t.r- ^ ....... Bank
01
Ai
B B ottom outlet
5ECTION A - A i
SECTION B - B 1
The spillway show n on the previous page is designed to
come into use fairly frequently, several times a year in most
catchments. To protect it from erosion it should be seeded
or turfed as soon as possible after construction. Turfing
is the safest, quickest m ethod of ensuring a grass cover
but the turfs should be staked or w ired if the spillway is
likely to come into use before they have properly knitted
to the underlying soil. W here velocities cannot be kept
below l.6m (6') per second, the grassed surface mayerode,
threatening the dam structure. In this case the spillway
should be covered in PVC or butyl rubber sheet, unless
there is seepage through the spillway, in which case the
sheeting is likely to lift and stone pitching or gabion
'm attresses' should be used instead (p86).
For small dams it is possible to have a simpler dual
overflow System w ith a primary overflow and a spillway
designed to come into use once every two or three years
at most. This spillway can, in effect, be part of the dam
or earth bank provided its slope is no steeper than 1:3,
the surface has a good grass cover and the head over the
spillway is never more than75-100m m (3-4"). The primary
overflow should be set300m m (1') lower than the spillway,
as in the more complex system already described.
A low-level outlet at the ba se of the dam has several
advantages :
a D u rin g and a fter co n stru c tio n it can channel
c o m p e n s a t i o n w a t e r to r i p a r i a n o w n e r s
downstream.
b It allows the pond to be emptied w hen necessary for
repair or cleaning.
c If the inflow into the pond is adequate the outlet can
be left partly open to allow a flow-through of water
in order to keep deep areas well oxygenated. This
requires that the pond levels be checked frequently,
however.
It is possible to combine a bottom outlet with a primary
overflow, through w hat is know n as a 'drop iniei', but
this requires a large-diam etef pipe to cope with the flow.
A separate bottom outlet can use a smaller pipe but it
should not be less than 150mm (6") diameter for the
size of the dam under discussion here. The pipe must
be w atertight and carefully laid in a trench excavated
in solid ground below the dam. Anti-seepage collars are
SECTiON th ro u g h B ottom O u tle t
-2 'Am—»
500 mmj)'.....y Vaive
TWLÂ
Fi i fe r
Ţ Flexîbie and
Bottom outlet
pipe, diam(d) Concrete wat'erh9W -,oinl's
ISOmmmin a n fi-s e e p a g e
coliar, d ia m 5 d
necessary to prevent seepage along the outside of the
pipe w hich could weaken the dam.
The entrance to the bottom outlet should be located well
clear of the dam and should be 150mm (6") or so above
the bottom to compensate for silting. It is best not to locate
the opening in a small deep pocket. The end of the pipe
shouldbe protected with a tr ash screen to keep debris from
entering the pipe. The floor of the inlet chamber should
be at least 150mm (6") below the invert of the pipe.
 13 DAMS, W EIRS AND SLUICES

The downstream end of the outlet pipe should be carried

well beyond the toe of the dam and should feed into a
watercourse via an outlet bay. The w atercourse may need
revetments or other protection against turbulence.

PLAN 'd ’^ in le t pipe d ia m e te r

c o n c re te min
i50mm tb ick

T T î T
d |>;ie3d-î f3d-5 <------lOd---------3
w atercourse
4d
.. .... 1 î | î
225 x 7 S m m hrnber stop IC iil
planKs, firm ly w edged,in
c a s t sloi; iOOmm wide

SECTiON

This is made of boards pre-cut to a standard specification

so that they fit together tightly and can be replaced or
reused w ithout difficulty.

FACE VIEW from downstream side

AII bottom outlets should have a valve or plug to allow M etal channel (fix e d w ithgalvanisedsheel
the outflow to b e stopped or controlled. This should be at
the upstream end, if possible, to reduce pressure within
the pipe but in the case of a separate outlet the valve is
more cheaply and sim ply installed at the downstream
end where it is easily accessible. In this case especially it
is important that the pipew ork and joints be good quality.
A drop inlet can have the valve at the bottom of the drop
shaf t at. the upstream end of the pipe, controlled by mearts
of a long rod and wheel from above.

Wooden dams

S leep er dam

Sleeper dams are extrem ely easy to construct but are

prone to leaking. They m ust be well bedded into the
banks on either side or set against posts if they are not to
be carried away by storms. The design above is adequate
for shallow streams and can back up water 1-1.2m (3-41)
deep. It can function as a w eir w ith a breakwater placed
below the downstream face.
Im p e rm e a b ie la y e r
This design also m akes a good w eir on a narrow
watercourse, as long as a breakw ater is placed below the
downstream face. M ore often it is provided w ith a sluice
opening to control w ater levels, as shown in the diagram,
in w hich case no other overflow is required.

The boards m ust be m achine-cut by a tim ber merchant

for accuracy. Elm or oak boards are best and need not be
treated w ith preservative. M uch cheaper are pfessure-
treated larch or Scots pine timbers.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
1 Determine the required board length. To do this, take
soundings in the channel bottom where the dam is to
be placed. Use a long 6mm diameter Steel rod and push
it in as far as you can, or use a borer to take out a core
sample. W hen using a rod be sure to push it through
any thin seams of im perm eable m aterial down to the
true solid bottom into which the boards must be driven.
If the boards are driven only into permeable soil or
peat the w ater w ill force its way underneath the dam
to burst out perhaps as much as 6m (20') downstream.
The boards m ust be long enough to raise the w ater to
the desired level.
FACE SECTION
Metal banei o r cap,
on tap end, ta
re d u ce s p liltin g
2 Lay a solid tim ber across the channel from w hich to
work.
3 'Strike' the dam 's centre board. This is the only board
w hich is chamfered on both edges. Drive it in with a
maul, m aking sure that it stands absolutely vertical.
4 Drive in a board next to the centre board, with its
chamfer away from the centre board. The effect of the
chamfer is to push the board tight against the centre
board as it is driven in.
5 Next drive a board on the other side of the centre
board, the chamfer facing away.
6 Continue to strike alternate boards, building the dam
towards each shore. M ake sure the boards are driven
into the im permeable substrata as measured by your
soundings.
7 The dam m ust be properly keyed into the bank, This
means driving the last board on each side down
through the bank so that at least half its width is in
the bank. Where the bank is too hard for this, make a
water-tight corner instead, by driving in a couple of
boards at right angles to the line of the dam where it
meets each bank. Set the chamfer away from the dam
so that the corner boards are driven tight against the
last board in the dam itself.
These corners also discourage voles and rats from
burrowing around the ends of the dam and perfor ating
the bank, although there is no guarantee that seepage
from this cause will not occur.
8 After the dam is in place, cut out the opening for the
sluice gate and screw in the metal channel. Slide in
the sluice boards.
PLAN U n ji i i h
— f lo w -----
d ire c h o n C hannels
screw ed on
Rem oveable slu ice b o a rd s upslream side
9 Wide dams require a 'string piece' across the top to hold
the damboards in place and keep them from spreading.
For example, on a 4-5m (15’) wide dyke a 180 x lOOmm
x 6m (7” x 7" x 20’) string piece should be used, set into
the sides of the dyke against the downstream side of
the dam and held by stakes if necessary.
Channels 2.4m (81) deep or more require another string
piece set at the bottom to counteract the water pressure
which might otherwise burst the boards at the base.
To install the bottom string piece, place a coffer dam,

construct shuttering if the banks are soft peat, silt or sand
and pump the work area dry. Dig out holes into which
the string piece fits, slide the string piece into place and
compact the soil around it so that it sits solidly.
10 W here a string piece is not required it may still be
convenient to lay aplankacross the channel as a bridge
and to reach the sluice boards. Firmly secure the bridge
by driving stakes on either side or by digging it into
the earth,
11 If the dam boards spread slightly at the top, small gaps
or 'finger holes' can be plugged by sprinkling a few
spadefuls of dry peat or other dry black earth on the
boards on the upstream side. With luck the earth will
be drawn betw een the boards and seal the cracks.
Filled sack dams
Sand, clay or concrete-filled sacks can be piled into
dams exactly as for wave barriers (p89). Use w oven
polypropylene bags and pack them around with clay if
it is im portant to cut down seepage. These structures can
also function as weirs as long as a breakwater is installed
below the downstream face.
Sandbags can be combined w ith wooden or iron pickets
and galvanised iron sheeting to make a dam capable of
backing up a m axim um of 1.5m (5’) of water in a stream
300-600mm (2-31) deep. The dam must be provided with a
spillway around one end, w ith its crest 300mm (T) below
the top of the dam, to prevent the dam being overtopped
and eroded.
SECTION
Sheefs, wired to pickefs
Coffer dams
Coffer dams are tem porary structures positioned to hold
back w ater and create a dry place in w hich to work. They
are oftenused to isolate areas of waterways which are to be
cleaned or to allow perm anent dam s or bankworks to be
repaired or rebuilt. A lthoughthey do not need spillways,
in all other respects they m ust be given the same sort of
forethought and care as perm anent dams.
13 DAM S, W EIRS AND SLUICES
It is not possible to specify designs for coffer dams since
the choice of materials and the size and strength of dam
required varies with each situation. A few general points
should be kept in mind :
a Earth or clay dams are very likely to fail for reasons
given earlier in this chapter. The care needed to make
them really safe usually requires more work than is
justifiable for a coffer dam.
b Sandbag barriers make good low-level dams. A single
row of bags, stacked across the channel in staggered
layers, is sufhcient where no more than 600mm (2’)
of head is created. A double row allows up to about
900mm (3’) of w ater to be backed up. This type of dam
is not watertight and the work area must be continually
pumped.
c W here the head of water is greater than 600-900mm
(2-31) and the area to be dammed is not too wide
it is best to construct a w ooden dam following the
procedure described above. This is m ost easily done
if the proper boards are used. The materials can be
recovered afterwards.
d A simple timber coffer dam canbe made with a double
row of boards packed between w ith earth or clay.
SECTION
e If the head of w ater is considerable, ie 1.2m (4*) or more,
it is easier to build a double dam than to make a single
coffer dam of adequate strength. Allow about 3m (10’)
betw een the two dams. It is im portant that the w ater
level betw een them be half w ay betw een that of the
outside w ater level and that of the work area, so that
the pressure is shared equally. In still water this may
be achieved by pum ping out between the dams to the
correct level, while in flowing w ater the dams must
incorporate overflows or diversions at the required
heights.
SECTION Natural water level
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS

f Be sure that the banks are stable before pumping
out the water. Quite often it is necessary to reiriforce
them w ith revetm ents or tim bering to keep them from
slumping. Large dykes, especially in peat, must be
strengthened by a complete box of strong shuttering
around the w ork area.
d Concrete spillboards are lasting and can be cast to fit
the situation. They can easily incorporate a notch to
measure stream flow.
Porous weirs

Weirs
Weirs are barriers, usually in flowing water, which hold
back water and are overtoppedby it in normal conditions.
They may be part of the o verflow systems of dams or they
may be placed on their own where only a small head of
w ater is to be ponded back, for example to create fish
pools. Small weirs on feeder streams act as silt traps to
reduce siltation of on-stream ponds.
Porous weirs slow the flow of water rather than stop it.
The greater the flow the higher the water raised by the
weir. In times of Iow flow the w ater simply goes through
the gaps, w hich is why porous weirs are ineffective in
still water and should not be used where seepage must
be minimised. M aterials for porous weirs include:
a Piled stones or gabions
b Brushwood or logs laid across the channel

W hatever the design, the bed below must be protected

Banks with spillboards
Simple weirs can be m ade by inserting a spillboard
be tween the existing banks of a stream or ditch or by partly
cutting off a water course with an earth bank containing
a spillboard. The advantage of this over a plain earth
bank is that the spillboard, arranged to be lower than the
bank and made of an erosion-resistant material, takes the
overflow rather than the easily-eroded bank.
Artificial banks should be built up of compacted layers
of impermeable soil just like a small earth dam. Key the
spillboard into a groove in each bank. Wooden spillboards
swell slightly but if seepage continues plug the gaps
with clay.
from scour and the material making up the weir must
be heavy enough or firmly enough bedded to resist
shifting inflood conditions. Stones for small weirs should
weigh 50kg (lcw t) or more. W here these are not readily
available, gabions can be filled w ith smaller stones to the
required weight. Gabions may be purchased or made
from chainlink fencing (p85).
The following designs for boulder weirs can be used on
curved and straight channels respectively.
PLAN PLAN

Any material m ay be used for a spillboard as long as it

is durable, resists decay in w ater and is strong enough
for the current:

a Wooden planks make cheap spillboards. Old discarded

pressure-treated tim ber such as that used in board
dams is particularly good. D on't cut up valuable elm
or oak boards, though, unless you are sure they can
no longer serve their original purpose.

b Sleepers make very solid spillboards. Like planks,

they can be placed one on top of another to raise the
effective level. If they are not badly warped, seepage
fe -H
betw een the cracks is usually tolerable. Think twice
before cutting good sleepers into short lengths. You
can use old part-rotted sleepers w hich cannot be
trusted for bridges if you d on't mind them becom ing
progressively more leaky over the next few years.

c Sheet metal, w hich m ay be available as scrap, works

well but is ugly and becom es dangerous as it rusts.
Sheet metal for spillboards should be at least 3mm fe - |
(1/8") thick or, if thinner, should have welded angle
reinforcements.
eI
 13 DAMS, W EIRS AND SLUICES

Tem porary slab w eir
The w eir showri below is desigrted to m aintain summer
w ater levels in trout streams and to be inactivated when
levels rise naturaUy in winter.
Another arrangement is to step the downstream face to
give it a gentler slope and break the force of the water, as
shown below. The steps are protected with boards.
SECTION

In either case the channel downstream m ustbe protected

In autumn the Steel stakes should be removed and stored
and the concrete slabs laid flat on the stream bed, ready
to be replaced the next spring w hen water levels begin
to drop.
by stones to prevent erosion. Where the weir does not rest
on rock, it may be made more stable and w atertight by
driving pre-cut dam boards (pl31) along the base both
up and down stream as shown.
SECTION boards

Wooden weirs

Tem porary b oard w eir

This simple design may be used to raise summer stream

levels by a few inches to form fish pools, and should be
removed before winter. Drop pools are unlikely to form
in this time, even without downstream protection, and if
they do the weir may be easily re~sited elsewhere.
Concrete and masonry weirs
Crib w eirs
Concrete weirs incorporated into earth dams should have
PLAN the general shape of the one shown on page 122. If the
faces are no steeper than 1 vertical to 3 horizontal they
may be cast without the placing of complex formwork.
Concrete side walls m ust also be provided to protect the
channel w here it cuts through the earth dam.

F ree-stan d in g designs

The designbelow provides anefficient shape for a concrete

weir, and should have a thickness at the base at least 50%
greater than the height. The apron is designed to turn
the flow sîightly upwards to dissipate the energy of the
water and help prevent erosion downstream.

Crib weirs of rough tree trunks, short dam boards and

stones, are econom ical w here felling is being done and
a simple but strong structure is needed. The logs, 100-
150mm (4-6") in diameter, are placed 600-900mm (2-3’)
apart and spiked to others placed across them at right
angles. The spacesbetw een are packed with stones or clay
and the upstream face covered w ith boards and sealed
w ith clay to prevent seepage. The downstream face may
also be boarded over.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS

This design requires complex formwork using sheet metal
bent to the required shape, and where this is impractical
the design shown ori page 110 should be adopted.
Weirs may be built of rough stonesbound by concrete, with
the base the same dim ension as the height or greater.
Open sluices
W hen used as part of the overflow system of an on-stream
pond, the dimensions shown below should be checked
againstthe criticai storm flow from the catchmentto ensure
that the sluice is big enough. Take advice as necessary.

In all cases the weir must be built down to a solid and

permanent footing to prevent leakage and shifting and the
downstream channel m ust be protected with stones.

Sluices
Sluices are channels for conducting w ater through
regulating val ves or gates. They may be self-contained or
part of larger dams or weirs where the aim is to regulate
as well as im pound water.
Small ponds frequently have sluices at their outlets which
function either as single overflows or as the primary
overflows on dual Systems. W hen a pond's level is high
due to rain or heavy runoff from feeder streams, boards
can be removed or the gate lowered to allow more water
out. In times of drought the outflow can be blocked to
keep the pond at the desired level. Ideally, the sluice also
functions as a low -level outlet w hich allows the pond to
be drained by the removal of all the sluice boards or by
lifting the gate so that w ater flows out at the bottom.
The concrete base ensures that water falling over the
sluice boards does not erode the installation. The outflow
channel should be protected w ith stone pitching as
necessary.
W here the m axim um flow through the sluice is likely to
cause erosion around the ends, the design may be modiiied
as shown below. It is important, where the sluice outflow
is also a spillway, that the downstream apron is extended
beyond the base of the dam as shown. A stilling basin
m ay be necessary to handle fast flows.
PLAN

Sluices installed at control points in ditch or dyke systems

aid in the m anagem ent of a num ber of nature reserves,
such as Woodwalton Fen N ational Nature Reserve in
Cambridgeshire where a complete grid of dykes has
been supplied w ith sluices w hich allow control of levels
within a tolerance of a few inches. By maintaining slightly
different w ater regim es in various sectors w ithin the fen 5ECTION
a highly diverse flora is protected and promoted. Sluices
are also used for flood and tidal control, for example on
the Ouse Washes, at M insm ere in Suffolk and at Arne
RSPB reserve in Dor set. Tidal sluices allow the sal ini ty
of impounded w ater to be controlled or, where one-way
flaps are installed, prevent salt water from flowing into
freshwater lagoons.
I
13 DAM S, W EIRS AND SLUICES

N otice th at n atu ral scou r areas occur around the SECTION

downstream ends of the sluice where the flow is swift.
These should be allowed for in the design of the dam.
or em bankm ent and may be cut out in advance and
protected from further erosion. Protection may beb y stone
pitching or by gabion 'm attresses7 made of 900m-l. 2m
(3-4’) w ide chain-link fencing laid on the bank, covered
w ith stones, folded back over itself to hold the stones in
place and pinned to the bank to keep from slipping. Jute
matting or other biodegradable geotextiles (p84) may be
used where the flow is slow enough that a dense cover
of grass w ill suffice once it establishes itself and the
matting rots. Stronger protection in the f orm of galvanised
wire /polypropylene geotextile m ay be necessary where
fiows are stronger.

Closed sluices

The standard closed sluice is the 'm onk', so calledbecause

it is supposed to have been developed for use in the old
monastic fish ponds. It is still w idely used in Scotland,
where it is claimed that for com bining water level control
Sluice gates
w ith the penning of fish it has never been bettered. The
basic design, show n below, should be provided w ith a P la n k gate
removable top cover and a galvanised m etal fish screen
across the front where fish are to be kept in the pond. A standard plank gate set in a m etal or pre-cast concrete
channel is a simple and effective design. Elm or oak boards
concrete coi iar, on 150- are m ost durable. They can range from 25 x 150mm (1 x
6") size up to sîeepers for very large gates.

M etal charmels should be rolled Steel. They should be fixed

to w ooden structures w ith galvanised Steel screws and to
concrete w ith galvanised rag bolts. Channels fixed to a
wooden dam are shown on page 118. U shaped channels
range from 75 x 38mm (3 x 1.5") upwards.

