Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106067

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Engineering Geology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enggeo

Mineralogical and sample selection implications for geomechanical

properties of intact heterogeneous and veined rocks from the Legacy
skarn deposit
Matthew D. Clark 1, Jennifer J. Day *
Dept. of Geological Sciences and Geological Engineering, Miller Hall, Queen’s University, 36 Union Street, Kingston, Ontario K7L 3N6, Canada

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Predicting the geomechanical behaviour of rockmasses is key to the economic success and safety of rock engi­
Geomechanical laboratory testing neering projects including surface and underground excavations. For these projects, unconfined compressive
Unconfined compressive stress stress (UCS) laboratory testing provides fundamental geomechanical properties of intact rocks. It is currently
Drill core sample selection
standard practice for UCS testing to consider only homogeneous specimens that are free of defects and discard
Intrablock structures
Extra-granular heterogeneous rocks
heterogeneous specimens such as those that contain intrablock structures (e.g. veins) or extra-granular defects (e.
Hydrothermal veins g. phenocrysts). Understanding the complexities of these heterogeneous rocks and rockmasses is critical for
excavation projects such as deep cave mines where extensive tunnel networks, caves, and stopes are regularly
excavated through heterogeneous rockmasses. This paper presents the test results and analyses of UCS tests
conducted on 29 matrix-type and 21 veined drill core specimens from the Legacy Skarn deposit located in
northern New Brunswick, Canada. These specimens are sorted into five lithological units: beige, red, and black
varieties of quartz-plagioclase granodiorite, calcareous mudstone, and garnet-pyroxene skarn. Mineralogical
compositions of these units are determined using field identification techniques and microscopic laboratory
methods including petrographic thin section analysis, powdered X-Ray Diffraction, and micro-X-Ray Fluores­
cence. Significant effects of hydrothermal veining and phenocrysts on the UCS test results are discussed in this
study to highlight the significant influence of mineralogy on the variability of geomechanical properties. For
example, vein mineralogy dominated by calcite weakened the granodiorites but strengthened the calcareous
mudstone. Vein mineralogy dominated by quartz in the skarn unit had a mixed influence on geomechanical
properties. Vein thickness primarily influenced geomechanical properties of specimens with single veins,
whereas vein density was more useful to characterize specimens that contained vein networks or stockwork. The
effects of vein orientation only partially agree with the established Jaeger model for shear failure through
critically oriented foliations. The disseminated alteration in the granodiorites (plagioclase phenocrysts) and
skarn (garnet crystals) typically increased stiffness and strength as the large grains arrest crack propagation when
under load. Lastly, the effects of sample selection on reported UCS test results using four sample selection
methods are presented. The results demonstrate the importance of including heterogeneous veined specimens in
UCS sample selection and testing programs to capture rock variability and improve the accuracy of numerical
geomechanical design. Recommendations are made to improve geotechnical core logging and sample selection
protocols when characterizing heterogeneous complex rockmasses.

1. Introduction complex rockmasses. Complex rockmasses are defined as rockmasses

that contain healed intrablock structures such as hydrothermal veins
As the demand for metals and improved transportation networks and stockwork that occur within blocks of otherwise intact rock, which
increases, mining, tunnelling, and other infrastructure projects are are bound by joints and other fractures (interblock structures) and have
rapidly becoming excavated into deeper and more heterogeneous been observed to control additional or delayed development of ground

