Renewable Energy Technologies

(TECC3792)
Lecture Notes - 2022

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 CH7 Outline
 Other forms of Renewable Energy
• Introduction
• Wave Energy
• Tidal Power
• Hydroelectric Power
• Pumped Hydro
• Biomass for Electricity
• Geothermal Power

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 Introduction
 RE Technologies

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 Introduction
 Present and Future Trends
• Global Installed Capacity

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 Introduction
 Present and Future Trends (cont’d)
• Global Installed Capacity (cont’d)

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 Introduction
 Present and Future Trends (cont’d)
• Global Installed Capacity (cont’d)

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 Wave Energy
• Ocean energy - Energy captured from ocean waves, tides, currents,
salinity gradients and ocean temperature differences.
• Solar energy on earth causes varying temperatures, which in turn
cause winds to blow and create waves on the surface of the ocean.
• These waves are a powerful source of energy.
• Ocean waves are a more predictable resource with a higher energy
density compared to solar and wind. However, harvesting this energy
is a challenge.
• Wave energy converters capture the energy of surface waves to
generate electricity.
• Wave energy projects are still in pilot stage.
• Development of other ocean power technologies, such as ocean
thermal energy conversion (OTEC), remains slow.
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 Wave Energy (cont’d)
• Wave Energy Resource
• If the waves are assumed to be sinusoidal, then their power per
meter is given by [W/m]:

𝜌𝑔2 𝐻2 𝑇
𝑃=
32𝜋

• Where:
𝜌 − density of sea water (1025 kg/m3)
𝑔 − gravitational acceleration (9.8 m/s2)
𝐻 − trough-to-crest height (m)
𝑇 − wave period (s)

• However, actual waves in the ocean are more complex to be

represented in this way. Several factors still need to be
considered.
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 Wave Energy (cont’d)
• Harvesting methods

Terminator Attenuator

Point Absorbers Overtopping Device

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 Methods of harvesting wave energy
• Terminator – partially submerged structures oriented perpendicular
to the direction of the wave to force water into the device.
• Incoming wave compresses the air trapped inside a chamber which in
turn spins the turbine.

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 Methods of harvesting wave energy (cont’d)
• Attenuator – These are long devices aligned parallel to the
direction of the wave such that their front end points into the
oncoming wave.
• Hydraulic pumps convert the flexing into shaft power for the
generator.

• Works with both

vertical and horizontal
waves.

Pelamis Attenuator
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 Methods of harvesting wave energy (cont’d)
• Point Absorbers –These are floating platforms, not oriented in a
particular way toward the waves.
• They utilise rise and falls of waves to run the generator.

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 Methods of harvesting wave energy (cont’d)
• Overtopping Device – Made up of a reservoir, and water is forced
onto the resevoir by the waves.
• Water is then rejected from the reservoir through the turbine.

• Self Study Topic: Predicting Wave Energy Performance (8.3.3)

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 Wave Energy (cont’d)
Advantages
• It is highly predictable
compared to wind and
solar.
• It is a renewable form of
energy.
• It is environmental friendly.
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Disadvantages
• High initial capital.
• Equipment rating and
wave magnitude
complications.
• It can cause damage to
sea life ecosystem.
• Location disadvantage.
• May lead to high
transmission losses.
• Noise and visual concerns.
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 Tidal Power
• Tides are created by the gravitational effect of the sun and the moon
on the earth.
• The occurrence of tides is highly predictable, but harvesting tidal
energy is a serious challenge.
• Tidal energy is produced through the use of tidal energy generators
which are placed in areas with high tidal movements.
• Generators are designed to capture the kinetic motion of the ebbing
and surging of ocean tides in order to produce electricity.
• Tidal barrages are dams that cross tidal estuaries and capture energy
as tides ebb and flow.
• Tidal Range - The difference between high and low tides. Must be at
least 5 meters.

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 Tidal Power (cont’d)
• Spring tides (max)
• Neap tides (min)

Source: Alternative Energy Tutorials

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 Tidal Power (cont’d)
• Tidal Energy is more developed than wave energy, about 536 MW of
installed capacity by 2016.

• Major plants in operation:

• 254 MW Sihwa plant in the Republic of Korea (2011).
• 240 MW La Rance tidal power station in France (1966).