Board gates have several problems:

a They leak unless constructed as double sets of boards

w ith earth packing.

b They may be very bard to remove under greatpressure

or a strong current. This problem occurs only on large
r -*t| sluices.

c They can be easily vandalised and the boards taken,

r T3
The size of pipe depends on the required outflow and
unless set away from the bank.

should be at least 225m m (9") diameter. For on-stream
dams the capacity m ust be planned according to storm
5 5
flow requirements. A single section of uPVC pipe should
be used to avoid joints.
’3
Where vandalism is Iikely, the pipe may be extended
out into the w ater so that the end containing the control
i boards is out of reach. Or the head may be set into the
dam and the upstream edge made flush w ith the bank
for unobtrusiveness and ease of cleaning.
! '.9
d They do not allow fine adjustments of the water
level.
e They do not control the direction of flow. On tidal sites
and occasionally elsewhere, direcţional control may
be m ost important.
Am ong the many alternatives to the plank gate, those
discussed overleaf are perhaps the simplest and most
useful.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
Lifting gates
Solid gates can be provided with heavy-duty hardware
to deter vandals and with ratchets, turnscrews or other
mechanism s to m ake lifting easier. Single gates are
designed to drain the pond or channel by providing a
low-level opening, as show n below.
For fine control of w ater levels a double gate is best,
provided with an independent lift mechanism for each
gate. In small sluices both gates can be placed in the same
channel as shown.
B o x gate
Thisis desired for use in tidal situations or on fully regulated
dyke systems where first one side of the sluice and then the
other may have higher water. The box allows flow only in
one direcţi on because it is fitted with a hinged lid which
swings shut when the current reverses. This gate can be
easily incorporated into the standard board dam (p il 7).
SECTION , .
Tidal sluices can also be controlled by means of swing
valves (see below).
Pipe sluices
Pipe sluices are simple constructions using one or more
adjustable plastic pipes, which pass through earth or
concrete dams to allow inflow and outflow levels to be
controlled. In recent years they have been widely used
on RSPB and other reserves, and have proved cheap
to construct, simple to operate and durable. Two basic
types have been constructed. These are small bore rigid
uPVC pipes (e.g. 'O sm a' pipes) w ith right angle bends,
or larger bore flexible uPVC pipes. Small bore pipes are
w idely available from builders' merchants, and larger
bore pipes from agricultural suppliers.
R igid pipes
To control water levels in a ditch, the following simple
design can be used. uPVC pipes of diameter llOmm or
160mm are suitable, supplied in 3m lengths. Lay the pipe
along the bottom of the ditch. A 90° bend is then fitted to
the upstream end of the pipe, and earth is banked over
the pipe and compacted. By rotating the bend, water
level can be varied by about 200m m (8”). Further lengths
can be inserted into the bend to control greater depths
of water. Being simple to operate, these type of sluices
are easily tampered with by vandals. W here the location
makes a sluice vulnerable, it may be necessary to position
the upper end of the bend out of reach of shore, and only
operated using a suitable long pole, or from a boat.
r
13 DAMS, W E IR SA N D SL U IC E S

f/ r t'h w , T ffr n f7 ffr r fh -

splash w ater table will
plate '" ■V back up to this level
3 - . -.-XSteu 'a
^ 777777777777^ ^ Pietd drain

^7777777777

The size of the pipe or pipes w ill depend on the required Flexib le p lastic p ip e sluices
flow of water. Several pipes can b e fitted, and then one
or more opened as necessary. RSPB have used 110,160 Flexible plastic pipes of diam eter350or500m m , normally
and 200m m diam eter uPVC pipes at several reserves, in 6m lengths, can b e used to rapidly move large volumes
including Nene Washes, M insmere and Titchwell Marsh. of water through sluices. The corrugations, w hich give
W here large amounts of water need to be drained rapidly flexibility to the pipe, also help slow seepage along the
from lagoons, sluices w ith a low -level large diameter outside of the pipe. Flexible plastic pipes are Iight and
on-off pipe are constructed, w ith adjustable pipes above. easy to handle, can be cut w ith a hacksaw, and j oined w ith
For further details see Burgess, Neil and Hirons, Graham push-fit connectors. The pipe should be set in the dam as
JM (1990). it is constructed, about one-third up from the base of the
dam. This allows the sluice to give maximum flow when
needed, and prevents surface w eed getting sucked into
SECTION the pipe. To close the sluice, the end of the pipe is lifted
co ncrete sluice up and tensioned by a rope and attached to a stake or
w ith plastic similar on the dam. Use a chain and padlock or similar
. .. , J ......
where vandalism may occur.
...
îarge diom.
.................. A*- ."1T||_...... 1 pipe - ........
,VVv
m m z / r f i:i
V /M
»/ / / } 7

The same principie can be used to control ditch flow into

a drain, by fitting the adjustable bend into a concrete
blockw orkcham ber. The chamber also serves as a silttrap
and a point from w hich drains can be rodded. For further
details see Coleshaw, Tim (1995) in Enact (Voi 3 No 1).
Pipework

Pipes passing through embankments, w hetherinlet pipes,

primary overflow pipes, bottom outlet pipes or piped-in
sluices, m ust be:

a Flexible and strong enough to withstand the highloads

caused by uneven settling

b Fitted w ith w atertight joints

A n alternative use isto control w ater level in field drains, c Fitted w ith anti-seepage collars if the pipe passes
as shown. below the top w ater level of an earth embankment.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
Otherwise the soil inside the bank may erode due
to seepage along the outside of the pipe. Collars are
usually made of concrete at least 150mm (6") thick.
To be effective the collars should have a diameter five
times that of the pipe and should be spaced ten pipe
diameters apart along the line of the pipe. For larger
pipes the num ber of collars can be increased in order
to decrease their overall size.
The following types of pipe may be used:
a Vitrified clay pipes. These are widely available, and
are easy to join with push-fit polypropylene flexible
couplings.
b uPVC pipes. These are w idely available, w ith fittings
as required. They are light and easy to handle, and are
very resistant to deterioration.
c Cast and spun iron pipes. These are rigid but can be
provided w ith flexible joints. They are very strong and
resistant to deterioration but are costly. For this reason
they are usually used only w here the earth loading is
high, e.g. the bottom outlet to an on-stream dam.
d Spun concrete pipes. These are rigid and so should
be connected w ith flexible joints. They are strong and
can be used any where except in w ater or soil high in
sulphates.
Where diversion pipes are taken off at an angle, their
openings should be made flush to the bank or concrete
slab by m eans of a galvanised metal collar or dish.
PLAN
bank o r slab
collar
T Repair of dams, weirs or sluices takes extremely careful
rm77//77/77f; 1]/f7777777777777
*n pipe
Valves and plugs
AU plugs and, when possible, control valves on pipes
passing throughem bankm ents shouldbe atthe upstream
ends to reduce the pressure w ithin the pipes.
The advantage of a valve is that it allows the outflow to
be controlled, whereas once a plug is opened it cannot
be easily replaced until the pond has drained to a level
w ithin w orking distance of the pipe.
One simple valve for use in ti dai control situations is the
swing valve shown below. A closed-cell foam gasket may
be used instead of the 'O ' ring but it tends to deteriorate
more rapidly.
SECTION
Open
Shub
Plugs are appropriate for very small dams and off-stream
embankments where the bottom outlet pipe is unplugged
only w hen draining and cleaning the pond. W hatever the
design, two points should be observed:
a The plug should be greased, otherwise it may be very
hard to puii loose when needed.
b The plug should be m arked and preferably attached
to a chain for retrieval. Its position can be indicated
by a line and float. The free end of the chain should
be fastened to the dam so that it can be more easily
found w hen needed.
Large builders' m erchants carry sewer pipes and
stoppers. You can m ake your own plug out of an
appropriate diam eter circular wood block, sealed in
the pipe w ith mastic and sealing compound. A more
perm anent plug can be made by machining a plastic
block.
Repair
planning and should not be attem pted unless it is
certain that each of the following steps can be carried
out successfully:
1 Inspect the site carefully for signs of erosion, seepage
or leaks on the downstream face of the dam, weir or
sluice. Look for cracks, animal holes or tree roots in
earthbanks. Checkthe conditionof brickwork, concrete
and timbers. Can you be certain that it is the barrier
itself which is leaking? Consider other causes such as
seepage through permeable soils, a drop in the water
table or damage to the pond lining.
2 If you suspect leakage at a particular spot but cannot
confirm this by simple visual inspection, use fluorescein
dye to trace the route of the leak (p63).
3 Analyse the cause of the problem. The reasons why
dams fail have been listed earlier in this chapter. Very
often the same reasons contribute to leakage through
the barrier even it if doesn't collapse.

4 Decide ori aii appropriate repair m ethod and analyse
the order of w ork required.
This is m ost important. You m ust establish all control
points and other peculiarities of the pond's water
supply and decide how and in what order to cut them
off or divert them to isolate the barrier for repair.
5 Provide the proper repair materials. Poor quality or
inappropriate materials w ill guarantee failure.
6 Create a safe, dry w orking area around the installation
before attempting repairs, by draining the site or by
providing a coffer dam (p ll9 ).
7 Get below or beyond the leak. Repairs must be keyed
into impermeable foundations or banksunless theneed
is sim ply to patch small holes in a sound structure. In
the case of earth dams especially it is often necessary
to dig a trench along the centre line of the dam right
down to the foundations and then to fiii the trench
with im permeable material. Be sure that trenching can
be carried out safely. Provide shuttering if necessary
(pl04).
8 M ake repairs to the highest standards possible. Faulty
workmanship only causes problems later.
9 If the dam bas no proper overflow or outlet it is best
to install one w hen carrying out repairs.
10 After finishing the repairs, remove the coffer dam and
restore the w ater supply. Keep a close check on the
structure particularly during and after heavy rains to
make sure itis safe and functions properly. Remember
that seepage can seldom be eliminated. You have
succeeded if you have cut w ater loss to an acceptable
level.
Repair Methods
Leak s in earth b an k s
If the problem is one of leakage through a puddled clay or
other lining, carry out repairs as suggested on page 63.
If the problem is one of leakage around the edge of an
installation, the m ost likely causes are animal burrows,
tree roots or seepage due to im proper keying in. In either
case it is best to dig out the affected area and plug the
excavation with puddled clay. Remove trees w hich are
growing too close to the installation.
Leak s b etw een dam o r slu ice boards
First inspect the boards to see if they have rotted and need
replacement. Water pressure is greatest at the bottom so
trouble is m ost likely at the base. If the problem seems to
13 DAMS, W EIRS AND SLUICES
be one of small cracks or 'finger holes' between the boards,
it is easiest either to pack clay betw een them or shovel
in dark earth or peat on the upstream side to be carried
b y the current into the cracks. This treatment may need
to be repeated frequently. Strips of foam rubber pushed
into the cracks make a longer-lasting seal. Badly warped
boards should be replaced.
E rosion of chan n els
Unless erosion is due to w ater being where it shouldn't,
for example where a dam is overtopped, the solution
is to protect the parts of the installation exposed to the
current or to rebuild the installation so that the water flows
more gently over or through it. The designs suggested
earlier in this chapter should prevent serious erosion
from occurring.
Seep age or 'p ip in g "
The installation m u stbe to m down to below the seepage
level and the im permeable barrier, ruined due to internai
erosion, m ust be re-established. Larger earth dams need
only be excavated along the centre line and converted
into diaphragm dams (p ll3 ) by packing clay or by
laying concrete into the trench. These materials should
be compacted by tam ping in ISOinm (6") layers.
In most cases sheet metal, plywood, polythene, PVC or
butyl inserts do not work, at least not for long. However
they are worth trying on small dams where the cost of
replacing them. is not prohibiti ve. Sheets of butyl rubber,
factory-joined to the correct size, are likely to w ork best
and longest. If galvanised iron sheeting or polythene-
w rapped wood is used, make sure that any joints in
the metal or wood are w ell plugged with clay or are
otherwise sealed and that sections of polythene are joined
with mastic and pressure-sensitive tape. Consider using
these materials along the w et face of the dam to convert
it to a blanket-type dam (p!13) rather than digging out
the centre to make a diaphragm dam. This is easier and
makes the task of replacement simpler should the material
work poorly.
D ecayin g m ason ry and concrete
The problem is to properly key the repairs into the old
m aterial. This m ay not be possible if the structure is rotten
and any repairs of this sort will be temporary. Scrape out
crumbling mortar from betw een bricks before repointing
and scrub down the area to be repaired. Chip away the
surface of old concrete to expose the coarse aggregate. Use
sulphate-resistant cement for repairs and leave the oiled
shuttering in place for at least a w eek to allow the repairs
to bond. Sometimes puddled clay can be used more easily
than concrete to plug small leaks, but try this only if the
existing installation is still structurally sound.
14 Vegetation management
This chapter describes methods of managing aquatic and
bankside vegetation in and around ponds, waterways and
wetlands. This includes management by cutting, grazing or
ofher control methods asnecessary. Anintegrated approach
is necessary to produce diverse andbalanced systems which
avoid the need for large-scale intervention.
The establishment of aquatic and marginal vegetation,
together with a pond management plan, is covered in
Chapter 8.
Aquatic vegetation control
Reasons for control
a To prevent siltation, especially of small ponds and
artificial drainage ditches. Aquatic plants trap silt,
creating banks which are then colonised by emergent
species.Unlessreplacementpondhabitatscanbecreated
nearby, the only w ay to maintain structural diversity is
to periodically d ear sections of the habitat back to bare
mud, and then allow the succession to proceed. Artificial
drainage ditches need periodic management to prevent
them silting and to maintain their very valuable range
of habitats. The value of ponds and ditches is greatest
where they are part of a closely-linkednetwork of similar
habitats w hich can be managed in rotation.
b To help prevent flooding, by reducing obstructions to
the flow of w ater in rivers, dykes and drains, and at the
same time increasing the cim en t to maintain charmels
and reduce silting. W here drainage or flood control is
the main priority, it may not be possible to clear areas in
rotation, and 'little and often' may be the best method
of management. Regular cutting also reduces the need
for dredging.
c To promote diversity. W here one or a few plant species
have established complete dominance in an aquatic or
marginal habitat, other species are excluded. It may be
beneficial for wildlife to encourage diversity. In some
areas, a few introduced species have become dominant,
to the detriment of the habitat.
d To im prove conditions for invertebrates and fish.
Where large volumes of aquatic vegetation die, either
from natural causes or m an's intervention, the water
becomes deoxygenated, resulting in invertebrate and
fish mortality. However, moderate aquatic and marginal
vegetation growth is essential for providing shelter and
feeding areas for invertebrates and fish.
e To im prove conditions for wildfowl. Com pletely
overgrown or shaded water bodies have little appeal
for most wildfowl, including diving birds.
f To improve waterways for navigation and amenity.
A balance of clear water and aquatic and fringing
vegetation provides an attractive environment for
boating and other pursuits.
Management methods
The following methods can be used for managing and
controlling aquatic and marginal vegetation.
a Digging, cutting, pulling or raking by hand, and cutting
and dredging by machine.
b Chemical control. This includes herbicides, an d the use
of barley straw in w ater which releases Chemicals that
control growth of algae (p69).
c Environmental control. This includes planting trees to
shade out aquatic and emergent growth, altering channels
to increase water flow, grazing marginal vegetation and
managing fish and waterfowl populations.
Repeated application of the same management methods
on a site year after year is not always advisable, as this is
likely to reduce species diversity and may make any weed
problem more difficult to deal with. Using a combination
of different techniques as part of a management plan
can encourage diversity and the development of a self-
balancing system.
The Information which follows concentrates on methods
of digging, cutting and raking vegetation, as carried out
by voluntary groups.
Factors to consider
a Is any action necessary? Excessive growth may be
seasonal or temporary, and given time, equilibrium
may naturally re-establish. Small ponds or watercourses
that have little or no open water in mid-summer due to
aquatic vegetation growth do not necessarily need any
management. The water margins and vegetated shallo ws
are a far more valuable habitat than is open water.
b W hat level of control is necessary? Complete removal
of a particular species, or clearance of a certain area is
rarely possible and often harmful. Complete clearance
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
causes major physical disturbance which may release
nutrients into the water, resulting in further rampant
growth. Other species, possibly ones that are less
desirable, may rapidly fiii the space createdby the iniţial
clearance. Clearance m ay also cause bank erosion, and
subsequent increased siltation elsewhere. In nearly all
cases, rotational management of different areas over a
period of years is more effective than total clearance in
creating a balanced environment.
c If cutting or other clearance is being undertaken, have
the logistics of disposing of the cut material been
considered? Often this is more time-consuming than
the digging or cutting. It is essential that cut material is
disposed of properly as dead material in the waterway
will cause deoxygena tion. Material dumped on the bank.
will smother bankside vegeta tion, and the nutrient
runoff will adversely affect the waterway. Cut and
dredged material should be removed to an area of low
nature conservaţi on interest, and composted. Ensure
that the runoff does not directly enter a watercourse.
Several common aquatic and marginal plants are toxic,
but are either not pal a table, or not usually accessible to
stock when growing. However, when these plants are
cut, they may become palatable, whilst still being toxic.
M ake sure stock do not have access to cut material and
rhizomes of toxic species (see p38).
d Is the control method sufficiently selective? Although
most aquatic and marginal '■weeds' tend to grow in pure
stands, there may be interesting species intermixed or
at the edges which need to be identified and retained.
e In flowing water, consider the effect that the disturbed
sediments may have downstream (pl31).
Cutting, digging and raking
Digging out plants
A dvantages
a Digging is the most thorough method of eradicating
rooted plants. Provided the job is done carefully, repeat
treatment should not be necessary, except to control the
spread fromremaining stands, or to remove new stands
before they become established.
b Digging can be selective provided workers recognise
the species to be controlled.
c Digging, especially in the case of rhizomatous plants,
lowers the bottom level by about 150mm (6"), giving
an immediate increase in water depth.
d Digging is suited to voluntary group work, provided
it is properly and safely organised.
D isad van tages
a Digging is slow and labour-intensive.
b Digging m ust be done thoroughly to be effective,
since remaining roots or rhizomes will resprout and
1
spread quickly to fiii the cleared space. With some
species, broken pieces of rhizome or stern may reroot
and spread the problem more widely.
c Digging is difficult in w ater over about 600mm (2')
deep, and the deeper and more turbid the water, the
less thorough the results. It helps if the w ater level
can be low ered to about 300mm (1'), Ieaving sufficient
water to float cuttings to the bank.
d By stirring up bottom ooze, digging may release
stored nutrients and lead to rapid eutrophication or
deoxygenation of shallow ponds. For this reason,
digging should not be done in spring or summer.
M ethods and organ isation
Keep these points in mind:
a Never work alone in or close to water, and don't work
in deep or fast flowing water. Beware of slippery and
unstable banks, and underwater hazards. W ithin the
limits of the w ater depth, groups can work in line to
ensure thorough clearance.
b Define and m ark out the areas which need clearing,
* -
and concentrate the group' s eff ort on completing those
in the time available. Leave other areas undisturbed,
and return to them later as necessary.
e
c In shallow water, use a spade or garden fork to dig up
plants. In deeper water, if wearing waders or working
from a boat, use a muck rake. In very soft silt, plants
e
can be pulled up by hand.
&
d Wear rubber gloves to protect your hands, particularly
against cuts w h ich could becom e infected with
Leptospirosis (Weil's disease, p39). Cover any cuts
w ith waterproof plaster, and avoid further contact
with pond or river water.
e Most rooted aquatic plants grow from rhizomes which
interconnect to form a dense, tough mat. First find or
cut an edge along the mat. Then cut under the edge to
free it from the bottom, cut or break it apart and puii it
up for disposal. D on't try to lift the rhizomes out before
they have been cut free from the bottom. Once free of
silt, rhizomes float making them easy to collect.
f Start at the inner edge and w ork outwards into deeper
water, pulling the m aterial behind you to be collected
Gr
by workers on the bank or in shallow water.
&
 14 VEGETATION MANAGEM ENT

g If you aim to leave a m arginal fringe, minimise damage
to this w hile working. Float the plant material or load
it into a punt to carry it to another bank for disposal.
If it m ust be pulled in through the fringes, work from
a few locations to m inim ise trampling, and stand on
a wide plank to avoid sinking into the mud.
h When using a punt, pole with a muck rake or paddle
with a spade or shovel. Only two volunteers should work
from it at once if using muck rakes or other sharp tools.
One should be in the bow, one in the stern, working on
opposite sides. A third volunteer may be needed in the
middle to hold the punt steady in a breeze or current.
To dig out plants, lean over the punt side, and get the
muck rake tines under the rhizomes. Ease the tines
upwards to break the suction, and then lift. Because of
drift, it is hard to do a thorough job from a punt.
Cutting and hoeing
A d vantages
a Cutting, but not hoeing, can be done in deep water to
the limits of rooted plant growth.
can be greatly reduced by use of a geotextile mat,
called Sedim at (pl63), which is made of jute, hessian
and wood wool. This product has been developed
specifically for the trapping of disturbed sediments
during construction and management work in flowing
water. O ne or more mats, each 1.2 x3m (4x10’), are laid
down on the bed of the stream im mediately below the
w ork area, and anchored by stones. These trap up to
80% of the disturbed sediments, and can fhen be lifted
out, normally using a digger and bucket, and laid on
the bank of the stream. They can then be staked down
and seeded to provide bank stabilisation.
C u ttin g and h oein g sh allow stream s and rivers
If the channel can be waded, vegetation can be cut into
a 'side and b ar' pattern. Patches of vegetation axe left at
the side to prevent lateral erosion, w ith occasionalbars of
vegetation across the channel below bends to distribute the
current and provide food and shelter for fish. The pattern
depends on local conditions, and a good knowledge of the
river is needed to achieve best results. If you are unsure of
the effects, it is best to 'under c u f, but inspect frequently
and enlarge the cleared areas as necessary. Change the
pattern of cutting from year to year.

b Cutting and hoeing are relatively quick and easy jobs

for one to three people.

c In w ater w hichcanbe waded, non-rhizomatous plants

canbe uprooted as effectively by hoeing as by digging,
while at the same tim e excess silt and mud can be
pulled out. A draw hoe or similar shaped implement
is suitable for small areas.

d Cutting and hoeing can be carried out without great O n sharp meanders where the channel is liable to change
difficulty in flowing water. course, you should clear inner bends completely while
leaving compensating growth on the outside to resist
e Cutting, with or w ithout hoeing, can help control the erosion.
flow pattern in rivers where the need is to define and
lim it plant beds to prevent siltation or erosion (see
below).