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: Matthew_Clark@golder.com (M.D. Clark), day.jennifer@queensu.ca (J.J. Day).
1
Present Address: Golder Associates, Sudbury, Ontario, P3C 4Y1, Canada.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2021.106067
Received 29 August 2020; Received in revised form 25 January 2021; Accepted 19 February 2021
Available online 22 February 2021
0013-7952/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
M.D. Clark and J.J. Day
failures (Day et al., 2019; Day, 2019) by influencing rockmass deform­
ability and strength (Brzovic and Villaescusa, 2007; Bewick et al., 2019).
However, hydrothermal veins are not sufficiently considered in rock­
mass characterization and standard geotechnical design practice (Moss
et al., 2018; Day et al., 2019). Disseminated hydrothermal alteration
that promotes phenocryst growth within intact rock blocks presents
another form of extra-granular heterogeneity that influences geo­
mechanical properties of intact rock (e.g. Coggan et al., 2013; Frolova
et al., 2014; Ündül et al., 2015). Collectively, the authors refer to hy­
drothermal veins and phenocrysts as intrablock structures and extra-
granular heterogeneities. Inadequate consideration of these heteroge­
neities in these settings can cause inaccurate understanding and pre­
diction of rockmass behaviour when utilizing numerical methods for
geotechnical design, which may lead to significant economic losses of
billions of dollars due to delayed production and elevated safety risks for
workers during construction and operations. This study uses the results
of mineralogical analyses to explain the geomechanical properties and
behaviour of unconfined compressive stress (UCS) laboratory test
specimens that contain hydrothermal vein intrablock structures and
porphyritic textures associated with disseminated hydrothermal alter­
ation. The UCS test specimens are sorted into matrix-type specimens that
do not contain veins and veined specimens that contain one or more
veins. Moreover, the UCS test results are used to investigate the impli­
cations of sample selection from drill core on the variability and effec­
tive representation of reported test results.
This study considers five lithological units from the Legacy skarn ore
deposit in the Bathurst Mining Camp, which is located in northern New
Brunswick, Canada (Desrosier, 2012). These units consist of hydro­
thermally altered and veined beige quartz-plagioclase granodiorite, red
quartz-plagioclase granodiorite, black quartz-plagioclase granodiorite,
calcareous mudstone, and garnet-pyroxene skarn. High precision axial
and circumferential extensometers were used in each UCS test to mea­
sure elastic parameters (Young’s modulus (E) and Poisson’s ratio (ν)),
crack initiation (CI) and crack damage (CD) brittle damage thresholds,
and peak strength (σc). CI and CD provide early indications of brittle
rock failure as well as energy storage and explosive failure potential of
massive to moderately jointed rockmasses at the excavation scale
(Diederichs et al., 2004; Diederichs, 2007; Eberhardt et al., 1998;
Ghazvinian, 2010).
Mineralogical analyses were conducted on the five lithological units
in this study to provide insight to differences between the geo­
mechanical behaviour and UCS test properties of the matrix-type and
veined drill core samples. The methods used to determine mineralogy of
the units include field identification as well as laboratory petrographic
thin section analysis, powdered X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), and micro-X-
Ray Fluorescence (μ-XRF) on thin section offcuts.
Lastly, the high density of drill core selected for this study from two
boreholes at the Legacy skarn deposit enabled the study of sample se­
lection on reported UCS test results in a veined rockmass. Four sample
selection methods were investigated for each lithology: (i) matrix-type
samples only (standard practice), (ii) veined samples only, (iii) all
matrix-type and veined samples (all samples that were collected and
tested), and (iv) objective sampling at regular intervals.
The immediate contributions of this research highlight the impacts of
hydrothermal veins and phenocrysts on geomechanical properties
measured in UCS tests and their greater variability controlled by
mineralogy of veins and wall rocks as well as vein geometries. This
research demonstrates the critical importance of utilizing objective
protocols for UCS test sample selection as well as a necessary deviation
from the ISRM (1978) methods to include extra-granular and intrablock
heterogeneous features in test specimens, as part of the “intact labora­
tory stiffness and strength components” of rockmass characterization
(also per ASTM, 2014; Fairhurst and Hudson, 1999). This is a critical
evolution in UCS testing protocols in order to accurately capture the
engineering geomechanical properties of heterogeneous complex rock­
masses and the role, in controlling bulk strength and deformability, of
2
Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106067
extra-granular heterogeneity and intrablock structures.
1.1. UCS testing of homogeneous and heterogeneous rocks
UCS laboratory testing of intact rock is a geotechnical laboratory
technique used to measure the stiffness, CI and CD brittle damage
thresholds, and maximum axial stress (i.e. peak strength) of a cylindrical
core specimen under unconfined stress conditions. Published UCS
testing method specifications (ASTM, 2014; Fairhurst and Hudson,
1999) were developed for matrix-type rock specimens without intra­
block or extra-granular heterogeneities, which is the primary focus of
conventional UCS laboratory testing. Several researchers have investi­
gated effects of the anisotropic foliation type of heterogeneity on rock
strength in UCS and triaxial tests (e.g. Jaeger and Cook, 1979; Gatelier
et al., 2002; Colak and Unlu, 2004; Amann et al., 2014; Ghazvinian
et al., 2015). Only in recent years has research interest grown in labo­
ratory testing of hydrothermally altered and veined rocks, following
greater recognition of the importance of extra-granular and intrablock
heterogeneous features to rockmass stability and fragmentation behav­
iour. Recent investigations on this subject include studies on mineralogy
influences of kaolinite content on UCS and other geomechanical prop­
erties in granite (Coggan et al., 2013); laboratory studies on effects of
disseminated hydrothermal alterations on geomechanical rock proper­
ties such as UCS and porosity on a variety of lithologies from the Kuril-
Kamchatka island arc (Frolova et al., 2014); petrographic analyses on
the effects of differential grain size and mineralogy (i.e. phenocryst
content) on CI, CD, and UCS properties of andesitic rocks (Ündül et al.,
2015); UCS studies comparing peak strength and failure mode variation
between matrix-type and veined rock specimens (Bewick et al., 2015);
triaxial compression laboratory tests and numerical simulations on hy­
drothermally veined specimens from the mafic intrusive complex
andesite at El Teniente porphyry mine in Chile to compare specimen
strength and influences of vein mineralogy and geometry (Turichshev
and Hadjigeorgiou, 2015, 2017); and analyses of UCS and triaxial test
data to develop a methodology for estimating the strength of massive to
moderately jointed matrix-type and hydrothermally veined brittle
rockmasses (Bewick et al., 2019).
1.2. Brittle damage thresholds and rockmass behaviour
Brittle damage thresholds, CI and CD, are important geomechanical
properties to measure during UCS laboratory tests for rock engineering
applications in excavation design under high ground stresses where
brittle failure mechanisms dominate. Spalling and rockbursts are brittle
failure mechanisms in massive to blocky rockmasses that occur as a
result of tensile cracks forming and interacting in hard rocks. Spalling is
relatively predictable and can be managed by ground support, whereas
rockbursts occur as a sudden release of energy that may unpredictably
eject large fragments into an excavation. Spalling is defined as the
development of visible extension fractures under compressive loading.
This process is the most prevalent form of rock damage in massive
crystalline rockmasses near excavation boundaries under high stress.
Spalling can be violent or nonviolent and in some cases be time
dependent (Diederichs, 2007). Martin (1997) described the mechanism
for spalling using four stages, including crack initiation, damage process
development in the zone of maximum tangential stress at the excavation
boundary, slabbing and spalling, and stabilization upon development of
the characteristic notch overbreak geometry. Rockbursts most
frequently occur as mines excavate into deep rockmasses where in situ
stresses are high relative to rock strength, and are associated with hard
