Cadmium is a chemical element with the symbol Cd and atomic number 48.

This soft,
silvery-white metal is chemically similar to the two other stable metals in group
12, zinc and mercury. Like zinc, it demonstrates oxidation state +2 in most of its
compounds, and like mercury, it has a lower melting point than the transition
metals in groups 3 through 11. Cadmium and its congeners in group 12 are often not
considered transition metals, in that they do not have partly filled d or f
electron shells in the elemental or common oxidation states. The average
concentration of cadmium in Earth's crust is between 0.1 and 0.5 parts per million
(ppm). It was discovered in 1817 simultaneously by Stromeyer and Hermann, both in
Germany, as an impurity in zinc carbonate.

Cadmium occurs as a minor component in most zinc ores and is a byproduct of zinc
production. Cadmium was used for a long time as a corrosion-resistant plating on
steel, and cadmium compounds are used as red, orange and yellow pigments, to color
glass, and to stabilize plastic. Cadmium use is generally decreasing because it is
toxic (it is specifically listed in the European Restriction of Hazardous
Substances Directive[4]) and nickel-cadmium batteries have been replaced with
nickel-metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries. One of its few new uses is in
cadmium telluride solar panels.

Although cadmium has no known biological function in higher organisms, a cadmium-

dependent carbonic anhydrase has been found in marine diatoms.

Contents
1 Characteristics
1.1 Physical properties
1.2 Chemical properties
1.3 Isotopes
2 History
3 Occurrence
4 Production
5 Applications
5.1 Batteries
5.2 Electroplating
5.3 Nuclear fission
5.4 Televisions
5.5 Anticancer drugs
5.6 Compounds
5.7 Semiconductors
5.8 Laboratory uses
6 Biological role and research
7 Environment
8 Safety
8.1 Regulations
8.2 Product recalls
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Characteristics
Physical properties
Cadmium is a soft, malleable, ductile, silvery-white divalent metal. It is similar
in many respects to zinc but forms complex compounds.[5] Unlike most other metals,
cadmium is resistant to corrosion and is used as a protective plate on other
metals. As a bulk metal, cadmium is insoluble in water[6] and is not flammable;
however, in its powdered form it may burn and release toxic fumes.[7]

Chemical properties
See also: Category:Cadmium compounds
Although cadmium usually has an oxidation state of +2, it also exists in the +1
state. Cadmium and its congeners are not always considered transition metals, in
that they do not have partly filled d or f electron shells in the elemental or
common oxidation states.[8] Cadmium burns in air to form brown amorphous cadmium
oxide (CdO); the crystalline form of this compound is a dark red which changes
color when heated, similar to zinc oxide. Hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and
nitric acid dissolve cadmium by forming cadmium chloride (CdCl2), cadmium sulfate
(CdSO4), or cadmium nitrate (Cd(NO3)2). The oxidation state +1 can be produced by
dissolving cadmium in a mixture of cadmium chloride and aluminium chloride, forming
the Cd22+ cation, which is similar to the Hg22+ cation in mercury(I) chloride.[5]

Cd + CdCl2 + 2 AlCl3 → Cd2(AlCl4)2

The structures of many cadmium complexes with nucleobases, amino acids, and
vitamins have been determined.[9]

Isotopes

The cadmium-113 total cross section clearly showing the cadmium cut-off
Main article: Isotopes of cadmium
Naturally occurring cadmium is composed of eight isotopes. Two of them are
radioactive, and three are expected to decay but have not done so under laboratory
conditions. The two natural radioactive isotopes are 113Cd (beta decay, half-life
is 7.7×1015 y) and 116Cd (two-neutrino double beta decay, half-life is 2.9×1019 y).
The other three are 106Cd, 108Cd (both double electron capture), and 114Cd (double
beta decay); only lower limits on these half-lives have been determined. At least
three isotopes – 110Cd, 111Cd, and 112Cd – are stable. Among the isotopes that do
not occur naturally, the most long-lived are 109Cd with a half-life of 462.6 days,
and 115Cd with a half-life of 53.46 hours. All of the remaining radioactive
isotopes have half-lives of less than 2.5 hours, and the majority have half-lives
of less than 5 minutes. Cadmium has 8 known meta states, with the most stable being
113mCd (t1⁄2 = 14.1 years), 115mCd (t1⁄2 = 44.6 days), and 117mCd (t1⁄2 = 3.36
hours).[10]