D isad van tages

a Cutting,. w ithout rem oving plant roots, encourages

regrowth, and if done too early in the season will
necessitate a repeat treatm ent later in the year.
Normally submerged plants should be cut in summer,
and em ergents in autumn.

b Cuttings m ust be rem oved and disposed of promptly

to prevent deoxygenation (p37). In flowing water, a
boom should be fitted at anangle across the river below
the w ork area so that cuttings are deflected into the
corner from where they can be removed.

c Hoeing large areas m ay cause turbidity and smother

aquatic organisms in silt and mud. The effects of this
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
C utting in deep w ater
In rivers too deep to hoe, a chain scythe can be used.
End ch a in S e ch io n s pivot* ah rin g s
Use the following method w hen scything streams or
rivers:
1 Open up the cutters to form a continuous line.
2 Join a length of rope to the split ring at each end of
the chain. The ropes m u stbe Iong enough to allow the
cutters to settle in the weed when held at or near the
banks.
3 Two people are required to w ork the scythe. Standing
one either si de o f the channel, work the cutters back and
forth with a sawing motion. The chains act as flexible
weights to keep the cutters down in the water.
4 Clearing upstream, all weed can be cut by slowly
w o rk in g th e c u tte rs a lo n g th e bed . W ork in g
downstream allows controlled cutting, with some weed
leftto shelteraquaticlife. The work rate depends onthe
w eed's density and on any obstacles encountered. If
the cutters hit an object, both operators should puii on
their ropes to bring the blades to the surface, clearing
the obstruction.
In still water, operate the cutters from two boats or from a
boat and the bank. It is best to anchor the boat, otherwise
one person m ust hold it steady while another operates
the cutters. Take advantage of any wind, so that cut weed
is carried to one side or behind the cutters.
M echanical cutters
Various types are available including boat-m ounted
cutters, and machines such as hy draulic excavators which
work from the bank, using special weed-cuttingbuckets.
For further details see RSPB, NRA and RSNC (1994).
C utting em erg en t plants
Emergent vegetation is most effectively controlled by
digging out the rhizomes, but in some cases it may be best
to cut despite the regrow th w hich this allows. These cases
include temporary clearance, or where a large area such
as an interconnected system of drainage ditches must be
cleared quickly, or where the water is too deep to dig out
the plants easily. To make cu tting as effective as possible,
cut reed (Phragmites comtnunis) in July for greatest effect.
The replacem ent crop should be negligible, especially
if the stubble is flooded to impede growth. The time of
cutting is less important for other plants such as great pond
sedge (Carex riparia), reed sweet-grass (Glyceria maxima)
and narrow-leaved reedmace {Typha angustifolia).
Raking and dragging
Like cutting, raking and dragging tend to encourage
regrowth of submerged plants. On floating algae, raking
and dragging should only be used as a last resort where
preventative treatm ent using barley straw (p69) has
not been used. Raking and dragging can be used as a
temporary measure to reduce other free-floating plants
such as duckweed, but plants will răpi dl y spread to cover
the cleared area during the growing season. Long-term
measures to increase shading, and reduce nutrient inflow
into the pond or watercourse are the only methods of
establishing a more balanced ecosystem.
^ j
Chemical control
H erb icid es
The use of aquatic herbicides is strictly controlled, and
herbicides can only be applied by trained operators. For
a full discussion of this subject see 'Guidelines for the
use of herbicides on weeds in or near watercourses and
lakes' (MAFF, 1995). See page 136 for notes on herbicide
control of some weeds of stream and riverbanks.
B arley straw fo r control of algae (See page 70).
Environmental and
biological control
P olyth en e sh eetin g
Submerged rooted plants can be controlled by the use
of black polythene sheeting or fertiliser sacks, laid on
the bottom to shade out vegetation. Sheeting should be
opened out onthe bank and then spread on the unwanted
growth. Weight the corners w ith stones or bricks. If using
sacks, make sure they are clean, otherwise the nutrient
balance may be upset by adding fertiliser to the water.
With non-rhizomatous species the polythene sinks to
the bottom as the plants die. Leave it in place for about a
month, but remove itbefore silt starts to accumulate. For
rhizomatous species it should be left for a full growing
season. The bare patch should stay reiaţively weed-free
for at least a year.
$ ■

H yd ro lo gical m an ag em en t
Fluctuating w ater levels provide a natural check on
aquatic and marginal plant growth. Ponds w hich dry out
during most summers have greater long-term stability
than ponds w ith perm anent water. This is because the
growth of floating, subm erged and em ergent plants is
controlled during the dry period, thereby holding back
long-term vegetation spread, siltation and succession.
Underground rhizomes norm ally survive in the damp
mud, and regrow w hen the area is flooded again.
Rooted, floating-leaved plants are sensitive to rapid
increases in the water level, but they are able to adapt
to gradual increases by growing towards the surface.
Emergent plants can be controlled by rapid, extensive
changes in level leading either to drying out and f reezing,
or due to prevention of norm al m etabolic processes by
flooding. To make flooding practicai, this is best done
in spring w hen the plants are still short. Alternatively,
growth can be cut down and then flooded during summer.
Flooding of damp m ud during May and early June, on
w hich em ergent plants germinate, is another method
of control.
N ative fish
Som e species o f native fish have significant effects on
aquatic vegetation, and careful m anagem ent of fish
populations can b e used as a m ethod of vegetation
m anagem ent. Carp and bream are bottom feeders
and ştir up the sedim ents, uprooting sm all plants.
They m ake the w ater turbid, thereby reducing light
penetration and su ppressing the grow th of subm erged
plants. H ow ever, overstocking can rapidly denude a
pond or lake of m ost plant types, leaving the w ater
d o m in ated b y u n ic e llu la r alg a e. R o ach feed on
filam entous algae, and in som e situations may help to
reduce grow th. Stocking of fish in large ponds, lakes
or w atercourses should only be done in consultation
w ith EA and M A FF (or equivalents).
G rass carp
These introduced fish are effective biological control
agents against many submerged and floating plants, and
will also eat filam entous algae and some emergent plants
when the food supply is limited. Their use is limited to
enclosed waters, where they cannot escape into river
systems. A M AFF (or equivalent) licence is required for
their use, and the Environm ent Agency (or equivalent)
should also be consulted.
Invertebrates
Water fleas (Daphnia spp) feed on unicellular algae and
can be used in sm all w ater bodies to clear the water,
provided that fish, w hich predate on water fleas, are
absent or few in number.
14 VEGETATION M ANAGEMENT
G razin g
Low-intensity grazing and tram plingby stock, normally
cattle, can maintain open conditions at the edges of ponds
and watercourses. This not only keeps vegetation in check,
b u th elps m aintain the conditions of bare mud and gravei
which are f avoured by many invertebrates. Where grazing
occurs on surrounding land, fencing which allows limited
access for stock to a pond or stream canbe beneficial. Only
allow access for cattle where the banks are very gentle,
and completely fence off all steep-sided drainage ditches,
to prevent cattle becom ing trapped. Note that several
com m on marginal plants are poisonous but unpalatable
to stock w hen growing, but becom e palatable once cut
(p38). W hen clearing marginal vegetation, ensure stock
do not have access to the cut material.
Grazing by geese, ducks and other water fow lhas astrong
influence on the amount of aquatic, marginal and bankside
vegetation. Even a few ducks can quickly decimate the
vegetation in and around a small pond, and they should
not normally be encouraged. The feeding of bread scraps
and other food to ducks and geese on urban ponds is a
major factor inm aintainingim balances inpopulation and
in lowering water quality, and should be discouraged.
On larger ponds, scrapes, gravei pits and Coastal lagoons,
provision for waterfowl is often a primary aim, and
the balance betw een population and food supply is an
im portant factor in management.
Summary of common aquatic ‘weeds’
The foliowing section lists the most commonly encountered
w ater 'w e ed s', and recom m ends control m ethods
acceptable from a wildlife conservation viewpoint.
Free-floating p lan ts
Algae and duckweed (Lemna spp) multiply rapidly in
highly nutrified water, and any reduction of nutrients
entering the w ater will reduce their dominance. Algae
is best controlled by barley straw (p69).
Duckweed can form a green carpet of vegetation on stagnant
water, made up of countless individual plants, each plant a
single 'Ieaf', or group of two or three, with short trailing roots.
Each plant can rapidly reproduce by budding. Thorough
removal by mechanical means is almost impossible, and
its method of reproduction allows it to rapidly recolonise.
Duckweed can be reduced by increasing the amount of
shade on the water, either by planting trees and shrubs, or
by planting water lilies and other floating-leaved plants.
Disturbance of the water surface with aerators or fountains
also suppresses the growth of duckweed. Inmany situations
it is best left to stabilise itself. It is only worth raking off if
it is causing problems by blocking pipes or sluices, or to
prevent deoxygenation during warm summer periods. The
removed weed can be composted.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
Rigid hornw ort (Ceratophyllum demersum) and frogbit
(Hydrocharis morsus-ranae) som etim es densely populate
still waters, hornw ort remaining completely submerged,
while frog-bit has floating leaves like little water lilies.
Both can be controlled by raking out in autumn. Rigid
hornw ort is suppressed by shade. The spread of rigid
hornwort in static w ater is indicative of deteriorating
w ater quality due to eutrophication.
Subm erged rooted p lan ts
Canadian pondweed or w ater thyme (Elodea canadensis), a
species introduced to Britain in th e 1800s, is a widespread
and invasive plant of lowland ponds and sluggish rivers.
It grows upright just below the surface, and flourishes
in sunlit areas. It regrows rapidly from broken stems
and fragments, and can only be controlled by thorough
uprooting. Canadian pondweed canseldom be eradicated
from a site, but as much as possible should be cleared to
postpone its inevitable reinvasion. In flowing water, the
best way to clear it is by hoeing, w hich also gets rid of much
of the mud trapped by the plant. Use Sedimat (pl31) to
trap the released silt, to prevent it smothering other areas.
Remove cut weed from the water to prevent deoxygenation,
and compost away from the site. Large amounts should
be taken to an authorised disposal site.
In still water, Canadian pondw eed is best cleared using
muck rakes. Work in early spring w hen the weed is covered
with small shoots and matted just below the surface of the
mud. At this stage the stern is much stronger than in the
summer, so m uch more root is pulled out with the stern.
Grass carp (pl33) can be used to control further growth,
and native bottom feeding fish w ill also help prevent
regrowth. Shade from other floating-leaved plants or
from trees will help suppress growth.
M are's tail (Hippurus vulgaris ) is managed similarly to
Canadian pondweed, as are the other submerged rooted
species which only occasionally need control.
Australian sw am p stonecrop (Crassula helmsii) is an
introdu ced plant w hich has spread widely due to its
availability at garden centres and aquatic nurseries. It
is sometimes mislabelled as Tillaea recurva. This plant
can grow in a w ide range of aquatic environments from
damp margins down to w ater 3m (10') deep. It rapidly
forms a dense m at of vegetation w hich out-competes all
other aquatic vegetation and harm s invertebrates and
fish. Severe oxygen depletion occurs below the mat. The
plant grows throughout the year, and is tolerant of shade,
frost and dessication.
N o form of mechanical control shouldbe used on Australian
swamp stonecrop, as cutting or pulling will produce
fragments that can regrow and spread the infestation
downstream or elsewhere. The only effective form of
control is a carefully managed spraying programme by
professional operators using approved herbicides. For
details refer to Information Sheet 14 (Centre for Aquatic
Plant Management, 1994) and contact the Enviromnent
Agency (or equivalent) for further advice.
Floatin g-leaved plants
The floating-leaved p lan t w h ich m ost often needs
clearance is the yellow w ater lily (Nuphar Iuţea). In recent
years, the fringed w ater lily (Nymphoides peltata) has also
becom e a problem in some static or very slow flowing
waters, while the white lily (Nymphaea alba) has become
rarer and should normally be conserved. Water lily
stems have little effect on water flow, and the shading
effect of the leaves is usually beneficial in suppressing
growth of submerged plants. However, they may need
clearance where the w ater surface is densely covered.
Lilies sometimes grow too deep to be cut out easily with
a muck rake or pulled by hand, in which case they can be
cut apart at the roots using a long-handled pruning saw
or a bow saw attached to a long handle. The advantage
of hand pulling is that rhizomes are easily gathered at
the same time, as other methods tend to break off bits of
rhizome which reroot unless raked in and collected.
E m erg en t plan ts
For small areas, digging by hand is the main method.
Flooding is another option where water levels can be
controlled. Large areas are best cleared by machine
dredging, or by flooding.
Bur-reed ( Sparganium erectum), while a valuable wildfowl
food plant, can cause problems w henit extends across still
or gently flowing water. Its rhizomes reach out into the
w ater while its seeds settle in mudflats and on emergent
islands of silt and water plants. To control bur-reed, dig it
out in August or Septem ber when the plant is fully grown
but before it begins to w ither and go brown.
Com m on or N orfolk reed (Phragmites communis) has
intertwined rhizomes holding so much silt that they don't
float easily. If you can puii it loose in big rafts you can
get it ashore w ith the aid of a w inch or grappling hooks
and ropes. See also the section on reedbed management
(pl41).
Reedmace (Typha latifolia) prefers shallow water, but if the
w ater level rises abnormally, may float and extend over
deep water. In very soft silt you can pul! out the rhizomes
by tugging on the stems, but any pieces that remain will
resprout. Pulling out the stems alone is not effective, and
thorough digging is the only reliabîe method.
R eed grass or reed sw eet-grass ( Glyceria maxima)
sometimes forms pure stands, and if control is required,
digging is the usual option. It can extend over open water
by binding a layer of silt on the surface, from which it
can be cut and removed in chunks. On solid silt, dig it
out in turfs.

Rushes (Juncus spp) grow in very shallow w ater and
extend w ell into marsh and terrestrial zones. Dig out as
necessary.
Bankside vegetation
management
This includes the m anagem ent of w aterside trees,
shrubs and herbaceous plants and grasses. M any types
of wildlife, and not just those dependent on being close
to water, will benefit from bankside vegetation w hich is
varied in structure and species. Bankside trees, shrubs
and tall vegetation w hich create shade and help make a
diverse bank structure are also im portant in the overall
balance of the aquatic environment. Shade suppresses
aquatic vegetation, w hich in turn lessens the rate at which
watercourses silt up.
Provide a range o f sh a d y
and open c o n d ifio n s
— Grasses and herbs
ral! grasses cui" grazed bank
o n 3 y rro fa fio n wifh ’poached’
ground * scrub and trees, and are normally maintained as short
In intensiv ely farmed or urban areas, the strip of bankside
vegetation along watercourses may be the only remaining
semi-natural habitat in the area, and thus has even greater
value.
Factors to consider
a Trees and overhanging branches shade the w ater
and reduce growth of aquatic plants, lessening the
rate at w hich ponds and watercourses silt up. Trees
also create a relatively stable environm ent in terms of
light, shelter and temperature, which is im portant for
many organisms. Excessive shade tends to reduce the
wildlife value of w ater habitats however, so a balance
needs to be m ade betw een open and shaded areas.
W here rem oval is necessary, it's usually best to clear
growth on the Southern side, to give maximum light
im provement for m inim um loss of trees. Also select for
removal trees w hich are recent, or those of introduced
species not typical of the habitat.
14 VEGETATION MANAGEM ENT
b Mature trees or branches that grow over or fall into
the w ater may be a hazard to navigation, and possibly
create a blockage in flowing water. However, mature
and dying trees have great value for invertebrates, birds
and fungi in any situation. A t the w ater's edge they also
create sheltered nesting conditions for waterfowl, shelter
for fish fry and other aquatic organisms and potenţial
breeding sites for otters and other mammals. Clear only
what is necessary for navigation or flood control.
c Tree roots stabilise banks against slippage, and allow
undercut features to develop which are valuable for
wildlife.
d Old pollarded willows and other bankside trees are
especially valuable for the continuity of genotype
w hich they represent. Riparian habitats may be the
only remaining piece of semi-natural habitat in the
area, and contain a valuable reserve of local genotypes.
For new plantings, use cuttings or seed from existing
trees. M aintain pollards in rotation over 20 years, so
there are always some mature pollards to provide
habitat for invertebrates and other organisms.
e Scrub at the waterside is an effecti ve deterrent to access,
so preventing disturbance to bankside habitats.
f Trees and shrubs at the w ater's edge provide shelter
for m ayflies and other weak-flying invertebrates, and
provide vital niches in the life-cycles of many other
organisms.
g Dams and other artificial banks should be kept clear of
grass. This allows easy inspection of the dam or bank,
and helps keep the slope stable as the grass roots bind
the soil. Although the roots of scrub and trees help
stabilise banks, they cancause slippage when they fall,
or if their shelter encourages burrowing animals.
h The banks of artificial drainage, flood control and
irrigation channels m ay be mown for similar reasons
as given above. Short grass helps maximise w ater
carrying capacity, maintains bankstability, and protects
adjacent property from slippage. Straight, artificial
channels w ithunif orm banks are economic to maintain
by mowing. Invertebrates, birds and small mammals
benefit from mowing regimes w hich allow longer
grass and herbaceous plants to develop.
Grasses and herbaceous plants
Banks of grasses and herbaceous plants are usual along
artificial drainage channels. Along streams and rivers, and
around ponds and lakes, sections m aintained as rough
grassland intermixed w ith shrubs and trees give a varied
habitat structure and an attractive landscape. Grasslands
canbe maintained by grazing, machine mowing or cutting
WATERWAYS & W ETLAN D S
by hand. Herbicide application cari be useful, especially
to control troublesome w eeds such as creeping thistle,
docks and bracken (MAFF, 1995).
The timing of any cutting w ill depend on the balance of
management aims between nature conservation and water
control, and on the characteristics of the site.
A n early cut, up until the end of June, will encourage
grass to tiller, m aking a dense sward w hich is resistant
to erosion. Thistles and docks will be cut before they
seed, so reducing their spread. However, depending on
sum m er rainfall, an early cut may stimulate growth so
that another cut is needed in late summer. An early cut
may also disturb breeding birds.
A late cut, after August, is usually more beneficial to
wildlife. Tussocky growth w ith a more varied structure
will result, favouring sm all mam m als, invertebrates and
birds. Plants have time to set seed, providingfood for birds
and small mammals. Overall grass production will be
lower, giving reduced m aintenance costs. Spot herbicide
treatm ent or digging, cutting or pulling of thistles, docks
or ragwort m ay be necessary if these become numerous.
AII these treatm ents are most effectively done when the
plant is in full growth, but before they have begun to
set seed.
Where machines arebeing used, a complete cut of an entire
bank should be avoided, bu t plan instead to cut different
sections in rotation on an annual basis. This promotes a
variety of habitat structure and species diversity. O nm ost
sites, sections should be left uncut for no more than three
years, or rank grasses and scrub will dominate. A similar
rotation caii be used for hand-cut banks.
mown
The strip at the base of the bank, along the margins of
the w atercourse, should always be left uncut to prevent
disturbance to the marginal habitat and aquatic organisms.
Leave occasional strips uncut from the top of the bank to
the base, to retain the range of habitats.
H an d cu ttin g
A scythe or grass hook are the tradiţional tools. Keep a
safe distance from other workers. Tools should be sharp
and properly maintained, andhoned frequently for most
effkien t use. Cut m aterial should be raked up, to prevent
it suppressing the growth beneath. Pile up the cut material
on areas of low conservation interest, or remove from the
site for composting.
M ach in e cu ttin g
Strimmers and brush cutters are suitable for small teams
of workers, who should be properly trained in their use.
These machines are noisy and tiring to use, and are not
suitable for use w ith groups of volunteers.
W here access is possible, a tractor mounted flail mower
on a long arm is the usual choice for banks.
Problem weeds
Particular problem weeds of waterside habitats include
H im alay an b alsam , g ian t h ogw eed and Jap an ese
knotweed. The prevention of spread of the latter two
species is required under the Wildlife and Countryside Act
1981. Most of the foliowing details are from Information
Sheets 5, 6 and 7, published by the Centre for Aquatic
Plant M anagement.
H im alay an b alsam
Himalayanbalsam (Impatiens glandulifera) is anintroduced
plant w hich has escaped from gardens, an d can rapidly
colonise river banks and other areas of damp ground.
It is an annual plant, w hich grows to about 2m (6'),
w ith purplish-pink slipper shaped flowers from June to
August. The mature seed pods explode w hen touched,
scattering the seed, which is further dispersed by water.
H im alayanbalsam grows in dense stands w hich suppress
the growth of grasses and other plants, leaving bare