• 320 MW Swansea Bay Tidal Lagoon in Wales, was proposed at a

cost of £1.3 billion. The construction was postponed because UK
gov rejected funding the project.

• At the start of 2017, China released its 13th Five-Year Plan on

Ocean Energy, which targets 50 MW of installed capacity by 2020.

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 Tidal Technologies
• Three Methods for Harvesting Tidal Energy

Barrages or Dams Tidal Fences

Tidal Turbines

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 Tidal Technologies (cont’d)
• Barrages or Dams
• They use the difference in the vertical height between the
incoming high tides and the outgoing low tides.
• As the tide ebbs and flows, sea water is allowed to flow in or out
of the reservoir.

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 Tidal Power Technologies
• Barrages or Dams (cont’d)

Source: Alternative Energy Tutorials

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 Tidal Power Technologies (cont’d)
• Tidal Fences
• These are vertical axis turbines mounted in a fence or row
placed on the sea bed.

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 Tidal Power Technologies (cont’d)
• Tidal Turbines
• Tidal turbines are similar to wind turbines.
• They are normally placed on the sea floor where the tidal flow is
strong.
• They are heavier than WT.
• Also expensive to build.

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 Tidal Power (cont’d)
• Tidal Turbines: Operating Principle
• A tidal current generator operates exactly in the same way as the
wind turbine.

• The only difference is that here, the driving force is water which is
more denser than air.

• Therefore, the wind equations also do apply here.

• Power in the water:

1
𝑃𝑤 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 3
2

where 𝜌 = 1025 kg/m3

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 Tidal Power (cont’d)

Advantages

• It is a renewable energy resource.

• Produces free and green energy.
• Low visual impact as the tidal turbines are mainly if not totally
submerged beneath the water.
• Low noise pollution as any sound generated is transmitted through
the water.
• High predictability as high and low tides can be predicted years in
advance, unlike wind.
• Tidal barrages provide protection against flooding and land damage.
• Large tidal reservoirs have multiple uses and can create recreational
lakes and areas.

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 Tidal Power (cont’d)
Disadvantages Other issues

• Disturbs sea life migration. • Higher payback periods.

• Build up of silt, sediments and • Therefore, not cost effective
pollutants within the tidal barrage. compared to conventional
• Requires a suitable site, where sources.
the tides are consistently strong.
• Higher capital costs (construction
and maintenance costs/W).
• High power distribution costs.
Long undersea cables.
• Intermittency in nature.
• Danger to fish and other sea-life
as they get stuck in the barrage
or sucked through the tidal
turbine blades.

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 Hydro Power
• Hydro forms up a significant part of the global electricity supply.
• Over 1 TW installed global capacity (16.5%).
• The largest hydro plants are Three Gorges 22.4 GW (China) and
Itaipu 14 GW (Brazil).
• About 350 GW installed in China.
• 347 MW installed in Namibia, Ruacana Hydro Power Station.
• Hydro is a mature and well established technology.
• It is flexible; can provide baseload power, peaking power, spinning
reserve or even storage.
• It has high dispachability.
• Small hydro is becoming attractive and cost effective.
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 Hydro Power (cont’d)
• Global Capacity

• 26 GW were
added to reach a
total of 1,197 GW

• China continues to
lead this market.

• Global pumped
storage capacity
grew around 1.9%
(3 GW)

Hydropower Global Capacity, Shares of Top 10

Countries and Rest of World, 2021 (GSR2022)

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 Hydro Power (cont’d)
• Hydropower Configurations

1. Run-of-the-river plants → like Ruacana

2. Hydro with Storage

3. Pumped Hydro

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 Hydro Power (cont’d)
• Operating Principle
• Potential, pressure and kinetic energy associated with hydro
plants.