rock, geological structures including faults and dykes, and mining
methods related to high extraction ratios (Kaiser and Cai, 2012; Die­
derichs, 2014).
The key geomechanical properties used to understand these brittle
failure mechanisms are crack closure (CC), CI, and CD measurements
from UCS and triaxial laboratory tests. CC is the transition between non-
M.D. Clark and J.J. Day
elastic behaviour of pre-existing cracks and elastic behaviour of the rock
under compressive loading and CI is the onset of extensional crack
damage that corresponds to the in situ strength of the near-field rock­
mass surrounding an excavation (Diederichs et al., 2004; Martin, 1997).
While in this testing all strain measurements are performed within the
middle third of the sample height using extensometers attached to the
rock, for configurations in which the extensometers are attached to the
loading platens, the platen end effects of setting imperfections may also
contribute to the stress-strain nonlinearity up to CC (Korinets and Ale­
hossein, 2002). CI is a function of natural flaws and grain-scale het­
erogeneity that typically occurs in massive to moderately jointed hard
rockmasses when tangential stresses exceed 33–50% of rockmass peak
strength at the excavation boundary and is highly sensitive to confining
stress (Brace et al., 1966; Martin, 1993; Martin, 1997; Diederichs, 2000;
Diederichs, 2003). CD is the stress at which cracks begin to interact and
coalesce. This brittle damage threshold represents the long-term
strength (yield strength) of a hard rock at high confinement. CD and
the degree of failure is related to stress rotation about an excavation,
grain-scale rock heterogeneity (i.e. polycrystalline composition), and
pre-existing cracks or rock damage (Diederichs et al., 2004; Diederichs,
2007). Diederichs (2003) developed the Damage Initiation and Spalling
Limit (DISL) brittle rock strength criterion that incorporates CI and CD
into a nonlinear strength envelope, which is used for excavation design
in brittle failure conditions. Several researchers have developed tech­
niques to measure CI and CD using UCS laboratory tests for matrix-type
rock specimens, including Martin (1993), Eberhardt et al. (1998), Die­
derichs (2000), Diederichs et al. (2004), Diederichs and Martin (2010),
and Ghazvinian (2010).
In massive rockmasses under high in situ and deviatoric stresses,
spalling has been observed to occur in hydrothermally veined rock­
masses at the excavation scale. This type of failure was observed by Day
(2019) at the El Teniente copper porphyry mine in Chile where intra­
block heterogeneities both promoted and obstructed brittle overbreak
when compared to brittle overbreak predictions of homogeneous rock­
masses. Although spalling has been observed in heterogeneous rock­
masses at the excavation scale, few studies to date have examined this at
the laboratory scale (Turichshev and Hadjigeorgiou, 2017; Bewick et al.,
2019). This study contributes to the laboratory scale understanding of
brittle behaviour of intact rocks with intrablock structures and extra-
granular heterogeneities including hydrothermal veins and porphyritic
textures.
2. Legacy skarn deposit
The Legacy skarn deposit in northern New Brunswick, Canada, is a
fluid controlled metasomatic copper skarn deposit, which is commonly
associated with orogenic zones as a result of subduction. The dominant
minerals in copper skarn deposits include garnet (andradite variety) and
pyroxene (diopside variety). These minerals are typically zoned such
that garnet occurs closer to the pluton with increasing pyroxene distally
(John, 2010; Titley and Beane, 1981).
The Legacy deposit is hosted in the Matapedia Basin cover sequence,
which is composed of deep-water carbonates that were likely sourced
from the Laurentia platform (Malo, 2001). In the northern parts of the
Basin where the Legacy deposit is located, the carbonate rocks are
overlain conformably by medium to thick bedded calcareous sandstone,
siltstone, and shale that are Lower to Upper Silurian in age (Fyffe et al.,
2011). The Legacy deposit is one of the most prominent skarn deposits in
the McKenzie Gulch area, is hosted in the limestone of the Late Ordo­
vician to Early Silurian Metapedia Group, and is spatially related to the
northeast trending faults and Devonian felsic dykes. Regionally, the
McKenzie Gulch area is bound by the McKenzie Gulch fault to the west
and the Rocky Gulch fault to the east. The Matapedia group is charac­
terized by a dark grey calcareous siltstone, argillite, and limestone,
whose metamorphic or metasomatic equivalent is a garnet-pyroxene
skarn (Desrosier, 2012). The McKenzie Gulch porphyry dykes are
3
Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106067
thought to have originated from two separate magma sources, thus
explaining the geochemical and petrographic differences between the
dykes identified as quartz-plagioclase granodiorites and plagioclase-
hornblende granodiorites (Massawe and Lentz, 2020).
This study focuses on two boreholes from the Legacy skarn deposit:
MBL-13-04 and MC-92-18. A total of 264 m of drill core from these two
boreholes were examined in the field and used for sample selection for
this study. The beige, red, and black varieties of quartz-plagioclase
granodiorite and calcareous mudstone units occurred in borehole
MBL-13-04, and the garnet-pyroxene (Grt-Px) skarn unit occurred in
borehole MC-92-18. A vertical cross-section of the deposit that includes
borehole MBL-13-04 (Fig. 1) shows that at shallow depths, the rockmass
is dominated by the quartz-plagioclase granodiorite and calcareous
mudstone units. At greater depths, the rockmass contains silicified
argillaceous limestone, silicified limestone, and skarn units (Desrosier,
2013).
The five lithological units in this study were initially identified
during field assessment and core logging to guide UCS sample selection,
followed by detailed mineralogical analyses in the laboratory using
petrographic thin section analysis, powdered XRD, and μ-XRF. The re­
sults of the mineralogical analyses of each unit in this study are sum­
marized in Table 1 and discussed in Sections 2.1 to 2.5. In general, the
rocks are heavily altered which made mineral identification by petrog­
raphy challenging, particularly for the very fine-grained groundmasses
(Fig. 2). Furthermore, in some cases, not all matrix or vein components
of each unit were able to be tested with all techniques. Therefore, a
combination of multiple mineral analysis techniques was essential to
analyze all components of each unit, confirm observations between
techniques, and thus improve the accuracy of the final mineralogy
results.
2.1. Beige quartz-plagioclase granodiorite
The beige quartz-plagioclase granodiorite samples were all collected
from borehole MBL-13-04. Of the three types of granodiorite in this
study, the beige granodiorite occurs at the shallowest depths. Plagio­
clase feldspar phenocrysts up to 3 mm in diameter are visible in a fine-
grained crystalline groundmass of primarily quartz with minor biotite
(Fig. 2a). The porphyritic texture (i.e. differential grain size) in this unit
is relatively minor compared to the red and black granodiorites. Hy­
drothermal veining in these samples consists of single calcite and
ankerite veins up to 1 mm thick that occur in all orientations. The
thickness and density of veins are minor compared to the calcareous
mudstone and garnet-pyroxene skarn units.
Petrographic analysis showed the phenocryst minerals in this unit,
namely plagioclase feldspar and biotite, occur in a fine-grained
groundmass that is primarily composed of quartz. Opaque minerals
are rare, indicating very low amounts of mineralization. Powdered XRD
tests showed the matrix composition consists of quartz, biotite, and
plagioclase feldspar (albite), which corroborates the hand sample and
petrographic analyses (Fig. 3a). This is further supported by μ-XRF
elemental composition maps that show high concentrations of Si, Al, and
K in the matrix (Fig. 4a). Powdered XRD tests of the vein material
defined its mineralogy to be calcite and ankerite (Fig. 3a).
2.2. Black quartz-plagioclase granodiorite
The black quartz-plagioclase granodiorite samples were all collected
from borehole MBL-13-04. Of the three types of granodiorite, this unit
occurred in the deepest sections of the borehole. Plagioclase feldspar
phenocrysts are larger than those in the beige granodiorite and measure
up to 6 mm in diameter within a fine-grained crystalline groundmass
composed of quartz, clinochlore, and muscovite. Hydrothermal vein
mineralogy was identified as calcite using field identification techniques
(scratch tests and reaction with HCl). The veins in this unit are up to 1
mm thick, occur as single veins in all orientations, and have a similar
M.D. Clark and J.J. Day Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106067