ground in w inter w hich is liable to erode. Any control
m ust be carried out before the seed pods have formed,
to give long-term benefit.
Himalayan balsam is easy to cut by hand or machine,
provided there is access and the plant can be cut at ground
level. A cut above the low est node will only cause the plant
to regrow and flower later in the season. Frequent cutting
will prevent the plant flowering. The plant is shallow
rooted, so handpullingis suitablefor limited areas. Remove
all the cut or pulled growth for composting or burning.
If erosion is not a problem, it may be a good idea to leave
the site failow and allows seeds already in the ground
to germinate, and then repeat the cut the following year.
This should get rid of m ost of the viable seed source, and
the area can then be sow n with a suitable wildflower mix.
On erodible slopes it may be best to get a grass sward
established immediately after the first cut of balsam, and
then keep the grass m ow n or grazed for a few years, until
all remaining balsam seeds have germinated.
Balsam canbeeffectively controlledwithglyphosate (pl38),
applied in late spring w hen the plant is nearing maximum
height, but before flowering.
G iant hogw eed
G ia n t h o g w e ed (H eracieum m antegazzianum ) w as
introduced to Britain as a garden plant, and has colonised
many river banks and areas of waste land. It can grow to 4m
(13') height, and produces umbels of white flowers followed
by large quantities of viable seed, w hich can be spread by
water. The plant is biennial, flowering and seeding in its
second year. However, if it is cut down before it produces
seed, it will survive into a third or subsequent season,
attempting to flow er each year. It can form dense stands
which suppress the growth of native plants and grasses,
and leave banks bare in winter and liable to erode.
The sap of giant hogw eed contains a toxic chemical which
sensitises the skin and leads to severe blistering when
exposed to sunlight. This reaction can recur for many
years.
Hand or machine cutting should only be undertaken by
operators wearing full protective clothing, to prevent skin
contamination by the sap. Tools, machines and clothing
should be thoroughly washed after use. Cutting before
flowering produces only temporary control, and results
in regrowth the followirig season. Cutting after flowering
has no benefit once the seeds have been formed, except to
clear away the dying vegetation.
The only effective control m ethod is to spray glyphosate
(pl38) when the plants are about lm (36") high, in April
or May. Seeds rem ain viable in the ground for seven years
or more, so it is advisable to establish a dense grass sward
as soon as possible to suppress germination. Sow the
seed a couple of days after spraying, scattering the seed
14 VEGETATION M ANAGEM ENT
as evenly as possible amongst the dying hogweed. In the
late summer, cut down the dead stems and mow the grass
to encourage a thick sward. Check for hogweed seedlings
at intervals the following spring, and spray individual
plants with glyphosate, taking care not to spray grasses
and other plants.
Japanese knotw eed
Japanese knotweed (Poîygonum cuspidatum) is anintroduced
plant which rapidly colonises river banks and areas of
wasteground. It is a perennial, which grows from rhizomes
to reach a height of about 3m (10') in mid-summer, with
stiff, bamboo-like stems that remain erect over winter. The
plant produces masses of small white flowers, but is not
thoughtto produce viable seed in this country. The rhizomes
are extremely tough and can grow through concrete and
tarmac. Tiny fragments of rhizome as small as one gram
can produce new plants, and plant spread can easily occur
by water, or by movement of contaminated topsoil. The
plant forms dense, impenetrable stands in summer, and
leaves bare, easily eroded ground in winter.
Cutting the shoots in spring or summer has no long-term
control, and may encourage spread unless the shoots
are collected and burnt. Cutting plants on the banks
of watercourses is not recommended, as pieces of the
plant are very likely to be spread by the water current.
Rhizomes can survive for many years even if the shoots
are cut regularly.
One method of control is to spray w ith glyphosate when
the plant is about lm (3') high, usually in May. This does
notnormally kill the plant completely, and the dead growth
should be cut and burnt about three weeks later, and then
the regrowth sprayed in July or August. Alternatively, a
single application of spray can be made in July or August
w hen the plant is fully grown, but because of the height
of the plant, thorough application is difficult. In the
following years, spot treat any surviving growth in May
and August.
A dif ferent approach is to treat the cut stems, using a similar
technique to that of treating stumps of scrub and. tree spe-
cies. The easiest method is to inject the diluted glyphosate
into the hollow cut stern using a large plastic syringe, with
the needle removed. Trials on National Trust properties
have proved successful. Contact the manufacturer of the
herbicide for advice on dilution and application rates.
H orsetails
Horsetails (Equisetum spp) are an ancient plant family,
native to Britain, w ith a simple form of growth. Water
h orsetail (Equisetum fluviatile) and m arsh horsetail
{Equisetum palustre) can form dense stands in water
margins, m arshes and w aste ground. They reproduce
b y m eans of spores, not seeds, and have an extensive
root system w hich is difficult to dig out. Horsetails are
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
poisonous even when dead, and stock should not have
access to treated plants or to cut material, which they
may eat. Living horsetails are unpalatable. Regular
mowing can control growth, but will not kill it, and
plants will reappear quickly once mow ing stops. If you
are cutting plants on a site not owned by you, under the
Environmental Protection Act 1991, you m ust dispose of
the cut m aterial at a registered disposal site.
H orsetails are susceptible to herbicid es containing
dichlobenil. Casoron G is a granular formulaţi on designed
for use by non-professionals, and suitable for use near
water. Herbicide treatm ent of horsetails in w ater should
only be done by professionals.
Herbicides
A lthough use of herbicid es is not generally to be
encouraged in conservaţi on m anagement, herbicides are
very useful and effective in some situations and for some
species, such as those described above. AII herbicides
are subject to regulation, and the use of herbicides in or
near w ater is subject to further control. The Environment
Agency, Scottish Environmental Protection Agency or the
Department of the Environm ent for Northern Ireland
should be consulted on the use of herbicides in or near
water. Work on Sites of Special Scientific Interest or Areas
of Special Scientific Interest (Northern Ireland) require
consultation w ith the statutory nature conservation
body.
AII herbicides m ust be approved under the Control of
Pesticide Regulations 1986. Employers are responsible
for ensuring that all em ployees involved in the storage,
sale, supply or use of a herbicide have received adequate
instruction and guidance and are competent for the duties
they are required to perform. All users of agricultural
herbicides are encouraged to obtain National Proficiency
Tests Council (NPTC) certificates of competence, even
if they are exempt through age or experience. Any user
bom after 31.12.64 or providing a commercial service is
required to hold the certificate of competence.
For full details on herbicides, and useful advice on
selection of weed control m ethods other than herbicides,
refer to the Guidelines fo r the use o f herbicides on weeâs in
or near watercourses and lakes (MAEF, 1995).
The NPTC certification applies to agri cultural herbicides,
but not to herbicides approved for garden use. Garden
herbicides are w idely available through shops and
garden centres, and can be used by any person on their
own land. The active ingredients of some agricultura!
herbicides are also used in garden herbicides, but in a
formulaţi on which is suitable for amateur use. Notable is
glyphosate, w hich is effective on several problem weeds
(see above), and is available as a garden herbicide under
various brand nam es including 'Roundup Biactive'.
Dichlobenil, effective on horsetails, is available under
the brand nam e 'Casoron G'. Note that these garden
herbicides are only suitable for application to weeds in
non-aquatic situations. Agricultural herbicides approved
for aquatic plant control are only available for use by
professional operators. Garden herbicides are suitable
for small areas of weed control, but are not economic for
larger scale applications. The Environment Agency (or
equivalent) should be consulted over all use of herbicides
near watercourses. Garden herbicides should be used in
accordance w ith the m anufacturer's instructions.
Bankside trees
Any maintenance required on bankside trees should be
carried outbetweenOctober and May, to avoid disturbance
tobreedingbirds andinvertebrates. Pollarding, coppicing
or removal of large branches must only be done when
the sap is down, to avoid seriously weakening or killing
the tree.
Mostbroadleaved species respond to cuttingby producing
more growth, a feature which is utilised in coppicing and
pollarding. Cutting of young or established trees to reduce
obstruction to flood flows, open up banks or reduce the
amount of shade is likely to produce the opposite effect,
with thick, bushy growth resulting. In general, most trees
are best left to grow naturally, with control concentrating
onremo val of seedling trees as necessary. Where clearance
of young or established trees is required, stump treatment
or removal will be necessary (pl39).
W here watercourses need to be kept clear of overhanging
branches for reasons of navigation or flood capacity, it
may be possible to do the clearance work from punts.
Occasional routes can be made up the bank as necessary
to remove cut material. This method avoids unnecessary
clearance, and avoids disturbance to the upper parts of
the banks.
P ollard in g and cop p icin g
Pollarding is a tradiţional way of managing trees on
grazed banks and in fields and woods, as the regrowth is
out of reach of cattle, deer and other animals. Ln the past,
the pollarded poles were used for fuel, fencing and other
purposes. W illow is a common species on riverbanks,
because of its tolerance of w et soils. Willow grows fast,
and responds well to pollarding, w hich should be done
at intervals of about twenty years. Depending on the
amount of growth, pollarding up to about this interval
is possible using hand-tools, but if left longer than this,
the size and height of the poles m ay require specialist
attention.
To pollard growth up to about lOOmm (4") diameter,
use a pruning saw or triangular bowsaw. Ensure that
the Iadder is securely positioned. If right-handed, work

in a clockwise direction, m oving round so that the cut
branches fall clear of the ladder.
Young willow trees can be pollarded from about ten years
of age. C ut to a height w hich is typicai of pollards in the
area, normally betw een 2.5m -3m (8 -10')in height. Try to
cut at a point above som e side branches, w hich are then
left in place for at least tw o grow ing seasons. M ake the
cut on a slant to shed water.
Follow standard coppicing procedures for coppicing
hardwood species (Woodîands, BTCV, 1988). To coppice
existing stools, cut away thin, w hippy growth withloppers
or abillhook, and thenuse a triangular bowsaw or billhook
to cut the m ain stems. W ork in a spiral pattern round the
stool, sloping each cu tu p tow ards the centre, to promote
runoff of rainwater. Norm ally the cut should be made to
the existing height of the stool, but where browsing by
rabbits or muntjac deer is a problem, a cut up to about
500m m (20") height can be made. Protect coppice stools
against grazing stock.
Disposal of cuttings
P o lla rd e d w illo w p o le s ca n b e reu se d fo r b a n k
stabilisation, revetm ent and other w ork (pp81-83). Even
quite large poles w ill re-sprout if inserted in the ground.
If this is not desirable, insert the poles 'upside-dow n'.
To avoid confusion, the poles can be marked w hen cut,
for exam ple by m aking a slanting cut at the upper end if
re-sprouting is not w anted. Thinner poles and 'w ithies'
can be used for willow spiling, hurdles, planting baskets
(p.67) and a variety of other purposes.
W here reuse on site or nearby is not possible, consider
the options. M aterial over about lOOmm (4") can be
cut up for fuel, and smaller m aterial put through a
woodchipping m achine to produce w oodchips for use
as mulch or surfacing m aterial for w oodland paths and
play areas. W here access and a suitable m achine w ith
trained operator is available, this is a good option. M any
local authorities now run recycling stations to which
green and w oody m aterial can be taken for chipping
and composting, although transport requirements may
m ean this is not viable.
If woody m aterial has to be burnt on site, lim it the size
and num ber of fire sites, and only burn on ground of low
conservation interest. Rake up and remove ashes.
O th er m eth od s
For other m ethods of trees and scrub control, see the
following section.
14 VEGETATION M ANAGEM ENT
Wetland vegetation
management
Tree and scrub control
To m aintain open conditions in marshes, bogs and fens,
control of w oody growth may benecessary. Pine andbirch
can rapidly invade peat bogs. Water levels are reduced
by evapo-transpiration, and the leaf litter adds unwanted
nutrients to thebog. The trees also shade outbog species,
and provide roosts for flocks of birds, whose droppings
further enrich the bog. However, in other w etland areas,
willow scrub, or carr, provides valuable habitat, and the
need for clearance w ork should be carefully considered.
A n area of established, fairly stable carr should be left
untouched, and control should only be undertaken if it
is threatening remaining open areas.
There are various methods of controlling or removing
trees on wetland areas. The softness of the ground and
the fragility of the habitat are very significant factors
w hich make clearance w ork difficult.
a M anual f elling and extraction. Trees can be cut and the
stumps grubbed up, using hand tools and winches.
Alternaţively, stumps can be killed w ith herbicide. The
cut m aterial can be left on site, burnt or removed for
reuse or disposal. Techniques are described further
below.
b Machine clearance. Various machines with low ground
pressure have been developed for tree clearance and
timber extraction on soft ground. Helicopters have also
been used for lifting grubbed-up trees. This eliminates
ground damage, but is expensive. See Bacon, John
and Lord, Bob in Enact (Voi 4, N o 3) for a summary
of suitable machines and techniques.
c Ring-barking or Chemical control. By removing a
ring of bark, or injecting a suitable herbicide, trees
can be killed while standing. Although quick to do,
and causing no extraction damage, both techniques
encourage the dying tree to produce masses of seed.
The dead trees are unsightly and dangerous, remain
as perches for roosting birds, and as they rot and fall,
alter the surrounding habitat.
C u ttin g
a Follow basic safety precautions for use of hand tools.
Only trained operators should use chain saws or brush
cutters.
b Cutting after leaf-fall in autum n or winter is easier than
working w hen trees are in leaf, and should minimise
disturbance to birds and invertebrates. However,
ground conditions are likely to be at their wettest,
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
making access di fficult and increasing damage to
fragile ground. If possible, low er the water level to
provide drier w orking conditions.
c D ispose of cut m aterial according to m anagem ent
aims. N ormatly rem oval w ill be essential, to avoid the
rotting m aterial causing enrichm ent and suppressing
the w etland flora. G reat care m ust be taken during
extractionthat the habitatis not dam agedby trampling
and dragging. W here access is possible, a woodchipper
w ill greatly reduce the bu lk to be rem oved, so
lessening the num ber of journeys required across
the w etland habitat. If m aterial has to be dragged or
carried, conţine tram pling to the m inim um of routes.
Particularly vulnerable sections can be protected by
Iaying a tem porary track o f poles and brushwood.
Temporary boardw alks or trackways canalsobeh ired
from p lan th ire companies.
Heaps of decaying w ood are them selves good habitats
if piled on ground of low conservation interest away
from the wetland.
d If stumps are to be removed, cut them off about 1m (36")
high so they are easy to relocate and w inch out.
e If stumps are to be treated w ith herbicide, this should
be done im m ediately after cutting. If there is any
delay, cut stum ps to about lm (36") high so they can
be relocated, and then cut again im mediately before
treating. Glyphosate is approved for stump treatm ent
of woody plants.
G ru bb in g up
a Grubbingup trees and shrubs solves the stump problem
w ithout the use of herbicides, and, if whole trees can
be removed and dragged away, may be quicker than
cutting follow ed by stum p treatment.
b G rubbingup may be difficult w ith larger trees, on very
soft ground or at a distance from access and disposal
points. In soft ground it will leave 'craters', w hich may
make interesting habitats, although mowing or other
later m anagem ent w ork will be difficult. Depending
on the soil, harrowing after tree removal will smooth
the ground and encourage the quick regrowth of
herbaceous plants, w hich can be m aintained by
periodic mowing.
c Use a sharp spade to grub up seedlings and small
bushes. Use a mattock on slightly larger bushes or
saplings, or an axe in deep peat w hich is free of stones.
Cut aii around the base and lever the stump out with
m attocks and crowbars. D ifficult stumps may require
several people w orking together. It helps to use a
winch which, if it does not enable you to puii a stump
out directly, keeps it under străin and allows resisting
roots to be cut through w ith a m attock or bow saw.
Wet grasslands
Wet grasslands are usually maintained by a combination
of hydrological management, grazing and mowing. For
further inform ation see Burgess, Neil D and Hirons,
Graham JM (1990) and Merritt, Anthony (1994).
H yd ro lo gical m an ag em en t
The alteration of water level by the use of sluices and
channels is a tradiţional m ethod of m anaging w et
grasslands, w hich mimics the natural process of flooding
but in a controlled way. D epending on the regime used,
m anagem ent of w ater level can be used to encourage
growth of grass for grazing of stock, or to provide
conditions for w adingbirds and wildfowl. Hydrological
management can be used directly to control vegetation
growth by flooding out unw anted species, or to provide
conditions of bare m ud on w hich a flush of annuals will
grow. See the above references for further details.
G razin g
e1
Grazing of stock is a useful method of managing larger
areas of w et grassland, to maintain the mix of marginal,
<r j
grassland and herbaceous species, and preventthe ingress
of scrub. Grazing results in a patchy pattern of growth
with areas of Ionger growth, together with short vegetation
and bare, trampled and poached ground. This variety of
ej
habitat favours invertebrates and birds, and cannot be
easily im itated by mowing. Cattle are the usual choice for
* [
w et grasslands, as sheep are prone to foot-rot if kept on
w et ground. Grazing is only feasible if the land is fenced
and has a water supply, and where there is a local farmer
interested in using the land.
M ow in g
^j
* j
Some w et grasslands were traditionally mown for hay
in June or July. This provided a crop, and prevented the
growth of unwanted woody species. The following flush
of grass was then grazed in late summer.
^|
* j
W here the quality of the hay crop is not important, a later
cut may be more beneficial for wildlife, after meadow
plants have set seed and birds have fiedged. Some strips
can be left uncut each year in rotation to provide habitat
for invertebrates and small mammals.
Even when the crop is not wanted, cuttings should be
removed, to prevent the ground flora being suppressed.
Small areas can b e cu tb y hand w ith a scythe or strimmer,
& [
or using a rotary mower. W here ground conditions and
access permit, larger areas canbe cu tby tractor and rotary
or flail mower.
& j
& =