• Energy Head: (pressure and velocity head)

𝑝 𝑣2
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 𝑧 + +
𝛾 2𝑔

• Where:
𝑧 − elevation above reference height [m].
𝑝 − pressure [N/m2]
𝛾 − specific weight [N/m3]
𝑣 − average velocity [m/s]
g − gravitational acceleration [9.81 m/s2)

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 Hydro Power (cont’d)
• Operating Principle (cont’d)
• Q – Flow rate [m3/s)
• HG – Gross Head [m]

Output Power
• Without considering losses:
𝑃 = 9.81 × 𝑄 × 𝐻𝐺 [kW]

• Considering losses:
𝑃 = 9.81 × 𝜂 × 𝑄 × 𝐻𝑁 [kW]

• 𝐻𝑁 = 𝐻𝐺 − 𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

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 Hydro Power (cont’d)
• Operating Principle (cont’d)
• H – Gloss Head [m]

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 Hydro Power (cont’d)
• Types of Turbines
• Impulse Turbines – uses the velocity (kinetic energy) of the
water to move the runner and discharges to atmospheric
pressure. Ideal for sites with head.
• Pelton and cross flow turbines.

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 Hydro Power (cont’d)
• Types of Turbines (cont’d)
• Reaction Turbines – Gets power from the combined action of
pressure and moving water (speed).
• Good for sites with lower head and higher flows compared with
the impulse turbines.

• Propeller
• Kaplan
• Straflo
• Bulb Turbine, etc.

• Francis Turbine

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 Pumped Hydro
• Water is pumped from low reservoir to upper reservoir when surplus
power is available.
• Reversible pump-turbine/motor-generator assemblies can act as both
pumps and turbines.
• Fully commercialized utility-scale storage technology.

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 Pumped Hydro (cont’d)
• Pumped storage capacity increased significantly in 2021, rising by
around 3 GW to 163 GW [GSR2022].

• China is the leading installer of pumped storage, followed by South

Africa, Switzerland, Portugal and the Russian Federation.

• A modernisation project at South Africa’s second largest pumped

storage facility (built in 1981) was completed in 2021.

• Pumped storage hydropower is the dominant source of largescale

energy storage, accounting for an estimated 96% of global energy
storage capacity.

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 Pumped Hydro (cont’d)
• Advantages
• Peak power supply capability.
• Can start and shutdown very quickly (in minutes).
• Can switch between pumping and generation in half an hour.
• Ideal for load following and grid stabilisation.
• The most cost-effective bulk grid storage.
• Acts as a good way to deal with excess power from intermittent
sources.

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 Pumped Hydro (cont’d)
• Two-Penstock Pumped Storage System

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 Pumped Hydro (cont’d)
• Two-Penstock Pumped Storage System (cont’d)
• The energy available in the upper reservoir relative to the lower
one is expressed as [kWh]:

𝑉 × 𝑔 × 𝐻 𝜌𝐴𝑔∆ℎ × 𝐻
𝐸= =
3.6 × 106 3.6 × 106

224 m 224 m piping

30 m

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 ANNOUNCEMENT
CA Test 3: Monday, 17/10/2022

Chapters:
• Other Forms of RE

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 Biomass Power
• Biomass is fuel that is developed from organic materials (plants or
animals), a renewable and sustainable source of energy.
• Biomass energy is carbon neutral. (video)

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 Biomass Power (cont’d)
• Market Share (Biomass for power)
• Bioelectricity production grew 10% in 2021, dominated by China.
• Generation has increased 88% since 2011

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 Biomass Power (cont’d)
• Market Share (Biomass for power)
• Otjikoto Biomass Power Plant (44 MW, N$ 1.9 billion, 2023 COD)

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 Biomass Power (cont’d)
• Biomass Fuels

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 Biomass Power (cont’d)
• Biomass Fuels (cont’d)
• Energy density comparison

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 Biomass Power (cont’d)
• Biomass Conversion Processes
• Combustion – Is when the biomass is being burned in higher
pressure boiler to generate steam.

• Gasification – This is achieved by partial combustion of biomass

in low oxygen environment, leading to the release of a gaseous
product. The resulting gas can then be used in combustion
engines, micro-turbines, fuel cells or gas turbines.

• Pyrolysis - In pyrolysis, the partial combustion is stopped at a

lower temperature (450°C to 600°C), resulting in the creation of a
liquid bio-oil. The pyrolysis oil can then be used as a fuel to
generate electricity.

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 Biomass Power (cont’d)
• Biomass Conversion Processes (cont’d)
• Solid biomass can be burned directly to produce heat.

• Biomass can also be converted into a gas called biogas or into

liquid biofuels such as ethanol and biodiesel.

• Biogas can also be produced by processing sewage and animal

manure in special vessels called biodigesters.