Fig. 1. A vertical cross-section of the Legacy skarn deposit including borehole MBL-13-04 (modified after Desrosier, 2013).

vein density compared to the other granodiorite units. minor amounts of muscovite. Powdered XRD tests show the matrix is
Petrographic analysis shows the plagioclase feldspar phenocrysts composed of quartz, clinochlore, and plagioclase feldspar (albite)
often contain oscillatory zoning between calcic and sodic zones. (Fig. 3b). μ-XRF elemental composition maps support these results and
Chloritization of biotite commonly occurs in these samples along with show high concentrations of Al and Ca spatially associated with the

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M.D. Clark and J.J. Day Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106067

Table 1 demonstrate Carlsbad twinning. Chloritization of biotite is common and

Mineralogy of lithological units from the Legacy skarn deposit. the fine-grained groundmass primarily consists of quartz. Powdered
Lithological Unit Mineralogy (% shown where possible) XRD tests show the matrix is composed of quartz, clinochlore, and
plagioclase feldspar (albite), and the veins are composed of calcite and
Beige Qtz-Pl Matrix: Quartz (50%), Albite (40%), Calcite (5%), Biotite
Granodiorite (5%) ankerite (Fig. 3c). These results are supported by μ-XRF test results that
Vein: Calcite, Ankerite show high concentrations of K, Al, and Si in the matrix, and high con­
Red Qtz-Pl Matrix: Quartz (55%), Albite (37%), Clinochlore (5%), centrations of Ca and Mn in the veins (Fig. 4c and Clark, 2020).
Granodiorite Calcite (3%)
Vein: Calcite, Ankerite
Black Qtz-Pl Matrix: Quartz (50%), Albite (40%), Clinochlore (8%), 2.4. Calcareous mudstone
Granodiorite Muscovite (2%)
Vein: Calcite The calcareous mudstone is the most abundant of the four lithologies
Calcareous Mudstone Matrix: Calcite, Illite, Dolomite, Quartz
collected from borehole MBL-13-04. The matrix is dark grey to black,
Vein: Calcite
Garnet-Pyroxene Matrix: Diopside, Albite, Quartz, Almandine fine-grained, and contains bedding layers up to 15 mm thick. The veined
Skarn Vein: Quartz samples contain single to multiple veins composed of calcite that range
from 2 to 35 mm thick in all orientations.
Petrographic analysis shows the matrix is very fine-grained and the
plagioclase feldspar phenocrysts identified by petrography (Fig. 4b). vein mineralogy is calcite, based on the presence of lamellar twinning
Furthermore, Fe, Mn, Mg, and minor concentrations of Si were found to and high birefringence (Fig. 2d). Minor amounts of illite, calcite, and
be spatially associated with clinochlore that was identified by petrog­ quartz were identified in the matrix, but because the matrix is fine-
raphy. Vein mineralogy was not tested with petrography, μ-XRF, or XRD grained, most minerals (and therefore also modal mineralogy) could
in this unit because the limited number of veined core samples were all not be identified by thin section petrography. Powdered XRD tests
required for UCS test specimens. showed the matrix is composed of quartz, calcite, illite, and dolomite,
and the veins are composed of calcite (Fig. 3d). μ-XRF results agree with
2.3. Red quartz-plagioclase granodiorite the other test methods and show relatively high concentrations of K, Fe,
Mn, Si, and Al in the matrix, and Ca and Sr in the veins. In addition,
The red quartz-plagioclase granodiorite samples were all collected discrete zones of high concentrations of S suggest minor disseminated
from borehole MBL-13-04. Of the three types of granodiorite in this sulfide mineralization is present in the matrix (Fig. 4d and Clark, 2020).
study, this unit primarily occurs at depths between the beige and black
granodiorite units. Plagioclase feldspar phenocrysts measure up to 6 mm 2.5. Garnet pyroxene skarn
in diameter and occur in a fine-grained crystalline groundmass
composed of quartz (Fig. 2c). Hydrothermal veining in the UCS test The garnet-pyroxene skarn samples were all collected from borehole
samples is comprised of single calcite veins between 1 and 2 mm thick MC-92-18. The matrix is a metamorphosed limestone and is grey to dark
that occur in all orientations. Like the beige and black granodiorites, the green, fine-grained, and variably contains coarse-grained (2 to 4 mm
thickness and density of veins are minor compared to the calcareous diameter) garnet crystals. The veined samples contain a high density of
mudstone and garnet-pyroxene skarn units. stockwork veins that overlap, range from 1 to 13 mm thick, and are
Petrographic analysis showed large plagioclase feldspar crystals that oriented in all directions. Petrographic analysis showed the veins are

Fig. 2. Thin section offcuts and thin sections showing all five lithologies in this study.

