Food and Humans

7 Food substances

Based on function: 2 groups (Primary and Protective)

Primary food substances: essential to life;
Protective food substances: keep us healthy and help prevent diseases
1. Carbohydrates : Carbon (C ) + Hydrogen (H) + oxygen (O)
Organic substances
[Organic substances are the substances made from the carbon-hydrogen bond. Due to the less bond
energy they can be broken down easily therefore plant use organic substance for making food, carbon
is not an organic substance as in organic substance it is compulsory to have a bond with carbon]
Organic means as natural as possible.
General formula
H: O =2:1
Monosaccharides (M), disaccharides(M+M), and Polysaccharides (M+M+M+….+M)

A. Monosaccharides (Glucose, Fructose, Galactose)

1. Basic unit of carbonhydrates
2. Soluble in water and taste sweet
3. Glucose can be directly broken down in body cells during respiration to release energy
4. All are reducing sugar [any sugar that is capable of acting as a reducing agent]
B. Disaccharides (Maltose (G+G), lactose (G+Ga) and sucrose(G+F))
Soluble in water
Most taste sweet
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Most are reducing sugars, except sucrose
C. Polysaccharides (starch , glycogen and cellulose)
Insoluble
Non-reducing

Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides

Soluble In water In water Non-soluble
Taste Sweet Sweet
Reducing sugar Yes Yes Non reducing
Form M M+M M+M..+M >10

2. Lipids
Organic substances (C+H+O) ; H:O > 2:1
Insoluble in water but solube in organic solvents (ethanol 乙醇(酒精)
Example: triglycerides 甘油三酯 and steroids 類固醇
A. Triglycerides (fats and oils)= 1 glycerol 甘油+ 3 fatty acids 脂肪酸
Energy reserve in organisms
Fat under skin (subcutaneous fat 皮下脂肪) act as insulative layer to reduce heat loss.
B. Steroids (e.g cholesterol 膽固醇)
For making cell membrane and some steroid hormones like sex hormones
3. Proteins (C+H+O+N(nitrogen) )
4. Organic substance
5. Basic units are amino acids (20 x amino acids = 1 proteins)
6. Amino acids are joined by condensation to form a dipeptide 二肽
7. Many amino acids are joined together to form polypeptide 多肽

8.

9. For growth and repair of body tissues

10. Provide energy when carbohydrates and lipid are used up
11. Used make many important molecules like
12. Enzymes for speeding up metabolic reactions
13. Antibodies for protecting our bodies against pathogens 病原體
14. Certain hormones for regulating body functions

4. Enzymes
Metabolism ( sum of chemical reactions taking place in living organism, mainly inside cells)
= anabolism 合成代謝 and catabolism 分解代謝
 Food and Humans

Anabolism (constructive) =small (simple) molecules join into a large ones (complex molecules) ,
energy is required (e.g photosynthesis)
Catabolism (destructive): Large(complex) molecules are broken down into small (simple) one,
energy is released. (e.g respiration in the cell)

How enzymes work

Enzymes act as biological catalysts (speeding up metabolic reactions)

An enzyme molecule has one or more active sites with specific shape
Only the substance fits exactly into the active site can bind to the enzyme.
When a substrate molecule collides with the enzyme molecule and binds to the active site of the
enzyme molecule, enzyme-substrate complex is formed
The complex breaks up to release the products
Enzyme remains unchanged at the end of the reaction

Properties of enzymes
The enzyme reaction is affected by temperature and PH
Can function inside and outside cells
Can speed up metabolic reactions without being used up
Reusable
Highly specific in action: one type of enzyme catalyses only one type of reaction

Factors affecting the rate of enzymatic reactions

Temperature and pH can change the shape of the enzyme molecule and the shape of active site
1. Temperature
At low temperature: enzymes are inactive (low kinetic energy)
Temperature increase enzyme becomes more active (more kinetic energy)  collide with one
another form more enzyme-substrate complexes products formed (rate of reaction increase)
At optimum temperature enzyme activity is the highest maximum reaction rate reached.
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Temperature > optimum enzymes are denatured 變性的 shape of enzyme molecule and
active site are changed  no longer fits the substrate molecule no enzyme-substrate complex
formed  enzyme activity drops rapidly reaction rate drops
Denaturation is an irreversible process

2. pH
enzymes usually work within a narrow range of pH
enzyme molecules change shape in extreme pH
protease 蛋白酶 in stomach works best at acidic environment
Lipase 脂肪酶 works best in alkaline environment
 The independent variable is the one that the researcher intentionally changes or controls.
 The dependent variable is the factor that the research measures. It changes in response to
the independent variable or depends upon it.