Reedbeds
Reed, sedge and fen litter are tradiţional fenland crops.
Without management for these crops, the reedbeds and
assodated habitats decline in value for wildlife. Commercial
and conservation interests in reedbed management are
highly interdependent. For comprehensive Information,
see Reedbed management fo r commercial and wildlife interests
(Hawke, CJ and Jose, PV, 1996).
Common or Norfolk reed (Phragmites communis) is the
major tradiţional fenland crop, used for thatching. After a
period of decline, thatch is in great demand as an attracti ve,
practicai and environmentally sound roofing material,
used both on old and new houses in areas where thatch is
tradiţional. The U K produces only a quarter of its annual
requirement of about 2 million bundles, so there is great
scope for the rehabilitation of old reedbeds, and the creation
of new ones. The fact that about 64% of the U K annual
production is from reedbeds of designated conservation
importance highlights the interdependence of commercial
and wildlife interests.
Saw or fen sedge ( Cladium mariscus), used to thatch roof
ridges and other awkward places, complements reed
because it remains flexible and strong when dry, while
reed becomes stiff and brittle. M ost reedbeds have small
areas of sedge associated with them so that both can be
harvested in proportion to their use.
Fen litter and marsh hay are tradiţional mixed fen products,
harvested in sununer from mixed, tall-herb fen or 'mowing
marshes'. These crops were once used for animal bedding
and feed, and vast quantities were sentup to London for the
comfort of cab horses. Cutting or mowing continues in some
areas for conservation reasons, although the crop no longer
has any commercial value. The cut material is removed off
the marsh and stacked for burning or left to decay.
Management regimes
R eed
a The best reed for thatching is 'single wale', which is cut
each year in winter. This produces a very clean crop, as
there is no accumulation of dead reed litter. The stems
are thin and pack tightly when thatched. Single wale
cutting reduces the rate of drying out of the reedbed,
and promotes the surface flow.of water. Plant diversity
in a single wale reedbed is low, as the annual cut f avours
the dominance of reed.
b Single w ale cutting tends to reduce the vigour of
the reedbed, so a System of 'double wale' cutting is
r •1 4 used by many growers, w hich means that the reeds
are cut every other winter. Double wale reeds are
taller and thicker than single wale, partly due to the
14 VEGETATION MANAGEM ENT
sheltering effect in early spring of the previous year's
growth, but have fewer stems per square metre of
reedbed. After harvesting, the crop is cleaned of short
stems and unwanted vegetation. For conservation
purposes, a double wale crop provides winter habitat
for invertebrates and other organisms, and allows a
w ider range of plants to grow. It is important though
that areas are cut in rotation, so there is continuity of
habitat. On most commercial reedbeds, some areas are
leftuncut each year where harvesting is diffkult because
of ground conditions, orbecause variable growth means
some areas of reed are not of harvesting quality.
c Reed for thatching should be cutbetween November and
mid-March, with cutting times varying with different
sites and years. The reed must be dry and hard but not
brittle. Do not cut in wet weather as damp reed will not
store. Cutting should finish in time to avoid damage to
the young shoots and disturbance to breeding birds.
Summer cutting of reed is carried out on sites being
managed primarily for wildlife, where the aim is to
encourage plant diversity and maintain areas of open
water by suppressing the reed. Cutting the reed in
summer reduces its vigour by removing the growing
parts of the reed. Suppression is increased if cutting is
done when the reedbeds are flooded, as the cut stubble
is effectively 'drowned'. Reedmace, rushes and other
plants can also be controlled in this way, thus providing
a method of control which avoids either herbicide use
or altering the w ater fegime. Underwater cutting by
hand is hard work when the vegetation is very dense,
and a reciprocating rnower or brush cutter is the usual
method (see below).
Cut reed must be removed from the bed whether or
not it is to be processed, or it will compact and decay
into a smothering black ooze.
d Although it grows in a variety of situations, reed maintains
its dominance, when cut, only if subject to the same
pattern of flooding and drying each year. Winter flooding
simulates the natural cycle, and is preferred for wildlife
interest. Spring-summer flooding is the optimum for
commercial operations, as the young shoots are protected
from late frosts, and the flooding suppresses scrub and
other 'weeds' which seed into summer-dry locations.
Water is then drawn down in autumn and winter to
permit access for harvesting. A compromise for wildlife
and commercial interest is to subdivide the reedbeds, so
that only half is drained at a time for harvesting, while
the other half remains flooded for winter feeding birds.
Conditions which provide a variety of depths down to a
maximum of300mm (12") in summer arebetter for wildlife
than the commercialpractice of flooding to the maximum
possible, up to about lm (36"). Year-round flooding tends
to gradually weaken and thin the reedbeds. Avoid altering
the cycle from year to year as this drastically lowers the
quality of the reed.
WATERWAYS & W ETLAN D S
e Reed grows best w here there is som e movem ent
of surface or soil water. W here a continual w ater
supply exists, fiow cari be ensured by providing
num erous intersecting ditches through the bed. The
system starts w ith small ditches or grips only a spade
width, w idening to Im (36") w idth w here they join
the m ain ditches. The flow reduces the rate of îitter
accum ulation and oxygenates the water. Large ditches
and dykes m ay be navigable by small boats, w ith
sluices across them at intervals so that w ater levels
can b e controlled either directly through gates or by
pumping.
f Reed grows b est in w ater w ith a high nutrient level.
Its ability to survive in, and im prove the quality of,
highly eutrophic or polluted w ater is being utilised
in the construction of reedbeds for w ater treatm ent
(p l45). However, open-w ater areas w ithin reedbeds
w ith eutrophic w ater tend to becom e dom inated by
fast-grow ing algae and duckw eed, to the detrim ent
of other organism s. W here eutrophic w ater flows into
a reedbed, it may be necessary to alter the channels
so th at the eutrophic w ater either flow s fir st into
a treatm ent reedbed, or by-passes the reedbeds
altogether if there is an alternative supply.
g Local outbreaks of reed bugs (Caterpillar s of Arenostoia
spp) in late M ay and early June may dam age young
reeds and affectthe crop. Single w ale cutting removes
the overw intering habitat. Starlings may occasionally
ruin com m ercial reed crops by descending to roost in
vast flocks in late autum n. The crushed and tangled
reed is best burned off in the hope that next year
brings better luck.
Sed ge
a Saw sedge is norm ally har veşted for commercial
u se b e tw e e n Ju n e an d A u g u st. T rad itio n a lly ,
sum m er cutting provided alternative em ploym ent
for m arshm en engaged during the w inter on reed.
Sum m er cutting also keeps sedge beds free of reed,
since reed is suppressed by sum m er cutting, whereas
sedge is not. The harvest should be finished in tim e to
allo w the sedge to pu t on suf ficient new gro wth bef ore
the first frost, to prevent it being killed in winter. For
conservation rather than com m ercial purposes, sedge
may be cut in w inter to avoid harm ing w ildlife.
b S aw sedge for thatching shoul d b e at least 900m m (3")
tall w hen harvested, and is traditionally cut on a four
year rotation, w ith one quarter of the bed cut each
year. This allow s for sufficient regrow th and density
of new stems. Less frequent cutting has little effect
on the species m ix w ithin the bed, as sedge is very
tenacious once established. M ore frequent cutting
encourages other plants to invade and form a mixed
fen community. R otational cutting helps m inim ise
destruction o f w ildlife.
c Commercial sedge beds are sometimes burned in
summer, to suppress reed and increase the growth
of new sedge shoots the next year. Sedge regrows
quickly from the scorched crowns. Summer burning
is destructi ve of w ildlife and should be limited to only
part of the bed each year.
d To renovate old sedge beds for commercial use any
scrub should be removed in winter. The beds should
then be burnt or cut the next growing season to retard
reed and m ixed fen plants. Thereafter, the normal
cutting regime is followed. Sedge is commercially
acceptable provided it contains only limited amounts
of marshhay, sallow saplings, bog myrtle (Myrica gale )
or other plants.
Fen Îitter and m arsh h ay
Fens are maintained by annual or biennial cutting, by
grazing or by a com bination of grazing and cutting.
Grazing is usually between M ay and October. Marsh
hay is cut once or twice each summer, betw een mid-June
and mid-August. This encourages a good diversity of
herbaceous plants, and limits scrub invasion. If left uncut
for a year or two, mixed fen can be burnt in winter to
remove old tangled growth and allow harvesting the
next year.
Cutting and harvesting
H arvestin g reed
Tradiţional tools for cutting reed are the reed or cane-
sickle, w hich is a shortened straight-handled scythe, and
the 'm aigue' or 'm eak', a similar but smaller tool with
a 600mm (2’) blade designed for single-handed use. An
ordinary scythe can substitute for either tool.
Hand cutting is laborious but clean, giving stems with
bevelled bases ideal for thatch. Hand cutting can be varied
to suit conditions, and reach small areas where machines
cannot operate. A skilled and fit w orker can cut reed as fast
as some machinery. Low cutting leaves a clean reedbed, but
necessitates more cleaning of the cut reed. Higher cutting
leaves a few inches of stubbie which becomes excellent
invertebrate habitat, attractive to feeding birds. High
cutting is also done where reed becomes discoloured at
the base before harvest time. Affected stems are unsightly
although their hardness is unimpaired.
Reciprocating mowers are now used for most commercial
harvesting. These machines have cutter bars one, two or
three metres wide, and produce square-ended butts with
frayed ends, suitable for thatching. Various makes are
available, with the original Allen scythe now superseded
by Iseki /Honda, Bucher andOlympia. The largestmachine
is the Seiga, w hich needs three people to operate it, and
can cut and tie 2,000 bundles in a day.
 14 VEGETATION M ANAGEM ENT

Brush cutters can also be used for cutting reed, but are used
more for conservation m anagem ent than for commercial
harvesting. Rotating blade brushcutters smash the butt
ends of the reeds so are not suitable for thatching reed.
Reciprocating blade brushcutters give a neater cut, and
can be used for cutting reeds below the w ater level.
P ro ce ssin g reed
To process com m ercial reed once it is cut:
H a rv estin g saw sed g e, fe n litte r and m arsh h ay
Saw sedge, fen litter and m arsh hay are cut in the same
way as reed. Sedge can be cut by hand at the rate of 200
bundles a day or more by a skilled worker. Cut sedge
does not norm ally need cleaning of other plant m aterial if
the beds are reasonably maintained. The standard bunch
of sedge measures 710m m (2'4") in circumference at the
time of cutting, measured at the bond at least 300mm
( r ) from the butt.

1 Clean the reed by shaking it and picking out other Sedge is cut green, and so dries and shrinks after
plants. It should contain no visible adulterating harvesting. Stacked bunches eventually loosen at the
matter. bond although they are of the proper size.

2 Gather and tie the reed into bundles sorted by length

(see table below). Tie at a point, called the bond,
betw een 230m m (9") and 380mm (15") from the butt
ends, using non-degradable twine. The bundle should
be 600mm (2‘) in circumference at the bond. Keep a
piece of string handy, knotted at the measured length,
for easy checking. A bundle of medium length and
diam eter w eighs 3.2-3.6kg (7-81b) w hen dry, and
contains about 2000 reeds.
REED LENGTH AND DIAM ETER
British Reed Growers' Association classification
L en g th
Osiers
'O sier' is a loose term covering a num ber of species
of w illow ( Salix) which are coppiced in one form or
another. Terminology, and the species involved varies
both regionally and according to the purpose for which
they are grown.
Traditionally every low land village and ham let had its
osiers forbasketwork, eeltraps, thatching spars,firewood,
fencing an d many other uses. East Anglia and the Somerset
levels were two centres of well-developed local industries
based on basket w illow and other specialised uses. After
declining for many years, there is now a revival of interest
in osier production.

Short reed 9 M m m - 1.2m (3-4') Osiers are versatile. They can be grown into thickets,
windbreaks, shelterbelts and, if desired, treated as a
commercial crop at the same time. They are also highly
M edium reed 1.2-1.7m (4'-5'6") tolerant of neglect and cutting, surviving as long as the
roots reach water. Cut lengths of willow inserted into
the ground w ill readily resprout, so propagation and
Long reed Over 1.7m (5'6") planting is very easy.

C o m m e rc ia l o s ie r p ro d u c tio n re q u ire s re g u la r
management. Its draw back for conservation purposes
Stern d iam e te r is that commercial osier beds consist of large blocks of
even-aged plants. Even if harvested only once every few
years, their wildlife value tends to fluctuate from almost
3.2mm (one eighth
Fine zero the firstyear to ahigh point after perhaps three years,
inch)
and then dropping slowly until hitting zero again when
the osiers are cut.
4.8m m (three sixteenths
Medium
inch)
Basket w illow or 'witihy' shows the rigours of commercial
m anagem ent in extrem e form . W ithy is harvested
Coarse 5.6m m (quarter inch) annually, and production standards are so high that there
can be little tolerance for other wildlife.

3 Store the reed in dry, airy conditions, raised up from
the ground.
r *
For fu rth er d etails see the B ritish Reed G row ers'
Association leaflet Buying ană Selling Reed.
R o ta tio n a l m a n a g em en t of o sier b ed s w h ich are
subdivided into small blocks radically improves their
value for insects and many species of small passerine
birds. Permanent grass strips and drainage ditches further
diversify the habitat.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS

Y/////// / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / z y y . / / / Z A / y i A P la n tin g d ep th a n d sp a cin g

D ra in a g e d itc h e s
----------- 2— - — ^ 1/ / / r;///////y/7
/ A -O s ie rs cui in a Be sure the cuttings reach m oist earth. Cuttings600mm
i^year
/ B -2 nd year (2') long should be pushed 300mm (1') deep in damp
T p loam y soil. Use longer cuttings pushed 400-600mm
/ C- 3rd year
(l'6"-2') deep to reach damp soil as necessary.
/ D-4-*'h year
V /////////////A b Space the plants 500mm (1'8") apart for thickets and
G -P e rm a n e n r grass screens, leaving tw ice this distance betw een every
(mown)
sixth an d seventh row to allow access for management.
Planting and iniţial management Wider spacings, from 900mm-1.5m (3-5') are possible
w here the plants are not to b e commercially har veşted
P rep arin g th e cu ttin g s and tight straight shoots are unnecessary. Stagger the
plants in the w ider rows.
a Cut in earty spring for the best survival of cuttings,
although the success rate is good w hate ver the season. P ro te ctin g o sie r b ed s
Two-year shoots are best. O lder ones take nearly as
well but are harder to push into the ground. O sier beds must be protected from browsing by cattle.
M any beds are protected by dykes, but otherwise fencing
b Trim side shoots from each main shoot as you cut it. Rest will be necessary. Extra fencing m ay be needed in areas
the butt ends in w ater to keep them from drying out where deer are numerous.
before transplanting. Transplant as soon as possible.
E s ta b lis h in g a ro ta tio n
c Two-year shoots should be 1.8-2.4m (6-8') long. Cut
them into 600mm (2') lengths w ith a billhook. Angle The w inter after planting, cut the new growth off to
the cut cleanly so that there is no bruising or back about 75mm (3") above the ground, to stimulate growth
peeling of bark. the next spring. In later years, cut to the chosen rotation.
The stools slowly grow to about 600mm (2r) tall and
increase in diameter over the years until eventually they
are alm ost spherical.

Cutting and Processing

C u ttin g

a Cut osiers any time after the Ieaves drop in autumn

Where the water table is too deep for short cuttings, make
them 1-1.2m (3-4') long. U se older, thicker shoots for this,
although cuttings thicker than about 50mm (2") at the butt
end are hard to push into any but the softest ground.
P la n tin g te ch n iq u e s
until just after the new Ieaves burst in spring.
b C ut cleanly as close to the stump as possible. Although
willow survives rough cutting and tornbark, any stubs
left on the stools thicken betw een harvests and make
w ork much more difficult the next time.

a Plant cuttings right end up, as they were on the tree.
Look carefully at the leaf scars or young buds to
check.
b Wear w ork gloves to push in cuttings. Force in thick
cuttings by learting on them w ith a glove or rolled-up
jacket betw een the end of the stick and your chest to
minim ise bruising and blisters.
c Use a crowbar to punch a hole in hard clayey soil or
when planting thick cuttings.
c The tradiţional method uses a grasshook, although a
billhook should be used for older, thicker shoots. Face
the plant, take a handful of shoots in your left hand
(if right-handed) and bend them slightly back to put
them under tension. Cut the shoots in turn, striking
each one sharply at an acute angle. Angle each blow
upwards to trim the shoots off along the contour of
the stool, being caref ul not to follow through and catch
your left hand. Lay the handful of cuttings neatly to
the side, and move around the stool to grasp and cut
the remaining shoots in the same way.

d Tread around the cuttings after pushing them to the

required depth, to firm them in.

d For those not skilled w ith a grasshook or billhook,
loppers can be used. These are slower, but produce a
clean cut.
e Clean around the cut surface of each stool before
m oving on to harvest the next plant. Leaf litter helps
maintain the fertility of the osier beds but should not
be allowed to pile up around freshly cut stools or they
may rot.
P ro cessin g
a If osiers are not to be sold after harvesting, cut them
into lengths for transplanting or stack them into 'habitat
piles'.
b Osiers to be sold should be gathered into bundles and
tied w ithbaler twine. The 'standard' bundle is 710mm
(28") around at the base. Carry the bundled osiers out
of the beds and stack them where they can be removed
by trailer.
Wetlands for water
treatment
The ability of wetlands, and in particular reedbeds, to
filter out solid w aste and pollutants has been recognised
for many years. With increasingly stringent Controls on
the quality of w ater discharged into rivers and the sea,
w ater companies, developers andbusinesseshavebegun
to invest in constructed w etland systems for treatm ent of
waste. Depending onthe type and volume of waste, these
systems vary from simple reedbeds, to more complex
systems with settling ponds and cascades. Aerators may be
included to im prove aeration w ithin the pond. Although
constructed w etlands tend to be dominated by common
reed, a diverse w etland plant community is preferable
for effective w ater treatm ent, and for wildlife value. On
some sites, treated w ater can be reused w ithin the site,
thus lessening the w ater supply requirements.
14 VEGETATION MANAGEM ENT
There are at least 300 operaţional constructed wetlands
for w ater treatm ent in the UK, ranging from small DIY-
constructed domestic systems, to large scale industrial
systems such as the 5 hectare system at Billingham,
Cleveland, constructed by ICI to treat effluent from a
chemical plant. Constructed wetlands and ponds can be
used for the following:
a Controlling pollution from diverse sources which
feed into a pond or w ater course (see first example
below).
b Small-scale sew age and waste water treatment for
isolated communities, holiday developments, visitor
centres and so on. W here convenţional sewage disposal
is still used, simple systems can be designed to treat
greywater (from sinks, baths, washing machines etc)
so that the w ater can be used for wildlife ponds or
garden irrigation.
c Tertiary treatm ent at sewage works for populations
up to about 2,000.
d Treatment of industrial waste.
e Treatment of farm waste.
f Treatment of run-off from roads, runways and other
hard-surfaced areas.
g F or b a la n cin g p on d s, co n stru cted on b u ild in g
developments to trap polluted and sediment-laden
run-off produced during the building phase.
M o st sy stem s h ave p roved efficien t at rem ov in g
suspended solids, and in greatly reducing BOD (Biological
Oxygen Demand) in the discharged water. Reductions
in am m on iu m and p h o sp h ate are m ore variable.
Construction and m aintenance costs are low, and the
benefits for wildlife and landscape are high. However,
the amount of land required may be a limiting factor on
some sites.
A simple marginal reed bed to improve the quality of
w ater entering a pond or watercourse can be constructed
as shown below. A mixture of free surface flow and
subsurface flow should b e encouraged for maximum
efficiency of the reedbed.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS

a Dig a trench about a m etre in from the edge of the pond A hybrid system, with a vertical flow bed followed by a
or watercourse. The trench should be about 500mm horizontal flow bed norm ally gives the most complete
(20") wide, and 750-1 OOOmm (2'6"-3') deep to intercept treatment.
subsurface flow.
A further variation is the reverse flow vertical system,
b Use the spoil to build outwards into the pond to create w hich has a solid pipe down to the bottom of the layers,
the marginal shelf. Extra spoil is likely to be required. thus forcing the effluent up through the layers to the
Temporary boarding may be necessary to support the rooting zone as shown.
sides of the trench.
R eversed v e r tic a l flo w
c Fiii the trench w ith coarse gravei.
iniem
d Plant the m arginal shelf with a variety of plants
inclu d in g com m on reed (Phragmites communis),
com m on clubrush ( Schoenoplectus lacustris ) and
reedmace ( Typha angustifolia). Reed grass (Phalaris S-iOmm
washed gravei
arundinacea) and reed sweet-grass ( Glyceria maxima) is-somm
e* washed gravei
are also suitable. A
w o fe r p r o o f m e m b ra n e
Nutrients can also be rem ovedby allowing w ater to flow
N o f to s c a le
through a waterlogged zone l-5 m (3-16') wide, planted
with willows or popi ars.