5
M.D. Clark and J.J. Day Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106067

composed of quartz with some occurrence of sulfide mineralization

(Fig. 2e). Powdered XRD test results show the matrix is composed of
pyroxene (diopside), albite, quartz, and garnet (almandine), and the
veins are composed of quartz (Fig. 3e). μ-XRF elemental composition
maps show high disseminated intensities of Al, Fe, Mn, and Si in the
matrix, in addition to a few high intensity spots of Cu and S in the matrix
that indicate some sulfide mineralization such as chalcopyrite. μ-XRF
maps also show high disseminated intensities of Si and Zn in the veins
(Fig. 4e and Clark, 2020).

3. UCS laboratory test procedures

The UCS tests in this study were conducted using the MTS 815 rock
mechanics testing system (Mistras Group Inc., 2002) in the Advanced
Geomechanics Testing Laboratory at Queen’s University in Kingston,
Ontario, Canada. Prior to testing, the NQ sized (47.6 mm diameter) UCS
specimens were prepared according to the ASTM D4543 guidelines and
to a 2.5:1 height to diameter ratio (ASTM, 2019) for procedure and
tolerance to ensure specimen conformity and high-quality results. The
specimen conformity results are presented in detail by Clark (2020).
During testing, the specimens were fitted with three axial extensometers
and one circumferential chain extensometer to measure deformations,
as well as two acoustic emissions (AE) sensors to measure AE events
caused by extensional crack initiation, propagation, and grain boundary
sliding (Fig. 5).
The UCS tests were initiated in axial strain control at an axial
displacement rate of 0.01 mm/min. When axial stress reached 70% of
the expected approximate peak strength, the test switched to lateral
strain control at a radial displacement rate of 0.025 mm/min to improve
feedback resolution to the MTS controller, improve control of specimen
failure, and minimize the explosive failure potential of a specimen. The
programmed control routine managed each UCS test through the pre-
test, platen seating, loading, and post-test procedures in accordance
with ASTM D7012 standards (ASTM, 2014) and ISRM suggested
methods (Fairhurst and Hudson, 1999). Radial strain calculations were
embedded into the programmed control routine as per MTS Systems
(2004). The compensation for the incomplete circumferential coverage
of the chain around the specimen and the adjustments for specimen
diameter are accounted for in these measurements following an
approach similar to Masoumi et al. (2015). The AE data was collected
and recorded separately by a Pocket AE device, which was connected to
the MTS controller and synchronized to the measured load during each
UCS test.
In total, 29 matrix-type and 21 veined UCS specimens were tested in
this study (Table 2). The geomechanical properties that were measured
and are discussed in this paper consist of elastic properties (Young’s
modulus and Poisson’s ratio), brittle damage thresholds (CI and CD),
and peak strength. The data analysis methods for each of these param­
eters are discussed in Sections 3.1 to 3.3.

3.1. Elastic parameters

The elastic deformation parameters, Young’s modulus (E) and Pois­

son’s ratio (ν), were calculated for all samples using the extensometer
data and according to the ASTM D7012–14 standard (ASTM, 2014). This
standard defines Young’s modulus at 50% of peak strength which is
measured by calculating the slope between 40% and 60% of peak
strength on axial stress versus axial strain data. Poisson’s ratio is
calculated at the same interval of the ratio of lateral to axial strains. For
many specimens in this study, this standard range was not appropriate as
it included both elastic (linear) and plastic (nonlinear) data where the
Fig. 3. Powdered XRD results of all five lithologies in this study.
axial stress exceeded CI stress magnitudes. Following recommendations
by Jaczkowski (2017), the authors adopted an improved slope calcula­
tion range of 25% to 45% of peak strength to target the elastic (linear)
behaviour for both Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio, which is more
representative of true elastic deformation than what was found using the

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M.D. Clark and J.J. Day Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106067

Fig. 4. μ-XRF maps of relative Si, K, Al, Ca, and S content in the thin section offcuts shown in Fig. 2 for all five lithologies in this study.

Table 2
Amounts of tested UCS specimens sorted by lithology.
Lithological Unit Amount of UCS specimens

Matrix-type Veined

Beige granodiorite 6 4
Red granodiorite 6 4
Black granodiorite 6 3
Calcareous mudstone 6 4
Garnet-pyroxene skarn 5 6
Total 29 21

Fig. 5. Example UCS test specimen (47.6 mm diameter) fitted with two
acoustic emissions (AE) sensors, three axial extensometers, and one circum­
ferential extensometer.
ASTM (2014) standard.
3.2. Brittle damage thresholds
CI and CD are brittle damage thresholds that represent the stress
magnitudes at which cracks begin to form in a rock sample (CI) and
when those cracks begin to interact (CD), and can be measured from UCS
test results by a variety of methods. In this study, measuring CI and CD
was often challenging because of noise masking the selection locations
of nonlinearity and trend reversals, which is attributed to the complex
interactions of cracks with intrablock structures and extra-granular
heterogeneities in the specimens.
Lateral strain nonlinearity (LSN) was found to be the most suitable
method to measure CI for all lithologies in this study. To measure CD,
instantaneous Young’s modulus (IYM) at a moving point regression in­
terval of ±20 was most suitable for the granodiorite units and axial
strain nonlinearity (ASN) was most suitable for the skarn and calcareous

