BACTERIAL MORPHOLOGY, GROWTH & REPRODUCTION

A. Shape. Along with other properties, shape is used to identify bacteria. It is determined by the mechanism of cell wall
assembly.
1. Bacilli – rods
2. Cocci – spheres
3. “Spiral” shape
a. Vibrio – straight rod or with single rigid curve
b. Spirillum – rigid helical rod
c. Spirochete – flexuous helical rod
4. Pleomorphic organisms vary in size and shape e.g. Bacteroides
5. Antibiotics that affect cell wall biosynthesis (e.g., penicillin) may alter a bacteria’s shape.

B. Arrangement
1. Pairs – diplococci, diplobacilli
2. Chains – streptococci, streptobacilli
3. Grape-like clusters – staphylococci
4. Groups of four – tetrads (e.g. Peptococcus)
5. Packets of eight – cuboidal (e.g. Sarcina)
6. Palisades (e.g. Corynebacterium)

C. Size
1. Unit of measurement – micrometer (1/25,000 of an inch) = 0.001 mm = 1 micrometer or µm (formerly micron or µ)
2. Haemophilus – smallest pathogenic bacillus (0.2 x 0.5 µm)
3. Bacillus anthracis – largest pathogenic bacillus (1 x 3-10 µm)

D. Capsule: mucilaginous envelope that surrounds some bacteria

1. Other names:
a. Slime layer- not well-defined
b. Glycocalyx – well-defined

2. Polysaccharide structure surrounding a bacterial cell and is external to the cell wall. The one exception to the
polysaccharide structure is the poly-D-glutamic acid capsule of Bacillus anthracis

3. May increase virulence by preventing phagocytosis

4. Antigenic (basis of serotyping by quelling reactions: specific capsular swelling with type-specific antiserum)

5. Special staining methods

a. Hiss stain
b. India ink stain (negative staining)

6. Demonstration
a. From animal tissues and fluids
b. In media containing serum or milk

7. Some clinically-signicant organisms with capsules. Colonies often slimy (mucoid)

 Encapsulated microorganisms
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E. Cell Wall
1. Also known as the peptidoglycan layer or murein layer

2. Functions
a. Protects bacteria against osmotic pressure.
b. Gives shape to the bacteria
c. Confer the gram’s reaction of the bacteria
d. A usual target of anti-microbial drugs (e.g. penicillins, cephalosporins)

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 3. Important for identification
a. Gram-positive cell wall
i. Composed of a very thick protective peptidoglycan (murein) layer
ii. Consists of glycan chains of alternating N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (NAG) and N-acetyl-D-muramic acid (NAM)
iii. Teichoic acid is negatively charged and contributes to the negativity of the cell wall; it may also bind and
regulate the movement of cations into and out of the cell

b. Gram-negative cell wall

i. Composed of a thin layer of peptidoglycan. No teichoic acid.
ii. Periplasmic space is between outer membrane and gram-negative cell wall

c. Acid-fast cell wall

i. Has a gram-positive reaction
ii. Concurs resistance to drying and chemicals
iii. Contain a waxy layer of glycolipids and fatty acids (hydroxymethoxy acid or mycolic acid) bound to the
exterior of the cell wall

 Acid-fast organisms
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d. Bacteria without cell wall contain sterols in their cell membrane.

E.g. Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma

F. Outer Membrane
1. Only in Gram-negative bacteria

2. Outer membrane composed of proteins, phospholipids and lipopolysaccharide. Lipopolysaccharide is comprised of:
a. Lipid A – major constituent; toxic
b. Core polysaccharide
c. O polysaccharide

 Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is _____________________________________

G. Cell Membrane
1. Essential component of both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria
2. Site of bacterial energy metabolism

H. Metachromatic (dark-staining) Granules

1. Affinity for basic dyes
2. Special stains – Albert, Neisser, Ponder, methylene blue
3. Examples:
a. Babes-Ernst granules _______________________
b. Much granules _______________________
c. Bipolar bodies _______________________

I. Endospores
1. Function: survival response to certain adverse nutritional conditions, such as depletion of a certain resource. These
metabolically inactive bacterial cells are highly resistant to desiccation, heat, and various chemicals.

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 2. Helpful in identifying some species of bacteria (e.g., Bacillus and Clostridium). Examples:
a. Terminal spore _______________________
b. Subterminal spore _______________________
c. Central spore _______________________

3. Structure
a. Possess a core that contains many cell components, a spore wall, a cortex, a coat, and an exosporium.
b. The core contains calcium dipicolinate, which aids in heat resistance within the core.

4. Stain e.g. Schaeffer-Fulton stain (stains any present endospores green)

5. Endospores germinate under favorable nutritional conditions after an activation process that involves damage to the
spore coat. They are not reproductive structures.

J. Flagella
1. Motile bacteria (except spirochetes) possess flagella
a. Atrichous – ______________________
b. Monotrichous – ______________________
c. Amphitrichous – ______________________
d. Lophotrichous – ______________________
e. Peritrichous – ______________________
f. * ______________ and _____________ are most common in pathogens

2. With some exception, motility differentiates

a. Shigella (-) from Salmonella (+)
b. Klebsiella (-) from Enterobacter (+)

3. Demonstrate motility at 18 hours growth (a young culture)

4. Often motility can be seen best at 25C (35-37C may be inhibitory)

I. BACTERIAL GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION

A. Reproduction
1. Asexual reproduction by transverse binary fission

2. Growth Curve
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B. Nutritional Requirements
1. Heterotrophs/Organotrophs - require preformed organic compounds (e.g., sugar, amino acids) for growth. Includes
most medical important bacteria.
2. Autotrophs/Lithotrophs - do not require preformed organic compounds for growth because they can synthesize
them from inorganic compounds and carbon dioxide.

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C. Energy Requirements
1. ________________________________________
2. ________________________________________

D. Oxygen requirements
1. Aerobe – grows in the presence of atmospheric (free) oxygen
a. Obligate aerobe – cannot grow in absence of free oxygen, which serves as final electron acceptor. Contain
superoxide dismutase, which protects from the toxic oxygen

b. Microaerophile – requires reduced amount of free oxygen

2. Anaerobe – grows in the absence of atmospheric (free) oxygen

a. Obligate anaerobe – cannot grow in the presence of atmospheric (free) oxygen; lack superoxide dismutase,
catalase, and cytochrome-C oxidase (enzymes that destroy toxic products of oxygen metabolism). Use nitrates,
sulfates and carbonates as final electron acceptor.

b. Facultative anaerobe – fundamentally an aerobe but can grow in the absence of atmospheric (free) oxygen;

c. Aerotolerant – does not grow well, but survives in the presence of atmospheric (free) oxygen

Obligate Aerobes Obligate Aerotolerant Microaerophiles Facultative

Anaerobes anaerobe
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________________ ________________ ________________ ________________ ________________
________________ ________________ ________________ ________________ ________________

*Capnophile – _________________________________________________________________

E. Thermal Requirements
1. Psychrophilic – grow below 10C e.g. Listeria monocytogenes, blood bank contaminants
2. Mesophilic – grow at 20-40C (best at 30-37C). Most pathogens.
3. Thermophilic – grow at 50-55C (basis of test for effective autoclaving

F. pH Requirements
1. Acidophiles
2. Neutrophiles
3. Alkalophiles/ basophiles

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