• Ethanol is made from crops such as corn and sugar cane that are
fermented to produce fuel ethanol for use in vehicles.

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 Biomass Power (cont’d)
• Combined Heat and Power (CHP)
• CHP is the simultaneous production of electricity and heat from
one source of energy.
• It can achieve higher overall efficiencies.

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 Biomass Power (cont’d)

Advantages Disadvantages
• Improved forest health, • Low energy density,
• Carbon Neutrality (O2 in, CO2 • Seasonal/annual fluctuation
out), in biomass supply,
• Reliable (comparable to • Land use competition (food or
coal), biomass),
• Value addition to some • Risk of deforestation,
products, • Requires plenty of water.
• Affordable.

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 Geothermal Power
• The use of heat from deep inside the earth to generate electricity.

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 Geothermal Power (cont’d)
• Global Status (GSR2022)
• New geothermal power generating capacity of 0.3 gigawatts
(GW) came online in 2021,
• Global total capacity stands at 14.5 GW,
• Top new additions: Turkey (0.9 GW added), Indonesia (0.7 GW),
Kenya (0.2 GW) and the United States (0.2 GW),
• Geothermal heat (direct) use may have increased nearly 10% in
2021, mostly in China.

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 Geothermal Power (cont’d)
• Global Status (GSR2022)

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 Geothermal Power (cont’d)
• Geothermal power plants are similar to conventional steam-power
station with an exception that they do not have furnaces and steam
generators as steam is readily available from the geothermal fields.

• Geothermal power plants are built on the edges of tectonic plates

(geothermal fields) where high temperature geothermal resources are
available near the surface.

• There are two types of Geothermal Plants:

• A dry-steam (vapour dominated).

• A flash-steam (liquid dominated).

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 Geothermal Power (cont’d)
• Types of Plants

Dry Steam Flash Steam

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 Geothermal Power (cont’d)
• A dry-steam power station directly uses the superheated steam of
150oC or greater from the vapor-dominated geothermal fields to drive
a steam turbine that is coupled to an electricity generator.

• The low-pressure and low-temperature steam that comes out of the

turbine is condensed into water in a condenser.

• The condensed water is subsequently discharged or reinjected into

the geothermal fields through reinjection wells.

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 Geothermal Power (cont’d)
• A flash-steam power station employs a low-pressure tank to allow
high-pressure hot water that comes out of the production well to boil
into steam.

• The saturated (wet) steam is separated from the water, using a

cyclone separator, and used to drive a steam turbine that is coupled
to an electricity generator.

• The low-pressure and low-temperature steam that comes out of the

turbine is condensed into water in a condenser.

• The water from the condenser and the separator is subsequently

discharged or reinjected into the geothermal fields.

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 Geothermal Power (cont’d)
• A binary-cycle geothermal power station which is the most recent
development, utilizes hot drawn water from a lower-temperature
liquid-dominated geothermal field to heat a secondary working fluid of
much lower boiling point in using a heat exchanger.

• This causes the secondary fluid to flash vaporize which then drives a
Rankine-cycle turbine coupled to an electric generator to produce
electricity.

• The thermal efficiency of the binary geothermal power plant is in the

range of 10-13%.

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 Geothermal Power (cont’d)
• Steam from geothermal resources is of lower temperatures than that
used in conventional steam power plants.

• The thermal efficiency of geothermal power plants is therefore lower

than that of the conventional power stations, typically in the range of
10-15%.

• Geothermal power requires no fuels, it is therefore immune to fuel

cost fluctuations.

• The capital costs constituting drilling and exploration are high.

• Exploration of deep resources entails significant risks.

• The operating costs are the costs of drilling new production wells to
compensate for the depleted ones.
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 Geothermal Power (cont’d)
Advantages

• Renewable,
• Environmental friendly,
• Reliable,
• High efficiency,
• Relatively low maintenance.

Disadvantages

• Potential emissions,
• Possibility of depletion,
• High initial investment,
• Highly localised → Transmission and distributions costs.

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Chapter 7 Summary
 Other forms of Renewable Energy
• Introduction
• Wave Energy
• Tidal Power
• Hydroelectric Power
• Pumped hydro
• Biomass for Electricity
• Geothermal Power

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