7
M.D. Clark and J.J. Day
mudstone units.
3.2.1. Direct strain methods
Lateral strain nonlinearity (LSN) and axial strain nonlinearity (ASN)
are direct strain methods that are each graphically measured from axial
stress vs. strain (lateral and axial strains, respectively) plots for a given
UCS specimen. The LSN method is used to measure CI as the axial stress
magnitude at the point of nonlinearity after crack closure (Bieniawski,
1967). LSN is measured directly from the circumferential extensometer
data and minimal noise occurred in the specimens. ASN is used to
measure CD as the axial stress magnitude at the point of nonlinearity
(Bieniawski, 1967; Diederichs, 2000). ASN is measured directly from the
axial extensometer data, minimal noise occurred in the specimens, and
the point of nonlinearity was particularly clear in the skarn and
calcareous mudstone units. Example measurements of LSN and ASN
from a specimen in this study are shown in Fig. 6a. The CI results for all
lithologies presented in this paper were measured using the LSN method.
The CD results for all skarn and calcareous mudstone specimens pre­
sented in this paper were measured using the ASN method.
3.2.2. Instantaneous Young’s modulus (IYM)
Instantaneous Young’s modulus (IYM) is a graphical method that
uses a moving point regression to measure CD in UCS specimens
(Ghazvinian, 2010). IYM is calculated according to Eq. (1):
∆σ
IYM =
∆εaxial
Where the change in axial stress (∆σ) using the moving point
regression method is given by Eq. (2):
∆σ = σ i+20 − σ i− 20 (i = 1, 2, 3, …)
And the change in axial strain (∆εaxial) using the moving point
regression method is given by Eq. (3):
∆εaxial = εaxial i+20 − εaxial i− 20 (i = 1, 2, 3, …)
Plotting IYM against axial stress illustrates where IYM initially in­
creases until pre-existing cracks close. At this point, the specimen be­
haves as a linear elastic material until crack density is high enough such
that cracks interact with each other and result in a steady decrease of
IYM. The axial stress at this transition point is CD. IYM is calculated with
axial stress and axial strain, which are directly measured by the MTS
machine and axial extensometers, respectively. The IYM moving point
regression was tested at intervals of ±10, ±20, and ±30. The ±20
Fig. 6. Example brittle damage threshold measurements from specimens in this study using (a) lateral strain nonlinearity (LSN) for CI and axial strain nonlinearity
(ASN) for CD, and (b) instantaneous Young’s modulus (IYM) for CD.
Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106067
interval gave the best results as it reduced noise from the ±10 interval
and preserved more data resolution than the ±30 interval. An example
measurement of IYM from a specimen in this study is shown in Fig. 6b.
The CD results for all granodiorite specimens presented in this paper
were measured using the IYM ± 20 method.
3.3. Peak Strength
Peak strength (σc) was calculated for each UCS test by identifying the
maximum load applied to the cross-sectional area of each specimen
before failure, as per ASTM standard D7012 (ASTM, 2014). There was
no modification necessary for veined specimens; however, it is impor­
tant to note σc was similar to CD for some specimens, particularly when
veins were oriented at a critical angle such that the failure surface
formed through the vein material. Furthermore, some tests exhibited
strain hardening behaviour where the ultimate strength (maximum axial
stress) was reached after peak strength (first peak or yield strength, in
this case). Thus, it is important to verify the selection of peak strength to
ensure it is not an automatically selected maximum stress value
mistakenly identified as a post-peak maximum or otherwise erroneous
data.
4. UCS testing results and analysis
The UCS laboratory test results of all five lithologies from the Legacy
(1) skarn deposit are presented in this section for six geomechanical pa­
rameters, including density, Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio, CI, CD,
and peak strength.
(2) 4.1. Density and elastic parameters
The density, Young’s modulus, and Poisson’s ratio results are shown
in Fig. 7. The garnet-pyroxene skarn has the highest density, which
(3) explains the high stiffness in both the matrix-type and veined specimens.
All other units have similar densities, which indicates the variation in
elastic properties is dominated by intrablock heterogeneities within the
specimens.
The beige quartz-plagioclase granodiorite is the least dense and
softest unit and the matrix-type and veined specimen subsets have
overlapping ranges of elastic properties. The veins in this unit measure
only up to 1 mm thick, which is a very small contribution to the total
volume of each sample and would therefore have little effect on density.
The red quartz-plagioclase granodiorite unit exhibits similar density and
8
M.D. Clark and J.J. Day Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106067

Fig. 7. Density and elastic properties for each lithology and specimen type
(matrix-type or veined).

elastic properties. The black quartz-plagioclase granodiorite unit exhibit

Fig. 8. (a) CI and (b) CD results from 46 UCS specimens tested in this study,
similar density, but a significantly smaller variability in elastic
including 25 matrix-type and 21 veined specimens, subdivided by litholog­
properties. ical unit.
The calcareous mudstone is slightly denser than the three granodi­
orite units. However, there is significant scatter in the elastic properties
granodiorites and skarn, the average peak strengths of matrix-type
which is explained by the contribution of foliation in the matrix coupled
specimens are higher than the peak strengths of the corresponding
with the very thick and geometrically complex veins.
veined specimens. In contrast, the mean peak strength of the veined
calcareous mudstone specimens is slightly higher than its matrix-type
4.2. Brittle damage threshold results specimens. Furthermore, the calcareous mudstone is the only lithology
where the maximum peak strength of the veined specimens is greater
The brittle damage thresholds, CI and CD, were measured for 46 of than the matrix-type specimens (Fig. 9). These observations are in
the 50 UCS specimens. The initial UCS tests were conducted on sacrifi­ agreement with the CI and CD results.
cial red granodiorite, beige granodiorite, black granodiorite, and skarn The significant variability of peak strength in the three granodiorites
specimens without extensometers to measure peak strength without and skarn matrix-type specimens is attributed to their disseminated al­
risking damage to the sensors. The peak strengths were then used as a terations and the presence of phenocrysts. The variability of veined
guideline in subsequent tests for specimens of the same lithology to specimens in all lithologies is attributed to a combination of variable
control post-peak behaviour. matrix and vein features. The variable features in veins include miner­
The CI and CD results are shown in Fig. 8. On average, CI and CD alogy and geometry (thickness, density, and orientation), which can
values are lowest in the calcareous mudstone, followed by higher values
in the three granodiorites, and highest values in the garnet-pyroxene
skarn. Matrix-type specimens exhibit higher average CI and CD values
than the corresponding veined specimens for each lithology, with the
exception of the calcareous mudstone where average and maximum CI
and CD values are higher in veined than matrix-type specimens. The
variability of CI and CD is largest in the garnet-pyroxene skarn unit.
Further interpretation of these results as they relate to mineralogical
influences is presented in Section 5.

4.3. Peak strength

Peak strength (σc) was measured for all 50 UCS tested specimens,
including 29 matrix-type and 21 veined specimens. On average, the
calcareous mudstone is the weakest lithology, followed by the three
granodiorite units, and the garnet-pyroxene skarn is the strongest li­
thology. There are overlapping peak strengths between the ranges of Fig. 9. Peak strength results from all 50 UCS samples tested in this study,
matrix-type and veined specimens in all lithologies. For the including 29 matrix-type and 21 veined samples, sorted by lithological unit.

9
M.D. Clark and J.J. Day Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106067

either strengthen or weaken a specimen. A detailed discussion of these

interpretations is presented in Section 5.

5. Interpretation of results

Firstly, the influences of hydrothermal vein heterogeneity on the

UCS test results are discussed in this section for each lithology. Secondly,
the influences of porphyritic texture extra-granular heterogeneity in
matrix-type specimens are examined for the three varieties of quartz-
plagioclase granodiorite and the garnet-pyroxene skarn. Lastly, the
failure modes of all specimens are discussed in the context of the mineral
compositions of matrix and vein components and planes of weakness.

5.1. Correlating geomechanical properties to vein geometries Fig. 11. Strength of foliated rock samples for all possible vein orientations,
where β is the angle between σ1 and the normal to the foliation, So is cohesion,
and the highlighted section between β = 35–81◦ shows the range of failure
Hydrothermal veining in a rockmass may cause highly variable UCS
occurrence along the foliation (modified after Jaeger and Cook, 1979).
test results, which is controlled by vein infill mineralogy (coupled with
wall rock mineralogy), vein orientation, vein thickness, vein density,
granodiorite units in this study. In these units, the CI, CD, and σc of
and the number and spatial location of veins within specimens. Photos of
veined specimens were lower in cases where veins were oriented within
all veined UCS specimens in this study taken after each UCS test are
the Jaeger and Cook (1979) zone of foliation failure, as illustrated in
shown in Fig. 10.
Fig. 12a. In addition, the decrease of elastic properties in the beige
granodiorite with increasing vein orientation is attributed to steeper
5.1.1. Vein orientation
veins with softer mineralogies taking on increasing load within the
Vein orientation was measured for the 21 veined UCS specimens by
specimen. This observation supports the interpretations of density and
measuring the angle (β) between the major principal stress (σ1) orien­
elastic properties discussed in Section 4.1 (Fig. 7).
tation and the normal to the vein orientation. For single vein (non-
The agreement of the veined red granodiorite unit to this model was
stockwork) specimens, a single measurement was recorded from the
inconclusive, as the suite of tested specimens only contained veins ori­
steepest part of the vein. For specimens with stockwork veins, the
ented outside the range of foliation failure (38–81◦ ).
dominant vein orientation is identified as the highest frequency vein
The results from the calcareous mudstone and garnet-pyroxene skarn
orientation where measurements were recorded from the steepest part
units disagree with the Jaeger and Cook (1979) model for weakening
of each vein in a specimen.
foliations. Some of the veined calcareous mudstone and garnet-pyroxene
Jaeger and Cook (1979) describe foliations as planes of weakness
samples were stronger than the average matrix-type specimens, despite
that greatly affect the peak strength of a rock. They found that when
the veins being critically oriented within the zone of foliation failure. In
foliations are oriented between β angles of 35◦ to 81◦ , failure primarily
particular, the highest CI, CD, and σc values in the veined garnet-
occurs along the foliation. Foliations oriented near β = 60◦ have the
pyroxene skarn occurred at a dominant vein orientation of 60◦
greatest negative impact on specimen strength and this angle is there­
(Fig. 12a). Furthermore, in all cases where garnet-pyroxene skarn
fore considered to be the most critical orientation. Outside of these β
specimens failed through a vein, failure occurred through the dominant
angles, failure occurs through the intact rock and at higher stresses.
vein orientation in the specimen.
These relationships are illustrated in Fig. 11. Increasing the minor
These observations suggest vein orientation may be useful for pre­
principal stress (σ3) has no effect on the orientation of failure and only
dicting geomechanical properties of veined UCS samples, but the
acts to increase the strength. In general, well developed and pervasive
mineralogy of the vein(s) and wall rock is a significant control on
foliations at critical orientations cause a greater reduction of specimen
whether the conventional foliation model is applicable.
strength than poorly developed foliations at critical orientations.
Jaeger and Cook’s (1979) model for failure of foliated rocks is
applicable to veined rock specimens from the beige and black