Plant Biology
Plants are multicellular organisms (cells are specialized for different functions)
They show a division of labour and work together at different levels
 Food and Humans
Level of organization

1. Cell (the basic structural and functional unit of organisms

Epidermal cell for protection
Mesophyll cells 葉肉細胞 for carrying out photosynthesis
2. Tissue (a group of similar cells working together to perform particular functions)
Mesophyll tissue for carrying out photosynthesis
Vascular tissue 血管組織 for transporting water and food
3. Organ (different tissues grouped together to perform particular function )
Flowers are the reproductive organs of plants
A storage organ is the offspring a flowering plant
4. System (several organs and tissues working together to perform a particular process)
Shoot system , root system, transport system, reproductive system
Body Defence
Defence mechanisms can protect human against pathogens,
i. Prevent pathogens from entering our body
ii. Destroy pathogens that have entered our body
1. White blood cells (WBC) : protecting the body against various infections
Phagocytes 吞噬細胞 : engulfs and digests invading pathogens by phagocytosis
Antibodies kills pathogens or neutralize toxins produced by the pathogens.
2. Immunity (the ability of the body to resist pathogens which may cause a disease
Immunity provided by antibodies
Acquired naturally after you have caught a disease and recovered or artificially through
vaccination
乙、 Primary response
Pathogen 1st time enters the body , only a few WBCs of the immune system can recognize it 
take time to produce antibodies (slow response)
Latent period 潛伏期 of several days before the antibody concentration in the blood begins to rise
May develop disease symptoms (immune response is not fast enough to stop the pathogen from
causing harm to the body)
丙、 Secondary response
Memory cells for the particular pathogen are produced (can last for years)  establish
immunological memory towards the invaded pathogens
When the same pathogen enters the body again, memory cells can produce a large amount of
antibodies with a short time (faster, stronger and lasts longer)
Biotechnology
1. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid 脫氧核糖核酸)
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Carries genetic information
4 types of building blocks (BB) : A; T; C & G
BB condensed to form a long chain
DNA consists of two chain coiled around each other to form a double helix 雙螺旋
two chains are held together by chemical bonds

2. Chromosomes 染色體 and genes

DNA coils up around some special proteins to form chromosomes , which are found in the cell
nucleus.
23 pairs of chromosomes
Genes are the basic unit of heredity 遺傳
Gene is a length of a DNA, consisting of different codes (A, T, C, G) , which form genetic codes
or instructions
These genetic codes determine the characteristics of an organism, eg blood type, skin colour etc
Genes determine the characteristics
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3. Recombinant 重組 DNA technology ( techniques in combing DNA molecules of 2 different
organisms produce medicines (eg human insulin for treating diabetes)
Usually make use of bacterial cells
Because
small size, fast growing , easy to handle large scale of production and lower the cost.
4. Structure of a bacterium 細菌 (pl.: bacteria)
Smaller than animal and plant cells
Lack of nucleus
Circular DNA lying free in the cytoplasm 細胞質
No membrane-bound organelles 細胞器
Some have flagella 鞭毛 (single flagellum) for movement

5. Applications of biotechnology

A. Drug production using bacteria

B. DNA fingerprinting (to identify individuals )

Use enzyme to cut DNA into shorter fragments of different lengths

The length varies between different individuals

Gel electrophoresis 凝膠電泳 is used to separate the DNA gragments to produce a DNA
fingerprint.
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C. Forensic science 法醫學 (use of DNA fingerprints to compare the DNA

fingerprint of a suspect’s blood or other body material with the evidence
collected at the crime scene