The known isotopes of cadmium range in atomic mass from 94.950 u (95Cd) to 131.946
u (132Cd). For isotopes lighter than 112 u, the primary decay mode is electron
capture and the dominant decay product is element 47 (silver). Heavier isotopes
decay mostly through beta emission producing element 49 (indium).[10]

One isotope of cadmium, 113Cd, absorbs neutrons with high selectivity: With very
high probability, neutrons with energy below the cadmium cut-off will be absorbed;
those higher than the cut-off will be transmitted. The cadmium cut-off is about 0.5
eV, and neutrons below that level are deemed slow neutrons, distinct from
intermediate and fast neutrons.[11]

Cadmium is created via the s-process in low- to medium-mass stars with masses of
0.6 to 10 solar masses, over thousands of years. In that process, a silver atom
captures a neutron and then undergoes beta decay.[12]

History

Friedrich Stromeyer
Cadmium (Latin cadmia, Greek καδμεία meaning "calamine", a cadmium-bearing mixture
of minerals that was named after the Greek mythological character Κάδμος, Cadmus,
the founder of Thebes) was discovered in contaminated zinc compounds sold in
pharmacies in Germany[13] in 1817 by Friedrich Stromeyer.[14] Karl Samuel Leberecht
Hermann simultaneously investigated the discoloration in zinc oxide and found an
impurity, first suspected to be arsenic, because of the yellow precipitate with
hydrogen sulfide. Additionally Stromeyer discovered that one supplier sold zinc
carbonate instead of zinc oxide.[4] Stromeyer found the new element as an impurity
in zinc carbonate (calamine), and, for 100 years, Germany remained the only
important producer of the metal. The metal was named after the Latin word for
calamine, because it was found in this zinc ore. Stromeyer noted that some impure
samples of calamine changed color when heated but pure calamine did not. He was
persistent in studying these results and eventually isolated cadmium metal by
roasting and reducing the sulfide. The potential for cadmium yellow as pigment was
recognized in the 1840s, but the lack of cadmium limited this application.[15][16]
[17]

Even though cadmium and its compounds are toxic in certain forms and
concentrations, the British Pharmaceutical Codex from 1907 states that cadmium
iodide was used as a medication to treat "enlarged joints, scrofulous glands, and
chilblains".[18]

In 1907, the International Astronomical Union defined the international ångström in

terms of a red cadmium spectral line (1 wavelength = 6438.46963 Å).[19][20] This
was adopted by the 7th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1927. In 1960,
the definitions of both the metre and ångström were changed to use krypton.[21]

After the industrial scale production of cadmium started in the 1930s and 1940s,
the major application of cadmium was the coating of iron and steel to prevent
corrosion; in 1944, 62% and in 1956, 59% of the cadmium in the United States was
used for plating.[4][22] In 1956, 24% of the cadmium in the United States was used
for a second application in red, orange and yellow pigments from sulfides and
selenides of cadmium.[22]

The stabilizing effect of cadmium chemicals like the carboxylates cadmium laurate
and cadmium stearate on PVC led to an increased use of those compounds in the 1970s
and 1980s. The demand for cadmium in pigments, coatings, stabilizers, and alloys
declined as a result of environmental and health regulations in the 1980s and
1990s; in 2006, only 7% of to total cadmium consumption was used for plating, and
only 10% was used for pigments.[4] At the same time, these decreases in consumption
were compensated by a growing demand for cadmium for nickel-cadmium batteries,
which accounted for 81% of the cadmium consumption in the United States in 2006.
[23]