There are two basic types of constructed wetland or
reedbed w hich can be used for treating dom estic,
agricultural or industrial effluents:
a H orizontal flow. The effluent passes horizontally
through the reedbed. Factors which can be altered
include the gradient of the bed, layering of soil or
gravei within it, and the inlet and outlet arrangements.
A generalised diagram is shown.
H orizontal flo w
w ater
w aferproof
mem brane
For further inform ation on large scale systems, with case
studies, see Ham mer (1989), M erritt (1994) and Hawke,
CJ and Jose, PV (1996). Permaculture Magazine and
books on permaculture and alternative technology are a
good source of information on systems for treatment of
domestic waste. See also Chapman T and Shields J (1994)
and Centre for Aquatic Plant M anagement Information
Sheet 36 (1995). Local authorities and water companies
are increasingly interested in wetland systems for water
treatm ent and may be able to offer advice.

min
15- 30 mm o u tle t
w a sh e d gravei 5 -io mm ( perfora te d
washed gravei pip e)
Nof to scale

b Vertical flow. The effluent is introduced to the system

via aperforated pipe, which goes down through graded
layers of gravei.

V e rtica l flo w

inlef^
.sand
i5-30 mm washed
gravei
5-l0mna washed
gravei

t5-3omm washed
grave!
w aterproo f membrane o u tle t
(p e rfo ra te d pipe)
Not to scale
A Vegetation tables
IMPORTANT: Invasive, non-native plants can have massive impacts
on ecosystem s. Both marginal and submerged wetland plants can
spread very quickly along watercourses. If you have ANY doubt
about irrtroducing a wetland plant, contact the Aquatic Plant
Management Group/CEH.

These tables su m m arise h ab itat requirem en ts and
management features of characteristic waterway and
wetland plants. Species are common and widespread unless
otherwise noted, and most are suitable for introduction to
new aquatic or wetland areas within the limits noted. A
few species have been included which are relatively rare or
more typical of other habitats, but have some management
importance in aquatic environments.
Plants are listed alphabetically by common name in five
tables, each table corresponding to a successional zone
(p!3). Divisions between zones are often blurred, and
species placed in one table may occur in adjacent zones.
Sometimes plants are weakened or stunted or appear quite
different in these conditions. For example, certain typically
emergent plants may remain submerged in fio wing waters,
where they do not flower, and produce soft, s trap-like leaves
rather than stiff leaves. True aquatic species cannot survive
even short-term drying, and remain under or on the surface
except w hen they produce emergent flower spikes.
Nomenclature follows that used in the Excursion Flora of
the British Isles (Clapham, A R, Tutin, T G and Warburg, E
F; 1968). An asterisk before the common name indicates
a non-native, introduced species, although in most cases
these are naturalised. The abbreviations 'N ', 'S', 'SE' etc
refer to general regions of Britain, but distributions cannot
be indicated predsely in the limited space.

NOTES, TABLES 1-5

Nutrient status: O = oligotrophic, M = mesotrophic, E = eutrophic
Management notes: I = Invasive, V = visual amenity value, X = interfere with bo ating or fishing, P = easily propagated by cuttings (Pc),
division (Pd), seeds (Ps) or transplanting (Pt) * non-native, introduced species

T A B L E 1: F R E E -F L O A T IN G T Y P E S

S p e cie s N u trie n t C o n d itio n s M a n a g e m e n t n o te s D istrib u tion /

statu s fea tu re s

B loom s, b la n k et C on tro l w ith barley

A lgae, free-
O -E Still-slow w eed in eu trop h ic straw .
flo atin g types
w ater See p 69

M ain ly N , local
Still-slow ,
B lad d erw ort elsew h ere. Su bm erged ,
O -M sheltered to lm on (X) W ild fo w l food
(Ultricularia spp) in sectiv orou s. W in ter
peat, g ravei, m ud
tu rio n

Still-slow .
(I) M a y ch oke
D uckw eed T olerates w id e
M -E surface. See p ag e 133
(Lemna spp) range o f p H and
W ild fo w l food
p o llu tio n

Fro g-bit L ocal, n o t Scotland.

In v erteb rate h abitat,
(.Hydrocharis E Still L eav es like sm all w ater
feed in g area for fish
morsus-ranae ) lily. W in ter turion

M o st co m m o n SE, local
H o rn w o rt Still-slow , inel. (I, V , X, Pc) elsew h ere. E asily cleared.
('Ceratophyllum M -E brack ish to lm or In v erteb rate h ab itat, In creasin g C demersum
spp) m ore w ild fo w l foo d in d icates d eclin in g w ater
quality.

Still-slow , esp
(I) M ay form d ense L o cal S. N o t
*W ater fe m brack ish
M -E m ats o n su rface like reco m m en d ed for
(Azolla filicu loides ) backw aters,
d uckw eed in tro d u ctio n
d red ged d ykes

Still-slow , shallow , M ay g ro w densely.

W ater so ld ier
M -E u np ollu ted , Sin ks in w in ter or if L o cal E, decreasing.
{Stratiotes aloides)
alk alin e p u t in d eep w ater
 :J1JÎJ!-O JU ÎJL iî2
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS

T A B L E 2: S U B M E R G E D R O O T E D P L A N T S

Species N u trien t C on d ition s M an agem en t D istrib u tio n /

statu s n otes featu res

A w lw ort Still, acid , to 1.5m D ifficu lt to

O L o cal in m o u n tain s of W , N
(Subularia aquatica) o n exposed shores estab lish

(I) O ften ch o k es
* C anad ian
StilI-m ed iu m , w ater. Su rv iv es w in ter as sh oots
p o n d w eed (Elodea M -E
0.3-3m In v ertebrate (tigh t-w rap p ed leaves)
canadensis )
h ab itat

H o rn ed p o n d w eed Still-m ed , inel (I,X) In v erteb rate

L ow lan d s. T olerates
(Zannichellia E brackish , to 2m , h ab itat, p o ch ard
p h o sp h ate p o llu tio n
palustris) clay stream s food

L esser m arsh w o rt Still-slow , shallow , T o lerates flu ctu atin g w ater

O -M —
(Apium inundatum ) sheltered , on p eat lev els

Still-m ed , often
M are's tail (X) W ild fo w l food T o lerates flu ctu atin g w ater
M -E alk, shallow or
(Hippuris vulgaris) (seeds) lev els
em erg en t

M oss (Fontinalis
O -E Still, d eeper w ater H ard to estab lish E asy to m an ag e if p resen t
antipyretica )

P ond w eed , b lu n t-
leaved
Still-slow , n eu tral- M ain ly SE , scattered t ]
O -M acid to 3m , stream (I) W ild fo w l food elsew h ere. R am p an t in
(Potamogeton
obtusifolius )
m ouths eu trop h ic w ater
tj
P ond w eed , cu rled
(P crispus )

P ond w eed , flat-

M -E
Still-fast, clear, to
lm on clay ey m ud
(I,X) Fish and
in se ct sh elter,
w ild fo w l food
D ifficu lt to control
£j
E Still-slo w , to 2m (X) W ild fo w l food L o cally freq u en t in low land s
stalk ed (P friesii ) e |
W id e ran g e of con d ition s
P ond w eed , fennel
E
Still-fast, inel
(I,X) In v erteb rate
h ab itat, w ild fo w l
in el pollu ted , tu rbid.
P on d w eed sp m ost likely to
t :
(P peciinaius) brackish , 0.6-2.5m
food cau se p ro b lem s to flow and
n av ig atio n
t ■
(I,X) In v erteb rate
P on d w eed , h air- Still-slow , sh allow ,
M -E h ab itat, w ild fow l Scattered , v e ry local S, E, C
like (P trichoides ) sheltered sites
food t ■
P on d w eed , long-
stalked
(P praelongus)
M -E
Still-slo w , clear, 1-
6m on silt, fen
p eat, lim eston e
W ild fo w l food
L ocally frequ ent, N E , C , E,
rare elsew h ere
fe[
Pond w eed ,
p erfo liate O -E
Still-m ed , clear, 1-
W ild fo w l food
In v asiv e w h en no es |
4m o n g ravei, clay co m p etitio n
(P perfoliatus )

Still-m ed , acid ,
er 5
P ond w eed , red L o cally freq u en t N , C , SE.
O -M clear, sh allo w o n (X) W ild fow l food
(P alpinus) T o lerates spates
m ud or rock
e s
 APPENDIX A

Still-slow , alk,
P on d w eed ,
E clear, to 4m on
sh in in g (P lucens )
lim eston e, clay
F req u en t in lo w lan d s o f SE,
(X) W ild fo w l foo d
C , rare elsew h ere

P on d w eed , Still-slo w , esp

Scattered N , A n g lesey ,
slen d er-leav ed E brack ish , 100- W ild fo w l food
m o stly n ear coast
(P filiform is ) 700m m o n sand

Still-slo w , acid -alk, (I,X) In v erteb rate

P ond w eed , sm all
M -E to lm , sh eltered hab itat, w ild fo w l —
(P berchtoîdii)
sites food

Still-slo w , alk, inel

P on d w eed , sm all slig htly b rackish , L o cally frequ en t S, C , E , C
M -E W ild fo w l food
(P pusillus) to 3.6m o n clayey Scot, scattered elsew h ere
m ud

P ond w eed ,
Still-slow , acid , to L ocally frequ en t, m ain ly N ,
vario u s-leav ed O -E W ild fo w l food
3m in clear w ater E. T olerates som e p o llu tio n
(P gram ineus )

Still, acid , to 3m
Q uillw ort D ifficu lt to
O -M on stony or L o cal in W and N highland s
(Isoetes spp) estab lish
b o u ld er clay

P io n eer, stabilises loose

Shorew eed Still, esp acid, to
O -E W ild fo w l food san d , gravei. Stands
(Littorella uniflora) 4m
exp osu re

Still-fast, acid-alk,
Starw ort
O -E to lm or m ore (X) W ild fo w l food —
(Callitriche spp)
d ep en d in g on spp

Ston ew ort (algae, Still, clear, acid -alk (Pt) W ild fo w l R esem b les h ig h er plants.
m ainly Chara and O -E or b rackish , to 3m food, cover. N itella im p o rta n t in
Nitella spp) o n silt, sand , m ud G ro w s rap id ly n u trien t-p o o r upland lakes

T assel p o n d w eed
M -E
(Ruppia m aritim a )
D ab b lin g d uck
B rack ish on san d y Local, Coastal p ools an d
food (seeds) esp
or fertile soil ditehes
w ig eo n

Still-fast, (i,v,x)
W ater crow fo ot In v erteb rate O ften d om in an t in sw ift
O -E d ep en d in g on spp,
(Ranuncuîus spp) hab itat, w ild fow l w ater
inel b rack ish
foo d (seeds)

W ater lobelia A cid to 1.2m on W , N. Sh o w y em erg en t

O (V)
(Lobelia dortmanna) p eat or g ravei flo w er spikes

(I) In v erteb rate

W ater m ilfoil Still-fast, acid -alk, M yrio p h yllu m spicatum can
h ab itat, w ild fow l
{Myriophyllum) O -E to 2m d epen d in g b ecom e ram p an t in still,
food . C asts little
on spp eu trop h ic w ater
shad ow

W ater v iolet Still-slo w , sh allo w L ocal E , rare elsew h ere, n ot

E (V,X)
(Hottonia palustris) esp ditehes Scot

W aterw o rt Still, to 600m m , on N eed s v ary in g Scattered in

M
(Elatine spp) exp osed shores w ater levels S, W , N
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS

T A B L E 3: F L O A T IN G -L E A V E D R O O T E D P L A N T S

S p e cie s N u trie n t C o n d itio n s M a n a g e m en t D istrib u tion /

statu s n o te s fe a tu re s

B ur-w eed , floating Still, clear, 0.6-2m

L o ca l in m ou n tain ou s areas,
(Sparganium O on fine org anic (X)
rare elsew here.
angustifolium ) soil

Bur-w eed ,
Still-m ed , to Im F req u en t S, E, C , local
unb ranched (I,X,Pd) W ild fo w l
O -E esp clay stream s, elsew h ere. C an n o t stand
(Sparganium food and cover
basic soil w av es
emersum )

(X) A ttracts
P ond w eed , b ro ad -
Still-m ed , u su ally insects. Food for T olerates sp ates and m o re
leaved
O -E clear, 0.3-3m on m allard , teal acid con d ition s th an m an y
(Potamogeton
soft, rich soil (seeds), sw an s Potamogeton spp
natans )
(roots)

Still-slow , inel
Frin g ed w ater lily (V,X) A ttractiv e B eco m in g a p ro b lem in
tu rbid, 0 .6 -1 .5m
(Nymphoides E b u t can be som e static w aters in
esp fen d rain s,
peltata) in v asiv e S and E.
n ew w ater bod ies

L east w ater lily L o cal in h ig h lan d Scot, rare

M -E Still, 0.6-2.5m (X)
(Nuphar iuţea) in Sh ro p sh ire

W h ite w ater lily Still-slo w , inel (I,V ,X ) Su itab le for

M -E —
(Nymphaea alba) tu rbic, to 3m stream m outh s

Y ellow w ater lily Still-m ed to 2m or (I,V ,X ) Su itab le for

M -E —
(Nuphar Iuţea ) m ore n itrogen ou s stream m outh s
 APPENDIX A

T A B L E 4: E M E R G E N T P L A N T S

S p e cie s H e ig h t N u trie n t C o n d itio n s M anagem ent D istrib u tion /

statu s n o te s fea tu re s

(V ,Pd) In sect
Still-slo w , to T olerates spates,
A m p h ibio u s h ab itat,
600m m or flu ctu atin g w ater
b isto rt d u cklin g
— M -E m o re, exposed levels and
(.Polygonum cov er,
sh ores, u su ally d essication. Sh ow y
am phibium ) w ild fo w l food
n o n -calcareo u s flow ers.
(seeds)

(V) D u ck lin g
cover, S, E, C. Su bm erged ,
A rrow h ead Still-m ed , to
w ild fo w l food strap -lik e leav es in
(,Sagittaria 300m m M -E 150m m on
(tuber). flow . D ies dow n
sagittifolia) sand , silt, clay
R eg row s w h en after first frost
cu t

T h e m o st w id ely
B ur-reed Still-m ed , to (I, Pd)
d istribu ted stream
(Sparganium — M -E l m esp o n W ild fo w l food
p lan t. C ann ot stand
erectum ) b a sic soil, clay and cov er
w av es

C om m o n
b u lru sh or Still-m ed , l- 2 m M ain ly lo w lan d s o f
clu b-ru sh (less in flow ) S, E, C esp outer
(I,V) W ild fo w l
(Schoenoplectus 2-2.5m O -E on 30-60% frin ge o f P h ragm ites
food an d cov er
lacustris syn organic- sw am p. W ith stan d s
Scirpus co n ten t soil w in d and w aves.
lacustris)

Still-slo w , to (I,V ,Pd c) R eed See p ag e 141.

C om m o n or
2m o n 30-60% w arb ler, D om in ates inner
N o rfo lk reed
2.4m O -E organic- b u n tin g m argin s of
(Phragmites
co n ten t soil, habitat, reed sw am p. Stands
com m unis )
sh eltered sites w ild fo w l food drying, n o t w aves.

Still-m ed ,
(Psd) W ig eo n ,
sh allow
F lo atin g sw eet- sw an food
m argin s. T olerates fluctuating
grass ( Glyceria 0.3-1.2m M (leaves), other
E x ten d s b y w ater lev els, scour
flu itan s ) w ild fo w l food
floatin g,
(seeds)
trap p in g ooze

Still-slow ,
Flo w erin g ru sh
sh allow M a in ly low land s of
(Butomus lm M -E (V,Pd)
m arg in s, esp SE, C. Show y flow ers
umbellatus )
on clay

G lau co u s clu b- Still inel L o cally frequ en t S, E,

ru sh (Scirpus lm M -E b rack ish , p eaty — W coasts, scattered
tabernaemontani) to 500m m th rou gh o u t

L esser or O ften in m on o-
Still, to 0.6-2m , (I,V) W ild fo w l
n arro w -leav ed d o m in an t stands.
esp flo atin g cov er,
reed m ace 2m M -E T o lerates su m m er
m at ov er in v erteb rate
(Typha cu ttin g b u t n o t
d eep er w ater h ab itat
angustifolia ) p ollu tion
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS

L esser Still-sw ift, (V)

sp earw ort v ary in g soils In v erteb rate
300m m O -E T olerates sh ad e
(Ranunculus esp acid h a b ita t, b ird
flam m ula ) organic fo o d (seeds)

L esser w ater Still-slow , (V) E asy to

p lan tam neu tral-alk , establish , good L ocal, w id ely
300m m M -E
(Baldella sh allow s on b o tto m cover scattered
ranunculoides) m ineral soil to 500m m

(V) M allard
R eed canary T o lera tes flu ctu atin g
food (seeds),
g rass (Phalaris 1.2m M -E Still-fast to lm w ater levels,
cover. L o cally
arundinacea) stren g th en s b an k s
in v asiv e

Still, to 600m m
(I,V) D u cklin g O ften in m ono-
R eed m ace or or so o n m ed
cover, d o m in an t stands.
b u lru sh (Typha 2m M -E . (35% ) organic
in v erteb rate T o lerates p ollution ,
latifoîia) co n ten t silt, or
h ab itat siltin g
flo atin g m at

M a in ly S, E, C.
*Sw eet flag Still-m ed , esp
(Pd) Sterile in M ed iev al
(.Acorus 1.2m M -E alk, to 500m m
w est E u rop e in tro d u ctio n for
calamus) on silt
m ats.