Fig. 10. Photos of one example matrix-type and all veined UCS specimens for each lithological unit, taken after each test (intact specimens are 47.6 mm diameter).

10
M.D. Clark and J.J. Day Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106067

Fig. 12. UCS test results compared to (a) vein orientation, (b) vein thickness, and (c) vein density; specific sample labels correspond to those in Fig. 10; granodiorites
are excluded from vein density plots because maximum vein thickness in these units is limited to 2 mm.

5.1.2. Vein thickness
Vein thickness was measured for the 21 veined UCS specimens by
conducting measurements on the circumferential sample surface,
perpendicular to the vein-wall rock contact, to record the maximum and
minimum vein thicknesses in each specimen. The results with respect to
geomechanical properties are illustrated in Fig. 12b.
For the beige, red, and black granodiorite samples, vein thickness is
typically limited to 1 mm. As such, there is no correlation between vein
thickness and geomechanical properties.
There is a slight negative correlation in the garnet-pyroxene skarn
unit between maximum vein thickness and geomechanical properties.
The specimens that failed through the veins in this unit had higher CI,

11
M.D. Clark and J.J. Day
CD, and σc values than the average properties of matrix-type specimens
and were oriented at β angles between 60 and 70◦ , but their maximum
vein thicknesses were near the median. This suggests maximum vein
thickness is not a good indicator of brittle damage or peak strength in
this unit.
The calcareous mudstone specimens exhibited a large range of vein
thickness, 2–35 mm, across all tested specimens. There is a strong pos­
itive correlation between specimens with thicker veins and geo­
mechanical properties, showing increases of 155% for CI, 150% for CD,
and 178% for σc from a minimum vein thickness of 2 mm to a maximum
vein thickness of 35 mm. This suggests vein thickness is a good indicator
of geomechanical properties in this unit.
These observations indicate vein thickness can be used to predict the
geomechanical properties of the calcareous mudstone unit but not for
the three granodiorites or garnet-pyroxene skarn units.
5.1.3. Vein density
In this study, vein density is defined as the proportion of hydro­
thermal veining in a UCS specimen compared to the entire specimen.
Vein density was calculated for the calcareous mudstone and garnet-
pyroxene skarn UCS specimens as the veined specimens for these units
contained multiple overlapping veins. This analysis was not applied to
the three granodiorite units because maximum vein thickness in those
units was limited to 2 mm and each specimen typically contained only a
single vein.
Vein density was measured by converting a coloured core scanned
image of the specimen’s cylindrical circumferential surface to mono­
chrome (black matrix and white vein materials), as shown in Fig. 13. If
matrix areas of the specimen appeared as white, the threshold of the
image was adjusted manually. The monochrome image was then im­
ported into MATLAB (MATLAB, 2019) where a custom script counted
the black and white pixels and then performed a vein density calculation
(Eq. (4)). The MATLAB script is presented in Clark (2020).
No.of white pixels
Vein Density (%) = × 100 (4)
Total No.of pixels
The vein density results are illustrated in Fig. 12c. For the calcareous
mudstone unit, vein density has a positive correlation with geo­
mechanical properties because higher vein density restricts failure along
critically oriented bedding planes and disrupts crack propagation and
coalescence throughout the specimen. For the garnet-pyroxene skarn
unit, there is no correlation between vein density and E of the specimens
but there is a negative correlation between vein density and ν, CI, CD,
and σc of the specimens, because the matrix is stronger than the veins, as
evidenced by the two strongest skarn samples that both failed through
the veins instead of the matrix. At higher vein densities, the effect of
material strength contrast is not apparent because stockwork veining at
all orientations is prevalent; thus, failure occurs through both matrix
and vein components of a specimen. These observations demonstrate
that vein density is useful for predicting the geomechanical properties of
specimens that contain stockwork or vein networks.
Fig. 13. (a) original core scanned image; (b) adjusted monochrome image used
to calculate vein density.
12
Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106067
5.2. Correlating geomechanical properties to disseminated hydrothermal
alteration
Hydrothermal alteration forms by dissemination of fluids through a
rockmass, forming veins, creating zones of alteration in the wall rock
surrounding veins (known as the alteration halo), and disseminating
through the intact rock matrix. Wall rock alteration is frequently asso­
ciated with veins that are 0.1–10 cm thick (Dilles, 2010). These alter­
ation modes all contribute to increasing the variability of mineralogy,
grain size, and vein geometry, which in turn affects the geomechanical
variability at the laboratory specimen and excavation scales. This vari­
ability explains the nonlinear deformation near 50% of peak strength in
the UCS specimens tested in this study (where elastic parameters are
typically measured, as per ASTM (2014)), where different mineral
components of contrasting stiffness may dominate the deformation
behaviour at different axial stress magnitudes. The most important
factors related to disseminated and halo alterations in this study are (i)
the location of alteration (pervasive throughout the sample or con­
strained to the wall-vein contact), and (ii) the properties of the minerals
that were both altered (removed) and formed.
Desrosier (2012) indicates the presence of sericitic and chloritic
alteration in borehole MBL-13-04, which has been confirmed in this
study through microscopic mineral analyses. The beige granodiorite was
altered by sericitic alteration and the red and black granodiorites were
chloritized. During sample selection from drill core, the red and black
granodiorite samples were separated into different units based on
colour, expecting the colour difference would result in different geo­
mechanical properties. The variation between the red and black
granodiorites likely corresponds to variations in the dyke(s) original
mineralogy.
Comparing the three granodiorites shows that the beige granodiorite
on average has the lowest geomechanical properties, whereas the red
and black granodiorites have very similar results for all geomechanical
parameters (Figs. 7, 8, and 9). The disparity between the granodiorites is
attributed to differential grain size, where phenocrysts in the beige
granodiorite measure up to 3 mm, and up to 6 mm in both the red and
black granodiorites. When large phenocrysts are present in a fine-
grained matrix, propagating cracks are more likely to be arrested. The
similar geomechanical properties between the red and black granodio­
rites reinforces the interpretation that both types, though different in
colour, are essentially the same lithology and geotechnical unit that
have minor differences in the alteration mineralogies.
5.3. Correlating mineralogy to failure mode
The failure modes of matrix-type and veined specimens in this study
were recorded for each lithology and compared to the failure modes
observed by Basu et al. (2013) in granite, sandstone, and schist. The
failure modes observed in the matrix-type specimens in this study
include axial splitting, shear failure, and bedding failure as defined by
Basu et al. (2013), in addition to spalling and explosive failures named
here to explain the remaining failure modes (Fig. 14). Shear failure was
the primary failure mode of the beige granodiorite matrix-type speci­
mens, while spalling and explosive failures were more common in the
red and black granodiorite matrix-type specimens. Shearing and
bedding failures were most common in the calcareous mudstone, while
axial splitting was the most common in the garnet-pyroxene skarn
(Table 3).
The differential grain size between phenocrysts and fine-grained
ground mass is a significant factor affecting the failure mode of
matrix-type specimens. For the beige granodiorite specimens where
differential grain size was relatively minor, cracks were partially able to
propagate through the specimen, explaining the axial splitting behav­
iour. Cracks were also observed to deflect around phenocrysts,
contributing to shear failure. In the red and black granodiorite speci­
mens that contained larger phenocrysts, crack propagation tended to
M.D. Clark and J.J. Day
Fig. 14. Examples of UCS test failure modes observed in this study (NQ size drill core, 47.6 mm diameter).
Table 3
Failure modes of matrix-type UCS specimens sorted by lithology.
Lithological Unit Axial Splitting Shear Bedding
Beige Granodiorite 2 3
Red Granodiorite
Black Granodiorite 1 3
Calcareous Mudstone 2 2
Grt-Px Skarn 3 1
terminate at larger phenocrysts (instead of deflecting around them),
contributing to an overall increase in strength and tendency toward
spalling and explosive failure modes. In the calcareous mudstone, shear
failure often occurred at angles sub-parallel to bedding, indicating that
shear failure was controlled by critically oriented, weak bedding. In
some cases, there was widespread failure throughout the specimen
which is identified as mixed-mode axial and bedding failure mode or
unclear failure.
The failure modes of veined UCS specimens are often difficult to
predict because failure may occur through the matrix, vein, vein-matrix
interface (i.e. wall-rock boundary), or a combination of all three.
Different combinations of mineral strength and vein formation may
result in failure through the matrix without any influence from vein(s),
along the vein-matrix interface if the cohesive strength between the vein
and matrix minerals is weak, through the vein if the vein infill is weaker
than the matrix, or along weak surfaces within the vein caused by
antitaxial vein formation (Fig. 15). Antitaxial veins form when mineral
growth nucleates along a median line that is composed of mineral grains
and wall rock (Passchier and Trouw, 2005). This suggests, at the
Fig. 15. Calcareous mudstone thin section from the Legacy skarn deposit with
antitaxial vein growth (Cal = calcite; XPL = cross-polarized light).
13
Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106067
Spalling Explosive Axial & Bedding Unclear
1
4 1 1
2
1 1
1
excavation scale, crack propagation through the matrix may behave
differently when intersecting veins in high ground stresses.
In the case of the three granodiorite units, the observed UCS spec­
imen failure behaviours combined with vein-weakening test results
suggest these veins would weaken the rockmass at the excavation scale
when critically oriented with respect to σ1 or the tangential stress near
an excavation boundary. In the calcareous mudstone unit, the veins
inhibit failure along critically oriented bedding and therefore increase
CI, CD, and σc. Lastly, the garnet-pyroxene skarn stockwork veined
specimen failures are primarily controlled by the relative strengths of
the matrix and vein mineralogies, and vein density. The failure modes of
the veined UCS specimens are listed for each lithology in Table 4.
6. Influence of sample selection on laboratory test results
Accurately determining the geotechnical properties of a rockmass,
including intact rock properties, is an important aspect of any successful
surface or underground infrastructure project excavated in rock. These
properties are commonly acquired through observation, measurements,
and testing of diamond drill cores, which are extracted from boreholes
that can be hundreds of meters long and often contain multiple
geological units and structural domains. Due to time and financial
constraints, geotechnical testing of the entire core length is not realistic
nor feasible. Therefore, representative samples of drill core from each
lithology or geotechnical domain are selected and tested in the labora­
tory. These results are collectively summarized and meant to represent
the geotechnical properties of the rockmass within the whole project
area. UCS laboratory tests are the standard practice used to measure
intact rock properties, in addition to confined triaxial compressive and
tensile tests.
An analysis of the influence of sample selection from drill core on
reported UCS test results is presented in this section, of the samples from
the Legacy skarn deposit and the drill core from which they were
selected, using four sample selection methods in each lithology based on
various sample selection practices:
i. Matrix-type samples only (common practice),
M.D. Clark and J.J. Day
Table 4
Failure modes of veined UCS specimens sorted by lithology.
Lithological Unit Axial Splitting Shear Bedding
Beige Granodiorite 1 1