Occurrence

Cadmium metal
See also: Category:Cadmium minerals
Cadmium makes up about 0.1 ppm of Earth's crust. It is much rarer than zinc, which
makes up about 65 ppm.[24] No significant deposits of cadmium-containing ores are
known. The only cadmium mineral of importance, greenockite (CdS), is nearly always
associated with sphalerite (ZnS). This association is caused by geochemical
similarity between zinc and cadmium, with no geological process likely to separate
them. Thus, cadmium is produced mainly as a byproduct of mining, smelting, and
refining sulfidic ores of zinc, and, to a lesser degree, lead and copper. Small
amounts of cadmium, about 10% of consumption, are produced from secondary sources,
mainly from dust generated by recycling iron and steel scrap. Production in the
United States began in 1907,[17] but wide use began after World War I.[25][26]

Metallic cadmium can be found in the Vilyuy River basin in Siberia.[27]

Rocks mined for phosphate fertilizers contain varying amounts of cadmium, resulting
in a cadmium concentration of as much as 300 mg/kg in the fertilizers and a high
cadmium content in agricultural soils.[28][29] Coal can contain significant amounts
of cadmium, which ends up mostly in coal fly ash.[30] Cadmium in soil can be
absorbed by crops such as rice. Chinese ministry of agriculture measured in 2002
that 28% of rice it sampled had excess lead and 10% had excess cadmium above limits
defined by law. Some plants such as willow trees and poplars have been found to
clean both lead and cadmium from soil.[31]

Typical background concentrations of cadmium do not exceed 5 ng/m3 in the

atmosphere; 2 mg/kg in soil; 1 μg/L in freshwater and 50 ng/L in seawater.[32]
Concentrations of cadmium above 10 μg/L may be stable in water having low total
solute concentrations and p H and can be difficult to remove by conventional water
treatment processes.[33]

Production
Cadmium is a common impurity in zinc ores, and it is most often isolated during the
production of zinc. Some zinc ores concentrates from zinc sulfate ores contain up
to 1.4% of cadmium.[34] In the 1970s, the output of cadmium was 6.5 pounds (2.9 kg)
per ton of zinc.[34] Zinc sulfide ores are roasted in the presence of oxygen,
converting the zinc sulfide to the oxide. Zinc metal is produced either by smelting
the oxide with carbon or by electrolysis in sulfuric acid. Cadmium is isolated from
the zinc metal by vacuum distillation if the zinc is smelted, or cadmium sulfate is
precipitated from the electrolysis solution.[26][35]

The British Geological Survey reports that in 2001, China was the top producer of
cadmium with almost one-sixth of the world's production, closely followed by South
Korea and Japan.[36]

History of the world production of cadmium

History of the world production of cadmium

Cadmium production in 2010.

Cadmium production in 2010.

Applications
Cadmium is a common component of electric batteries, pigments,[37] coatings,[38]
and electroplating.[39]

Batteries

Ni-Cd batteries
In 2009, 86% of cadmium was used in batteries, predominantly in rechargeable
nickel-cadmium batteries. Nickel-cadmium cells have a nominal cell potential of 1.2
V. The cell consists of a positive nickel hydroxide electrode and a negative
cadmium electrode plate separated by an alkaline electrolyte (potassium hydroxide).
[40] The European Union put a limit on cadmium in electronics in 2004 of 0.01%,[41]
with some exceptions, and in 2006 reduced the limit on cadmium content to 0.002%.
[42] Another type of battery based on cadmium is the silver-cadmium battery.

Electroplating

A photograph and representative spectrum of photoluminescence from colloidal CdSe

quantum dots
Cadmium electroplating, consuming 6% of the global production, is used in the
aircraft industry to reduce corrosion of steel components.[39] This coating is
passivated by chromate salts.[38] A limitation of cadmium plating is hydrogen
embrittlement of high-strength steels from the electroplating process. Therefore,
steel parts heat-treated to tensile strength above 1300 MPa (200 ksi) should be
coated by an alternative method (such as special low-embrittlement cadmium
electroplating processes or physical vapor deposition).