(I) F ish hab itat,

Still-slow , O ften m o n o -
W ater h o rsetail m allard food.
m ed iu m alk, to d o m in an t in open
(Equisetum — O -E T o xic to stock,
lm on sand, w ater less than
fluviatile) p a latab le w h en
peat 150m m deep.
cu t

W ater p lan tain N arrow -leav ed w ater

(Alisma Still-m ed to p lan tain
— M -E (I/V)
piantago- 750m m o n silt (A. lanceolatum )
aquatica) sim ilar, SE

W atercress Still-fast, esp

(Rorippa shallow , clear, In v erteb rate
nasturtium- u np ollu ted , h abitat,
600m m M O ften cu ltiv ated
aquaticum syn sunny, on w ild fo w l food
Nasturtium lim eston e (shoots)
officinale ) g ravei
 APPENDIXA

T A B L E 5: M A R G IN A L P L A N T S

N u trie n t M a n a g e m en t D istribu tion /

S p e cie s H e ig h t C o n d itio n
statu s n o te s fea tu res

Still-slow , acid ,
B ogbean sh allo w or
(Menyanthes — O floating m at on (V) —
irifoliata) d eep peat,
an aerob ic m ud

A cid p eat in
Su p p orts
B ogm oss p ools or o n
specialised b o g C ann ot stand
(iSphagnum — 0 h u m m ocks,
p lan t tram pling, bu rning
spp) d ep en d in g on
co m m u n ity
spp

C om m o n
Still-slow , to W ild fo w l food O ften m ono-
sp ikeru sh
300m m M 300m m , on (seeds) and d o m in an t on exposed
(Elecharis
v aried soils cov er sh ores
palustris)

C otto n g rass
A cid b o g , p eat
(Eriophorum 600m m O — —
m oor
SPP>

C reeping
Slow cu rren t (V) D abbling
bu ttercu p T ypical o f g razed and
450m m — in w ater, w et d u ck food
(Ranunculus d isturb ed m arshes
m eadow s (seeds, leaves)
repens )

G reat w ater Still-slo w , to (Psd) In sect

M ain ly SE , C. Esp in
d o ck (Rumex 1.5m E 500m m esp on food , w ild fo w l
canals
hydrolapathum) clay, fen p eat food (seeds)

K ingcu p or
(V) Flow ers Ty p ical o f m arshes,
m arsh Still-slo w or
early, im p to w et m eadow s. Show y
m arigold 300m m O -E d am p m ineral
p o llin atin g flow ers. T o xic to
(Caltha soils
in sects stock
palustris )

M arsh
Still, sh eltered
cinqu efoil C om m o n except S, E.
450m m O -M m argin s or (V) C ov er
(Potentilla O ften w ith bogbean
flo atin g m ats
palustris )

M arsh yello w -
Slow , esp
cress (Rorippa Sw an and
w h ere w ater
islandica syn 300rm n — w ig eo n food —
stand s ortly in
Nasturtium (roots)
w in ter
palustre )

Still-fast, esp
N arrow -Ieav ed alk, sh allow F requ en t SE , C,
w ater-p arsn ip 450m m M m argin s on — elsew h ere rare.
(Berula erecta) lim eston e, fen T olerates shad e
peat

■■ I
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS

W aste or
disturbed
O rache W ild fo w l food E sp coasts. Q uickly
lm — ground or
(Atriplex spp) (seeds) colonises n ew ground
sand , gravei
shores

P ennyw ort or
m arsh Still-slow , acid-
p ennyw ort — O -E alk, to 800m m — —
(Hydrocotle o n peat
vulgaris )

P urp le m oor-
grass {M olinia 600m m O A cid p eat — —
caerulea )

R edleg or W aste places,

redshank cu ltivated W ild fo w l food Q u ick ly colonises
600m m —
(.Polygonum soils, b esid e (seeds) n ew ground
persicaria ) p ond s

Still-m ed , acid,
R ush, b u lbo u s A qu atic form
clay or peat on
(juncus 600m m O (Ps) (fluitans) in w ater to
h ard ro ck or
bulbosus ) 600m m or m ore
acid san d ston e

(Ps) W ild fo w l P ro tects shore from

R usii, hard Shallow s,
600m m O -E food (seeds), erosion. T oxic to
(/ inflexus) n eu tral-alk soil
red sh an k cover stock

P rotects shore from

R ush, soft Shallow s, acid (Ps) W ild fo w l
700m m O -E erosion. O n ce used
(/ effusus) soils, clay foo d , cover.
for ru sh lam ps

Sh allow s, acid
R ush, jointed soil esp m ow n (Ps) W ild fow l Ju n cu s m arshes often
450m m O -E
(/ articulatus) and grazed food (seeds) rich in orchids
m eadow s

Saw or great
Still, alk,
fen sed ge (I) W ild fo w l
1.5m M sh allow s on M ain ly E.
( Claăium cover
fen peat
mariscus )

Sea clu bru sh Still, esp W ild fo w l foo d O ften m ono-

( Scirpus 600m m M -E brackish, (seeds), nest dom inant. Tolerates
maritimus ) shallow s cover su m m er drought

Still, acid-alk, (I,Pd) M a in ly u pland s of N,

Sed ge, bottle
450m m O -M to 600m m on W ild fo w l food, W , S, w h ere constant
(Carex rostrata)
peat cov er h igh w ater table

Sed ge,
(Pd) W ild fow l
com m on 300m m O -E U su ally acid —
food (seeds)
( Carex nigra)
 APPENDIX A

Still-slo w , to
Sed ge, g reater (Pd) Bird food M ain ly low land s S, E,
600m m on
pond ( Carex 1.2m E (seed, leaf), C. Stan d s su m m er
m ineral-
riparia) b reed in g cover cu tting
organic soil

Sed ge, g reater Still-slo w , alk,

tu sso ck sed ge shallow s, often (V ,Pd) Tolerates som e shade.
or p anicled 1.2m E ab o v e m ean W ild fo w l P rotects sh orelin e
(Carex w ater level, on cover from erosion
paniculata ) fen peat

Sed ge,
h am m er or In d am p grass, (Pd) W ild fow l
600m m — —
h airy (Carex near ponds food (seeds)
hirta )

Sed ge, lesser Still-v ery slow , M ain ly low land s S, E,

(Pd) W ild fow l
pond ( Carex 700m m E to 600m m on C. O ften co-d om in an t
food
acutiformis) silt, clay w ith C riparia.

Sm all-reed
300m m — H arm ed b y su m m er
(Calamagrostis — — —
1.5m flood ing
spp)

Tu fted hair-
grass A cid , clayey B reed in g cov er
lm — —
{Deschampsia soils for bird s
caespitosa )

W ater forget- Still-fast,

T o lerates shade,
m e-n o t m argin s to
— O -E (V) flu ctu atin g w ater
(.M yosotis 500m m , varied
levels
scorpioides ) soils

Still-fast, esp
W ater m int
alk, sh allow s T olerates flu ctuatin g
(Mentha 300m m M -E —
esp on w ater levels
aquatica)
lim esto n e

M arsh y fields,
W ater p ep p er
tram pled M allard food
(Polygonum 600m m — T oxic to stock
m argin s and (seeds)
hyăropiper )
sh allow s

Y ello w flag Still-slow , M ay in d icate su m m er

(Iris lm O -E sh allow s, on (V) drying. R em ain s toxic
pseudacorus ) silt w h en cut.
B Conservation and the
volunteer worker
The Conservation Volunteers is the largest practicai
conservation organisation in the UK. It supports more than
140,000 volunteers from all sections of the community in
activities to protect and im prove the environment. With
more than 100 offices around the UK, we are able to work
in a range of areas carrying out different activities. The
Practicai Handbooks series is one of the ways of helping
to ensure that w ork undertaken by ourselves, volunteers
and other conservationists is to the highest standard.
To ensure the success of any conservation project, it is
im portant to establish:
* W hether it is a worthw hile conservation project. Any
work to be carried out should respond to a real need
w hich is directly related to a broad framework of
development. In term s of conservation, this means
that projects should be undertaken as integral parts of
site m anagem ent plâns, not as isolated exercises. The
prime purpose of the w ork should also be made clear.
For instance is it to im prove local wildlife habitats or
to im prove access to the countryside?
* That the work is suitable for volunteers. Volunteers
cannot successfully tackle all types of work and they
should not be involved where there is a risk of serious
accident or injury, where machines can do the same job
more effectively and for a lower cost or where the skills
required are beyond their capabilities. The latter can be
overcome if professional training is provided so that
a situation can be avoided where volunteers become
dispirited or the work is not done to a high standard.
* W here the project will take place and how m uch time
it will take to complete. Once this has been done it is
necessary to establish w hether there are any hazards
and risks associated w ith the site.
* W hether the w ork should be done by paid staff. Vol-
untary service should not replace paid, local labour
but com plem ent it. Em ployers should make sure
in advance that the position of volunteers and paid
workers is clear w ith respect to any relevant labour
unions.
Volunteers should not be regarded as providing "free
labour'. Someone has to pay for transport, materials,
tools, insurance, refreshments and any accommodation
charges. Before each party makes a commitment to a
project it should be clear w ho is to pay for what. W hile
volunteers may w illingly fund their own work, clients
should be prepared to contribute and should not assume
that all volunteers, who are already giving their time and
effort, will be able to m eet other expenses out of their own
pockets. Several grant-aiding bodies may help pay the cost
of environmental and conservation projects. For details
of grants and awards, contact us at the address below.
Comprehensive inform ation is available in publications
by the Directory of Social Change and Charities Aid
Foundation (see page 169).
It is im portant that volunteer workers are covered by
public liability insurance for any damage or injury they
may cause to third party property or to the public. Cover
of atleast two million pounds is recommended. Additional
insurance to compensate the volunteer for injury to him
or herself or to other volunteers on a project should also
be considered. Specially tailored insurance is available
through our ow n Group M embership Scheme. Contact
the Local Groups Unit at the address below.
The volunteer group organiser should visit the work
site well before the project to check that it is suitable
and that volunteers will not be exploited, and to plan
the best size of working party and the proper tools and
equipment. Volunteers should be advised in advance on
suitable clothing for the expected conditions, they should
be physically fit and come prepared for work. Above all,
individuals should genuinely want to volunteer - those
'press-ganged' into volunteering may do more harm
than good and will not enjoy the benefits associated with
volunteering. Young volunteers need more super Vision and
are best suited to less strenuous jobs, and itis recommended
that where they are involved, the project should emphasise
education. Recent legislation, including The Children's Act,
gives comprehensive guidance on supervisory ratios and
other means to safeguard the welfare of young people. The
recommendations of the Home Office report 'Safe from
harm', should also be followed, and for any activities in
remote areas, organisers should also be fully aware of the
Adventure Activities Licensing Regulations.
Both volunteer group organisers and clients should keep
records of the work undertaken: the date of the project,
jobs done, techniques used, num ber of volunteers and
details of any notable events including accidents, unusual
'finds', publicity etc. Such information makes it easier
to handle problems or queries w hich may arise after the
project. It also provides a background on the project site
for future visits, supplies practicai data by w hich the
site m anagem ent plan can be evaluated and allows an
assessment to be made of the volunteer effort.
As well as directly managing project work, whether for
a day or more, we support volunteers indirectly through
the local group service. To find out more about what
opportunities are available please contact us (address
on page ii).
c Contacts

This is a list of some of the organisations in the UK
w hich are involved w ith environm ental matters. Those
websites w hich are particularly relevant, and w hich are
not included under the addresses below, are listed at the
bottom of this section.
Countryside M anagem ent Association
Writtle College, Lordship Road
Writtle, Chelmsford, Essex CM1 3RR
Tel: 01245 424116
w w w.countrysidem anagem ent.org.uk

Construction Industry Research and Information Centre

General Classic House, 174-180 Old Street,
London E C 1V 9B P
ADAS Tel: 020 7549 3300
(consultancy and research organisation for the www.ciria.org
land-based industries)
Customer Services: 0845 766 0085 Dry Stone Walling Association
www.adas.co.uk W estmorland County Showground, Lane Farm,
Crooklands, Milnthorpe, Cum bria LA7 7NH
Bat Conservation Trust Tel: 01539 567953
15 Cloisters House, 8 Battersea Park Road www.dswa.org.uk
London SW 8 4BG
Tel: 020 7627 2629 Dept. for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs (Defra)
www.bats.org.uk Customer Contact Unit, Eastbury House,
30 - 34 Albert Embankment, London SE1 7TL
The British Association for Shooting and Conservation Tel: 020 7238 6000 Helpline: 08459 335577
(regional centres in England, Wales, Scotland and www.defra.gov.uk
N.Ireland)
Tel: 01244 573000 Environment Agency
www.basc.org.uk General Enquiries: 0845 9333111
Emergency Hotline: 0800 807060
Centre for A lternative Technology www.environment-agency.gov.uk
M achynlleth, Powys
SY20 9AZ Environm ent Council
Tel: 01654 705950 212 H igh H olbom , London W C1V 7BF
www.cat.org.uk Tel: 020 7836 2626
www.the-enviromnent-council.org.uk
Common Ground
Gold Hill House, 21 H igh Street, Shaftesbury Farming and W ildlife Advisory Group
Dorset SP7 8JE National Agricultural Centre
Tel: 01747 850820 Stoneleigh, Kenilw orth
w w w.commonground.org.uk Warwickshire CV8 2RX
Tel: 024 7669 6699
C oundl for the Protection of Rural England (CPRE) www.fwag.org.uk
128 Southw ark Street,
London SE1OSW Forestry Com m ission GB & Scotland
Tel: 020 7981 2800 Silvan House, 231 Corstorphine Road,
www.cpre.org.uk Edinburgh EH12 7AT
Tel: 0131 334 0303 (switchboard)
Countryside Council for Wales Enquiries: 0845 FORESTS (3673787)
M aes y Ffynnon, Penrhosgarnedd, www.forestry.gov.uk
Bangor,
Gwynedd LL57 2DW Game Conservancy Trust
Tel: 0845 1306229 Burgate Manor, Fordingbridge
www.ccw.gov.uk Hants SP6 1EF
Tel: 01425 652381
www.gct.org.uk
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS

The Greenwood Centre Thrive

Station Rd, Coalbrookdale, Telford, Shrops TF8 7DR The Geoffrey Udall Centre
Tel: 01952 432769 Beech HilI, Reading RG7 2AT
www.greenwoodcentre.org.uk Tel: 01189 885688
www.thrive.org.uk
Herpetological Conservatlon Trust
655A Christchurch Road The Tree Advice Trust
Boscombe, Bournem outh Arbor icul tural Advisory and Inform ation Service,
BH1 4AP Alice Hoit Lodge, W recclesham, Farnham,
Tel: 01202 391319 Surrey GU10 4LH
www.herpconstrust.org.uk Tree Helpline: 09065 161147 (premium rate)
www.treehelp.info
Lantra
Lantra House, Stoneleigh Park, Coventry CV8 2LG Tree Council
Tel: 024 7669 6996 71 N ewcom en Street, London SE1 1YT
www.lantra.co.uk Tel: 020 7407 9992
www.treecouncil.org.uk
Landlife
National Wildflower Centre Vincent Wildlife Trust
Court Hey Park, Liverpool L16 3NA 3 & 4 Bronsil Courtyard
Tel: 0150 737 1819 Eastnor, Ledbury
www.landlife.org.uk Herts HR8 1EP
Tel: 01531 636441
Natural England www.vw t.org.uk
Natural England, 1 East Parade, Sheffield S I 2ET
Tel: 0114 241 8920 W W E-UK
www.naturalengland.org.uk Panda House, Weyside Park, Godalming
Surrey GU7 1XR
Plantlife Tel: 01483 426444
14 Rollestone Road, Salisbury, Wiltshire SP 11D X www.wwf-uk.org er
Tel: 01722 342730
www.plantlife.org.uk W oodland Trust
Autum n Park, D ysart Road, Grantham,
I
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB)
The Lodge, Sandy, Beds SG19 2DL
Tel: 01767680551
Lincolnshire NG31 6LL
Tel: 01476 581111
www.woodland-trust.org.uk
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www.rspb.org.uk

Scottish Environm ent Protection Agency (SEPA)

SEPA Corporate Office
Erskine Court, Castle Business Park
Stirling FK9 4TR £
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Tel: 01786 457700
Emergency hotline: 0800 807060
www.sepa.org.uk
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Scottish Natural H eritage
Great Glen House, Leachkin Road,
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fe
Inverness IV3 8NW
Tel: 01463 725000 i
www.snh.org.uk er ■

Sustrans Ltd
2 Cathedral Square, College Green, Bristol BS1 5DD
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Tel: 0117 926 8893
www.sustrans.org.uk
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 APPENDIX C

Waterways and wetlands Websites

Aquatic Plant M anagem ent Group In addition to those given above, a few more of the many
CEH, M aclean Building, relevant sites on the web are listed below:
Wallingford 0 X 1 0 8BB
Tel: 01491 692556 www.communityforest.org.uk

British Waterways www.ecnc.nl

Head Office (European Centre for Nature Conservation)
Willow Grange, Church Road, Watford W D1 4QA
Tel: 01923 226422 www.jncc.gov.uk
ww w.britishw aterw aysxo .u k (Joint Nature Conservation Committee)

Froglife www.nbn.org.uk
9 Sw an Court, Cygnet Park, Hampton, (National Biodiversity NetWork)
Peterborough PE7 8GX
Tel: 01733 558844 www.ramsar.org
www.froglife.org (Ramsar Convention on Wetlands)

Inland Waterways A ssociation w ww.wildlifetrust.org.uk

PO Box 114, Rickm answ orth W D3 1ZY
Tel: 01923 711114
www.waterways.org.uk

National Federation of Anglers

National Water Sports Centre, Adbolton Lane,
Holme Pierrepont, N ottingham NG122LU
Tel: 0115 9813535
www.nfadirect.com

Ponds Conservation Trust

School of Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University,
Gipsy Lane, Headington, Oxford OX3 OBP
Tel: 01865 483249
w w w.brookes.ac.uk/pondaction

River Restoration Centre

River Restoration Centre, Building 53,
Cranfield University Campus, Cranfield,
Bedfordshire M K43 OAL
Tel: 01234 752979.
www.therrc.co.uk

Waterway Recovery Group

PO Box 114, Rickm answ orth W D3 1ZY
Tel: 01923 711114
www.wrg.org.uk

Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust

W W T Slimbridge, Gloucestershire GL2 7BT
Tel: 01453 891900
ww w. w wt. org.uk
 Specialist suppliers
This is a short list of some of the major suppliers Bentonite
of relevant materials and equipm ent for managing
waterways and wetlands. Cetco Europe Ltd
Birch House, Scotts Quays, Birkenhead,
M erseyside L412 1FB
Tel: 0151 606 5900
www. cetco. corn
Tools
Hand tools, winches, helmets, first aid kits
Native plants