Titanium embrittlement from cadmium-plated tool residues resulted in banishment of

those tools (and the implementation of routine tool testing to detect cadmium
contamination) in the A-12/SR-71, U-2, and subsequent aircraft programs that use
titanium.[43]

Nuclear fission
Cadmium is used in the control rods of nuclear reactors, acting as a very effective
neutron poison to control neutron flux in nuclear fission.[39] When cadmium rods
are inserted in the core of a nuclear reactor, cadmium absorbs neutrons, preventing
them from creating additional fission events, thus controlling the amount of
reactivity. The pressurized water reactor designed by Westinghouse Electric Company
uses an alloy consisting of 80% silver, 15% indium, and 5% cadmium.[39]

Televisions
QLED TVs have been starting to include cadmium in construction. Some companies have
been looking to reduce the environmental impact of human exposure and pollution of
the material in televisions during production.[44]

Anticancer drugs
Complexes based on heavy metals have great potential for the treatment of a wide
variety of cancers but their use is often limited due to toxic side effects.
However, scientists are advancing in the field and new promising cadmium complex
compounds with reduced toxicity have been discovered.[45]

Compounds

Train painted with cadmium orange

Cadmium oxide was used in black and white television phosphors and in the blue and
green phosphors of color television cathode ray tubes.[46] Cadmium sulfide (CdS) is
used as a photoconductive surface coating for photocopier drums.[47]

Cadmium sulfide
Various cadmium salts are used in paint pigments, with CdS as a yellow pigment
being the most common. Cadmium selenide is a red pigment, commonly called cadmium
red. To painters who work with the pigment, cadmium provides the most brilliant and
durable yellows, oranges, and reds – so much so that during production, these
colors are significantly toned down before they are ground with oils and binders or
blended into watercolors, gouaches, acrylics, and other paint and pigment
formulations. Because these pigments are potentially toxic, users should use a
barrier cream on the hands to prevent absorption through the skin[37] even though
the amount of cadmium absorbed into the body through the skin is reported to be
less than 1%.[7]

In PVC, cadmium was used as heat, light, and weathering stabilizers.[39][48]

Currently, cadmium stabilizers have been
calcium-zinc and organo-tin stabilizers.
and bearing alloys, because it has a low
resistance.[39] It is also found in some
Wood's metal.[49]
completely replaced with barium-zinc,
Cadmium is used in many kinds of solder
coefficient of friction and fatigue
of the lowest-melting alloys, such as

Semiconductors
Cadmium is an element in some semiconductor materials. Cadmium sulfide, cadmium
selenide, and cadmium telluride are used in some photodetectors and solar cells.
HgCdTe detectors are sensitive to mid-infrared light [39] and used in some motion
detectors.

Laboratory uses

Violet light from a helium cadmium metal vapor laser. The highly monochromatic
color arises from the 441.563 nm transition line of cadmium.
Helium–cadmium lasers are a common source of blue or ultraviolet laser light.
Lasers at wavelengths of 325, 354 and 442 nm are made using this gain medium; some
models can switch between these wavelengths. They are notably used in fluorescence
microscopy as well as various laboratory uses requiring laser light at these
wavelengths.[50][51]

Cadmium selenide quantum dots emit bright luminescence under UV excitation (He-Cd
laser, for example). The color of this luminescence can be green, yellow or red
depending on the particle size. Colloidal solutions of those particles are used for
imaging of biological tissues and solutions with a fluorescence microscope.[52]

In molecular biology, cadmium is used to block voltage-dependent calcium channels

from fluxing calcium ions, as well as in hypoxia research to stimulate proteasome-
dependent degradation of Hif-1α.[53]

Cadmium-selective sensors based on the fluorophore BODIPY have been developed for
imaging and sensing of cadmium in cells.[54] One powerful method for monitoring
cadmium in aqueous environments involves electrochemistry. By employing a self-
assembled monolayer one can obtain a cadmium selective electrode with a ppt-level
sensitivity.[55]