The Conservation Volunteers Native aquatics and other native plants

Sedum House, M allard Way, D oncaster DN4 8DB
Tel: 01302 388883 Grange Farm Nursery
www.tcv.org.uk/shop Grange Road, W idmer End, High Wycombe,
Buckinghamshire HP15 6AE
Tel: 01494 718203
Bioengineering products w ww.britishflora.co.uk

Naturescape British Wild Flowers

Sedimat
M aple Farm , Coach Gap, Langar, Nottinghamshire
NG313 9HP
Hy-Tex (UK) Ltd Tel: 01949 860592
PO Box 97, Aldington, Ashford, www.naturescape.co.uk
Kent TN 25 7EA
Tel: 01233 720097 British W ildflower Plants
www.hy-tex.co.uk Burlingham Gardens, 31 M ain Road,
North Burlingham, Norfolk NR13 4TA
Tel: 01603 716615
Erosaweb (Armater), Nicospan, Bestmann
www.wildflowers.co ,uk
Fibre Rolls, Gabions, Floating islands

Verdant Solutions Ltd Native wildflowers and wetland plants

High Street, Hartfield, East Sussex TN7 4AE
Tel: 01892 770470 The Conservation Volunteers
w w w.verdantsolutions.ltd.uk Sedum House, Mallard Way, Doncaster DN 4 8DB
Tel: 01302 388883
www.tcv.org.uk/shop
Pond liners
Emorsgate W ild Seeds
Limes Farm, Tilney AII Saints, King's Lynn,
Butyl
Norfolk PE34 4RT
Tel: 01553 829028
Pond Liners (Direct) Ltd www.wildseed.co.uk
Unit 8, M illbrook Business Park, Hoe Lane,
Nazeing, Essex EN9 2RJ John Cham bers' Wild Flow er Seeds
Tel: 01992 890901 15 W estleigh Road, Barton Seagrave
www.e-pond.co.uk Kettering, Northants NN15 5AJ
Tel: 01933 652562
Russetts Developm ents Ltd
27 Burners Lane, Kiln Farm, YSJ Seeds Ltd
M ilton Keynes MK11 3HA Kingsfield Conservation Nursery,
Tel: 0870 7702800 Broadenham Lane, W insham, Chard,
www.russetts.co.uk Som erset TA20 4JF Tel: 01460 30070
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS

Landlife W ildflowers Ltd

National Wildflower Centre
Court Hey Park, Liverpool L I 6 3NA
Tel: 0151 737 1819
www.landlife.org.uk

Reeds and reedbed Systems

Living Water
Living Water Ecosystems Ltd, Carlingnose Studios,
North Queensferry, Fife, KY11 IE R
Tel: 01383 415215
www.livingwater.org.uk

Yarningdale Nurseries Ltd

16 Chapel Street,
Warwick CV34 4HL
Tel: 01926 842282
www.yarningdale.co.uk

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E Site studies and surveys
Site studies and surveys are im portant to establish the
existing status ofponds, lakes, marshes, streams and other
watercourses, and to measure changes over time. Surveys
are vital for establishing the need for management work, as
inappropriate m anagem ent candam age habitats, species,
sediment history, archaeological features and artifacts.
Continuous monitoring of watercourses is undertaken
by many organisations. These include the Environment
Agency and English Na ture, the Scottish Environment
Protection Agency, and the Department of the Environment
(Northern Ireland). Water companies, universities, county
councils, the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology Biological
Records Centres, Wildlife Trusts and other environmental
organisations may also hold databases on watercourses,
canals, streams, ponds, lakes and wetlands.
The New Rivers and W ildlife Handbook (RSPB, NRA
and RSN C, 1994) contains detailed inform ation on
river surveys, including morphology, river corridors,
plants, mammals, birds, fish, amphibians, reptiles and
invertebrates.
ThePond Book(Pond Conserv ation Trust, 1999) contains
outline details on pond surveys for ecological and
historical value. The Pond Conservation Trust, through
Pond Acdon, and w orking jointly with the Environment
A gency has d eveloped the N ational Pond Survey
methodology. Full details are given in A guide to the
methods of the National Pond Survey (Pond Action, 1998).
National Pond Survey m ethodshave alsobeen adopted by
the Scottish Environment Protection Agency, as described
in Ponds, pools and lochans (Scottish Environm ent
Protection Agency, 2000). The National Ponds Database
is being developed by Pond Action in association with
other organisations, and is accessible at www.brookes.
ac.uk /pondaction.
National Pond Survey methods can be used to:
* assess the regional or naţional conservation value of
ponds
* assess whether a pond is degraded using the PSYM
tech n iqu e, d eveloped by Pond A ction and the
Environment Agency.
* decide pond management priorities
* establish long-term pond monitoring programmes.
M ethods for surveying am phibians, and assessing
the conservation value of amphibian populations, are
given in the Ieaflet Surveying for amphibians (British
Herpetological Society, 1996).
British Waterways publishes a range of resources for
studying canals and other inland waterways, including
inform ation on water quality, wildlife, canal corridor
studies, history and technology.
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS
Glossary
Aerobic
Characterised by the presence offree
or molecular oxygen; requiring such
conditions to live.
Alluvium
Fine sediments deposited byfloods.
A naerobic
Characterised by the absence o f
free oxygen; oble to live in such
conditions.
Bog
Mire containing acid-loving plants.
Carr
Fen scrub.
Catchment
Area o f ground which collects and
feeâs water to a given waterway or
wetland.
Community
Group o f plants andj or animals
living together under characteristic,
recognisable conditions.
Dystrophic
Water o f no or extremely low
productivity.
Ecology
Study ofhoio living things reiate to
their environment or surroundings.
Eutrophic
Water ofhigh productivity.
Eutrophication
The process by which a water body
becomes more productive over time.
Fen
Mire containing neutral- or
alkaline-loving plants.
Flush
Area ofsoil in which nutrients
accumulate due to water inflow or
soil movement and breakdown.
Glacial till
Unsorted clays, sands, gravels and
stones left by melting glaciers.
Habitat Pan
The recognisable area or type of A hard, distinct soil layer caused
environment in which an organism by the precipitation of iron or other
normally lives. compounâs.
H ead Peat
The difference in the depth o f Soil maăe up entirely o f organic
water at any two points, or the remains.
measure o f the pressure at the lower
point expressed in terms o f this Piping
difference. Internai erosion o f a dam, usually
by water seeping along a pipe or up
Hydraulics from below.
Study o f the behaviour offlowing
water. Productivity
Description o f ecosystern in terms
Hydrogen potenţial (pH) of'biomass'(total mass o f living
A measure o f the relative acidity or organisms).
alkalinity o f water or soil.
Shoaling
Hydrology Build-up o f erosion material in a
Study o f the laws and properties o f watercourse.
water.
Silt
Leaching Fine sediments deposited in still
The process by which percolating water.
water removes nutrients from the
soil. Spit
A rough unit o f measurement used
Leat in digging, equal to the length o f a
Artificial channel, the main purpose spade blade.
o f which is to supply water to another
waterway or to loater-powered mills. Staining
Colouration o f water by dissolveâ
Macrophyte substances.
Broad leaved plant.
Swamp
Marsh Area o f mineral soil normally
Area o f mineral-based soil in which flooded in the growing season
the summer water level is close to the and dominated in most cases by
surface, but seldom much above it. emergent macrophyte.
M esotrophic Turbidity
Water ofmedium productivity. The pollution o f water by suspended
matter.
Mire
Area o f permanently wet peat. W ater table
Level below which the soil is
Natural succession waterlogged.
The process by which one
community o f organisms gives way Zonation
to another in an orderly series from The occurrence o f communities in
colonisers to climax. distinct geographical areas or zones.
Oligotrophic
Water o f low productivity.
Bibliography
Alabastei; JS (1985)
Habitat Modification and Freshwater Fish
Butterworths
Andrews, J and Kinsman, D (1994)
Gravei Fit Restoration for Wildlife
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds
Andrews, J and Rebane, M (1994)
Farming and Wildlife - a Practicai Management Handbook
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds
Bacon, John and Lord, Bob (1996)
Troublesome trees - Taking trees ojfbogs
Enact Voi 4 No 3
Baines, Chris (2000)
How to Make a Wildlife Garden
Frances Lincoln
Blamey, Marjorie; Fitter, Richard and Fitter, Alastair (2001)
The Wild Flowers ofBritain and Ireland
A & C Black
Beebee, T (1992)
Pond Life
Whittet Books, London
Beebee, Trevor and Griffiths, Richard (2000)
Amphibians and Reptiles
New Naturalist Series
Biggs J, Corfield A, Walker D, Whitfield M, and
Williams P (1994)
New Approaches to the Management ofPonds
British Wildlife Voi 5 No 5
Beardall, Charles (1996)
Sensitive Ditching Work
Farming and Conservation, April 1996
British Reed Growers' Association
Buying and Selling Reed
British Reed Growers' Association
Brooks, Stuart and Stoneman, Rob (1997)
Conserving bogs: the management handbook
Stationery Office Ltd
Burgess, Neil D and Becker, Dusty B (1989)
The Creation and Management
oflslands and Rafts on RSPB Reserves
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds
Burgess, Neil D and Hirons, Graham J M (1990)
Techniques o f Hydrological Management at Coastal
Lagoons and Lowland Wet Grasslands on RSPB Reserves
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds
CIRIA (1998)
Review o f the Design and Management o f Constructed
Wetlands
Construction Industry Research and Information
Centre
CIRIA (2000)
Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems Design Manual for
England and Wales
Construction Industry Research and Information
Centre
CIRIA (2000)
Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems Design Manual for
Scoţiană and Northern Ireland
Construction Industry Research and Information
Centre
Centre for Alternative Technology
Constructed Reed Beds Tipsheet
Making Use o f Waste Water Tipsheet
Water Treatment and Supply Resource Guide
Centre for Alternative Technology
Centre for Aquatic Plant Management (1994-96)
Information Sheets (regularly revised)
Centre for Aquatic Plant Management
Chapman T and Shields J (1994)
Ecological Treatment for Dairy Yard Washings
Farming and Conservation, October 1994
Charities Aid Foundation
Directory o f Grant-Making Trusts (regularly revised)
Charities Aid Foundation
Clapham AR, Tutin TG and Warburg EF (1981)
Excursion Flora o f the British îsles
Cambridge University Press
Coleshaw, Tim (1995)
Rising to the water levels challenge
Enact Voi 3 N o i
Fitter, R S R and Manuel, R (1995)
Collins Photo Guide to the Lakes, Rivers, Streams and
Ponds ofBritain and North-West Europe
HarperCollins, London
WATERWAYS & W ETLANDS

Friday, Laurie (1997) Muus, Bent J and Dahlstrom, Preben (1971)

Wicken Fen - the making o f a wetlanâ nature reserve The Freshwater Fishes ofBritain and Europe
Harley Books, Colchester Collins

The Game Conservancy (1993) National Rivers Authority (1993)

Ponds and Lakes fo r Wildfowl Otters and River Habitat Management
The Game Conservancy N ational Rivers Authority

Green, R E (undated) The Ponds Conservation Trust (1999)

The Management o f Lozvland Wet Grassland The Pond Book
for Breeding Waders The Ponds Conservation Trust
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds
River Restoration Centre (1999)
Ham mer DA (1989) Manual o f River Restoration Technicjues
Constructed wetlands in wastewater treatment River Restoration Centre
Lewis Publishers
Rodwell, J S (series editor)
Harold, Ron (1995) British Plant Communities
Creating Wetlands at Holkham Volume 4: Aquatic Communities, Swamps and
Enact Voi 3 N o i TalLherb Fens (1995)
CUP
Hawke/C J and Jose, P V (1996)
Reedbed Management for Commercial & Wildlife Rose, F (1981)
înterests The Wildflower Key o f the British îsles & N W Europe
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds Penguin

Inland Waterways A ssociation (1999) RSPB, NRA and RSNC (1994)

*
Technical Restoration Handbook The New Rivers and Wildlife Handbook
Inland Waterways Association Royal Society for the Protection of Birds

Inland Waterways Association (2000) SEPA (2000)

e
Practicai Restoration Handbook Ponds, pools and lochans
Inland Waterways A ssociation Scottish Environm ent Protection Agency
e
Kirby, Peter (1992) SEPA (2000)
Habitat Management fo r Invertebrates:
a practicai handbook
Watercourses in the Community
Scottish Environment Protection Agency
e
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds

Little, E C S (1971)
Sibley, Peter (1994)
Your Wildlife Pond
e
Floating N estfor Wildfowl SGC Books
Birds RSPB M arch-April 1971
Strachan, Rob (1998)
e
Macan, T T and W orthington, E B (1972) Water Voie Conservation Handbook
Life in Lakes and Rivers
Collins New Naturalist
English Nature, Environment Agency, Wildlife
Conservation Research Unit
e
Maitland, Peter S (2000) Surrey County Council (1993)
Hamlyn Guide to Freshwater Fish ofBritain and Europe Pond Guidelines
Hamlyn Surrey County Council
&
Merritt, Anthony (1994) W andsworth Borough Council (1997)
Wetlands, Industry & Wildlife London Lakes Project
The Wildfowl and W etlands Trust W andsworth Borough Council &

M inistry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (1995)

Guidelines for the use ofherbicides on weeds in or near &
watercourses and lakes
Minstry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food
m u t ; * Gabions 85-86 Rafts 95-100
Geotextiles 84-85 Rainwater from roofs 50
Giant hogweed 137 Reedbeds 141-143
H Reservoirs Act 1975 38
Herbicides 138 Revetments
Himalayan balsam 136-137 - sandbags 86-87
Horsetails 137-138 - s tone 85
A I - wooden 80-82
Algae, control of 69-71 Inspection chambers 107 Rivers
Amphibians 29-30 Introductions 26 - typical features 6
Aquatic 'weeds' 133-135 Invertebrates 27 - threats to 21-22
Artificial linings 55-62 Islands 93-95 S
B J Safety precautions
Bank diversification 87-88 Japanese knotweed 137 - general 39-40
Bank stabilisation 79-80 L - pond design 47-48
Bankside vegetation Lakes Sandbags 86-87, 89
management 135-139 - natural distribution 3 Scrapes 54
Barley straw 70-71 - threats to 21 Shuttering 104
Bentonite 62 Leaks 62-64 Silting 10
Birds, management for 30-33 Leats 6, 22-23 Sluices 122-126
Boardwalks 90 M Spiling 82
Bog vegetation 17-18 Mammals 34 Springs 3
Bucket chain 76 Management principles 24-25 Stone drains 101-102
Buffer zone 68-69 Marsh plants 68 Succession 13
C Marshes Surveys
Carr 19 - creation of 54 - site 25-26,165-166
Causeways 91-92 - general 14-15 - grounâwater levels 51
Clearing rubbish 75 Mechanical excavation 78 Swamps 14
Coffer dams 119-120 Mink 34 T
Concrete linings 57-58 Mires Thermal stratification 9
Construction (Design and - general 16-17 Tools 40-43
Management) Regulatiorrs 1995 37 - threats to 23-24 Traveller 102
D N UV
Dams NVQs 1 Underground Services 47
- blanket 113 O Vandal-proof ponds 58-60
- earth 111-113 Off-stream ponds 52-53 Vegetation, aquatic
- general 109-120 On-stream ponds 51 - cutting 131-132
- wooden 117-119 Organising group work 44 - digging 130-131
Dewponds 4,53 Osiers 143-145 - environmental control 132-133
Digging out silt 75-76 Otters 34 - establishment 65-68
Dipping platforms 90-91 Outfalls 106-107 - tables of 147-155
Dipwell 51 Oxygen, in water 9 - ’weed' control summary 133-135
Ditches P Vegetation, bankside
- digging 102-104 PH 9,165 - management 135-136
- legal requirement to maintain 37 Phosphate pollution 22 -problem 'weeds' 136-138
- management of 22-23 Pipe sluices 124-125 - trees 138-139
Drainage design 101 Pipelaying 105-107 W
Drains, repair 107-108 Pipes 104 Washes 15
Duckweed 133 Plankways 43-44, 76 Water current 9-10
E Poisonous plants 38 Water meadows 15-16
Ecology Pollarding 138-139 Water plants
- still waters 10 Pond creation - characteristics 11
- streams and rivers 10 - permissions 36 - tables of 147-155
Environmental Agency 35 - factors to consider 45 Water supply
Environmental Protection Act 37-38 Pond management - licence 36
Eutrophication 12-13 - general principles 45-46 - to ponds 46-47, 49-53
F - plan 71-72 Wave action 10
Faggots 83 Ponds Wave barriers 88-89
Feeder channels 52 - design 48-49 Weirs 120-122
Fen vegetation 18 - distribution 3-5 Wet grasslands 15,23
First aid kits 40 -fauna 69 Wetlands
Fish - planting 65-67 -for water treatment 145-146
- management of 27-29 - safety 47-48 - history of 6
- lazv 37 - threats to 21 - vegetation management. 139-140
Fishing platform 91 - water supply 49-53 Wildlife protection, law 36-37
Flexible linings 60-62 Productivity scale 11 Willow revetments 82-83
Floating nest 97 Puddled clay 56-57 Z
French drains 101 Pumping water and sludge 76-78 Zonation 13
 The right tools for the job
The Conservation Volunteers supply many of the
specialist tools and equiprment needed in
conservation projects. By using a number of
leading manufacturers and suppliers, we are able
to offer a very broad range of tools.
c?
If you need hammers, picks and shovels,
or a wheelbarrow, you can be sure that we f r

have designs tried and tested by years of

f-
experience in the field.
f-
Site safety is a priority. Safety goggles,
rigger gioves and Steel toe-capped (r

boots offer important protection while

you work - we have first aid kits in a range of sizes
fr
catering for individuals and large groups. f-
As well as the health and safety information in this book, fr
The Conservation Volunteers produce publications
f r
on risk asessment and safe working practices for
conservationists. These benefit from our experience
fr
gained in over fifty years of practicai conservation work.
fr
In addition to publications, tools and equipment,
we also supply native provenance trees, shrubs, seeds fr
and wildflowers.
fr
Order online at www.tcv.org.uk/shop or contact (r

IS B N 0 - 9 4 6 7 5 2 - 3 0 - 3
fr
The Conservation Volunteers,
Sedum House, Mallard Way, Doncaster DN4 8DB fr
Tel: 01302 388883
9 780946 75P300 (r ■
 ; \

Waterways & wetianos

Conversion tables
Length
cm cm or inches inches
2.54 1 0.394
5.08 2 0.787
7.62 3 1.181
10.16 4 1.575
12.70 5 1.969
15.24 6 2.362
17.78 7 2.756
20.32 8 3.150
2 2 .8 6 9 3.543
25.40 10 3.937

Volume
litres litres/gallons gatlons

4.546 1 0 .2 2 0
9.092 2 0 .4 4 0
13.638 3 0 .66 0
18.184 4 0 .88 0
22.730 5 1.100
27.276 6 1.320
31.822 7 1.540
36.368 8 1.760
40.914 9 1.980
4 5 .4 6 0 10 2 .2 0 0

1 p in t = 0.5683 litres
1 litre = 1.76 pints

Mass
kilograms kg/lbs pounds(lb)

0.454 1 2.205 O
0.907 2 4 .40 9
1.361 3 6.614
1.814 4 8.819
2.268 5 11.023
2.722 6 13.228
3.175 7 15.432
3.629 8 17.637
4.082 9 19.842
4.536 10 22.046 f
î
i
Area i
i
hectares (ha) ha/acres acres

0 .40 5 1 2.471
0.80 9 2 4.942
1.214 3 7.413
1.619 4 9.884
2.023 5 12.355
2.428 6 14.826
2.833 7 17.297
3.237 8 19.769
3.642 9 22.240
4.047 10 24.711

V . J J