Red Granodiorite 1 1
Black Granodiorite 1 1
Calcareous Mudstone 1 1
Grt-Px Skarn 2 1
ii. Veined samples only,
iii. All matrix-type and veined samples, and
iv. Objective sampling within each lithology at 2 m intervals of all
samples.
The reported geomechanical properties from UCS tests included in
each sample selection method are compared in this section to evaluate
which sample selection method provides the most representative test
results for each lithological unit. To conclude, recommendations are
presented for UCS sample selection in hydrothermally veined hetero­
geneous rockmasses.
6.1. Industry sample selection practices
Four rock geotechnical engineering industry practitioners shared
their experiences with sample selection practices for UCS tests with the
authors. These practitioners have worked in the industries for Canadian,
Chilean, and other international mining projects, Canadian tunnelling
projects, and Canadian deep geological repositories for nuclear waste
storage. Collectively, the practitioners indicated that there are no uni­
versal standards for UCS test sample selection, nor are there a minimum
number of tests required in a project. Instead, sample selection decisions
are conducted using professional judgement and sometimes company
guidelines (e.g. de la Vergne, 2008). ASTM (2017) similarly states that
sample selection decisions should be based on professional judgement.
The main factors associated with professional judgement when making
sample selection decisions are as follows:
i. Stage of the project (scoping, prefeasibility, feasibility, or
operation);
ii. Geological setting;
iii. Variability of the rockmass;
iv. Existing material characterization data;
v. Project risk and uncertainty; and
vi. Project budget.
Furthermore, two methods of selecting samples were the most
common between the practitioners. The first method relies upon an
agreement with the client on the number of tests, where a certain
number of samples are selected from each geotechnical domain. The
second method relies on selecting samples at predefined intervals along
the borehole. Since the second method is based on random selection,
additional drill core may be sampled to better capture any intrablock
structures or extra-granular heterogeneities in the rockmass. Frequently,
however, if the selected sample contains veins, other intrablock struc­
tures, or other extra-granular heterogeneous features, the sample is
discarded and replaced with the nearest intact homogeneous sample.
The number of samples in a UCS test program also depends on the type
and service life of a project, where, for example, a mining project in
prefeasibility would generally conduct fewer tests than a deep geolog­
ical repository project for nuclear waste storage in feasibility or more
advanced design stages.
6.2. Sample selection and preservation
The primary objective of sample selection for this study from
14
Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106067
Spalling Explosive Axial & Bedding Vein Unclear
2
2
1
1 1
1 2
boreholes MBL-13-04 and MC-92-18 was to select similar quantities of
matrix-type and veined core belonging to each lithological unit in suf­
ficient quantities to characterize UCS test properties in each case and
examine the influence of disseminated hydrothermal alteration and
veins on the geomechanical properties of the intact rocks. The large
amount of core samples collected, which amounted to nearly every piece
of sufficiently long intact rock, was driven by:
i. The goal to test veined rocks with a variety of vein mineralogy,
thickness, persistence, and orientation properties;
ii. The anticipation of potential sample losses by fracturing due to
transportation and UCS specimen preparation;
iii. The uncertainty of the variability of geomechanical properties
with different disseminated alterations observed within the
granodiorite units (beige, red, and black varieties); and
iv. Scoping of additional laboratory testing (e.g. Brazilian tensile and
triaxial tests) for future studies.
The core samples were wrapped with dish foam or pipe insulation
foam prior to transportation in core boxes by car from New Brunswick to
Ontario for laboratory testing (Fig. 16a). Three calcareous mudstone
samples fractured during transport. While preparing UCS test specimens
from the remaining samples, two of the first four calcareous mudstone
specimens fractured along inclined bedding. To prevent additional
failures, electrical tape was tightly hand-wrapped around the ends of the
calcareous mudstone specimens during cutting and grinding to provide
confinement (Fig. 16b). Once this technique was implemented, just one
of the remaining nine calcareous mudstone specimens failed during
preparation. Overall, 10 of 13 calcareous mudstone specimens survived
from selection through to UCS testing. The three that did not survive
were matrix-type samples that fractured along bedding. By comparison,
10 of 10 beige granodiorite, 10 of 10 red granodiorite, 9 of 9 black
granodiorite, and 10 of 10 skarn samples survived through to UCS
testing.
Fig. 16. (a) Drill core (NQ size) wrapped with foam to protect samples during
transport; (b) Calcareous mudstone core sample with cutting points tightly
hand wrapped by electrical tape for saw cutting and grinding preparation of the
UCS specimen.
M.D. Clark and J.J. Day
6.3. Sample selection methods
In geotechnical engineering, common practice is to select homoge­
neous samples and ignore or discard heterogeneous samples. While this
method may provide accurate properties for homogeneous rockmasses,
it may not adequately capture the variability of a complex heteroge­
neous rockmass. Using the UCS test results discussed in Section 4 and the
known source depths of the specimens from the boreholes, four sample
selection methods are applied in this section to select different subsets of
samples for each lithological unit and evaluate any changes in the re­
ported geotechnical results based on the different sample selection
methods. The four sample selection methods are described in the
Fig. 17. Core boxes containing NQ (47.6 mm diameter) core from the Legacy deposit borehole MBL-13-04 from 5 m to 150 m depths.
15
Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106067
following subsections.
6.3.1. Method 1: Matrix-type samples only
The most common sample selection practice in geotechnical engi­
neering is the selection of homogeneous, matrix-type samples that are
free from discontinuities (e.g. Bieniawski and Bernede, 1979; Hoek and
Brown, 1988), which is Method 1 in this study. Consequently, veined
samples are typically excluded (ASTM, 2019). Some notable exceptions
to this practice are at large block cave mining operations such as El
Teniente mine in Chile (e.g. Turichshev and Hadjigeorgiou, 2015).
Photographs of borehole MBL-13-04, presented in Fig. 17, show the 24
selected samples using solid lined rectangles and colours to identify the
M.D. Clark and J.J. Day
matrix-type samples in each lithological unit. Photographs of borehole
MC-92-18, presented in Fig. 18, show the 5 selected matrix-type skarn
samples using solid lined rectangles.
6.3.2. Method 2: Veined samples only
Method 2 is an experimental sample selection method that only in­
cludes veined core samples. These samples are identified in Figs. 17 and
18 by dashed rectangles and further sorting by colour to distinguish
between lithological units. 15 samples in this case are from borehole
MBL-13-04, and 6 samples are from borehole MC-92-18.
6.3.3. Method 3: All matrix-type and veined samples
Method 3 is an experimental sample selection method that uses all
the tested matrix-type and veined core samples to evaluate the geo­
mechanical properties of each lithological unit. Of the four selection
methods, this is the most representative because it includes all possible
samples (50 in total) but is therefore the most expensive to implement.
39 samples in this case are from borehole MBL-13-04, and 11 samples
are from borehole MC-92-18.
Fig. 18. Core boxes containing NQ (47.6 mm diameter) core from the Legacy deposit borehole MC-92-18 from 249.18 m to 367.72 m depths.
16
Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106067
6.3.4. Method 4: Objective sampling at 2 m intervals
Method 4 is an experimental sample selection method that includes
both matrix-type and veined core samples objectively selected at 2 m
intervals in each lithological unit. Of the four methods, this is the only
statistical method. The first sample is the shallowest by borehole depth.
Subsequent samples are selected by using an initial fixed spacing by
depth of 2 m between samples. If the next possible sample does not occur
after 2 m, the length of the interval is extended until the next available
sample of the same lithology.
In this study, this process resulted in a measured average sample
spacing of 24.2 m for the calcareous mudstone, 36.3 m for the red
granodiorite, 48.3 m for the beige granodiorite, 48.3 m for the black
granodiorite, and 15.5 m for the skarn. The discrepancies between the
measured average intervals and the initial 2 m search interval are
attributed to open fractures in the drill core and core that had already
been cut in half along the axis for assay testing, which are evident in
Figs. 17 and 18. The samples selected for this method are indicated using
star symbols.
Fractures and mechanical breaks can cause drill core pieces to be too
short for UCS laboratory testing; assayed core (cut in half parallel to the
core axis) results in large sections of unusable core for UCS testing; and,
M.D. Clark and J.J. Day
depending on the method, if selecting matrix-type core only, the het­
erogeneity of the drill core is an additional factor that limits the op­
portunity to collect geotechnical samples.
6.4. Reported UCS results by sample selection method
The reported UCS test results from the four sample selection methods
are presented in Fig. 19. When comparing results from Method 1 (6
samples per unit) and Method 2 (3 to 6 samples per unit), there are
significant differences in at least three of the geomechanical parameters
for all lithological units. While many of the tested matrix-type specimens
have higher peak strength, elastic properties, and brittle damage
thresholds compared to the veined specimens from the corresponding
unit, which is typically assumed to be the case, this is not always true.
For multiple veined calcareous mudstone specimens, massive calcite
veins increased peak strength by interrupting failure through the bedded
matrix component of a specimen. By excluding either matrix-type or
veined specimens, the behaviour of intact rocks in the overall unit would
be mischaracterized. Therefore, neither Method 1 nor Method 2 are
recommended practice for geotechnical sample selection in heteroge­
neous complex rockmasses.
When comparing the impact of sample selection between Method 3
(9 to 11 specimens per unit) and Method 4 (3 to 5 specimens per unit) for
each lithology, the reported UCS test brittle damage thresholds and peak
Fig. 19. Reported UCS test results for each sample selection method.
17
Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106067
strength properties showed relatively similar values. A notable excep­
tion is in the red granodiorite unit, where the reported average peak
strength by Method 4 is 15% less than that reported by Method 3. In
addition, the reported elastic properties showed similar values, except
for the lower bound Young’s modulus of the calcareous mudstone.
Overall, Method 4 provides the most representative geotechnical results
for a hydrothermally veined rockmass with only approximately half of
the tested specimens for each of the lithologies tested in this study.
7. Discussion
Rockmass characterization is an essential component of safe and
economical geotechnical design practices that use numerical, empirical,
and some analytical methods to evaluate rockmass strength and stability
around excavations, and ultimately determine suitable construction
methods and ground support to achieve stable rockmass conditions for
the life of the excavation. Geomechanical properties of intact rocks,
commonly measured by UCS laboratory tests, are a crucial part of
rockmass characterization, but it is currently standard practice to test
only homogeneous, matrix-type specimens and discard specimens that
contain intrablock structures or extra-granular heterogeneity (ISRM,
1978). Intrablock heterogeneities such as veins have been observed to
control additional or delayed development of ground failures in deep
mines and tunnels (Day, 2019). The UCS laboratory test results of this
M.D. Clark and J.J. Day
study demonstrate the importance of including veined intact rock
specimens in drill core sample selection and laboratory testing pro­
grams, and integrating mineralogy analyses of matrix and vein compo­
nents of intact rock with interpretations of geomechanical behaviours.
7.1. UCS laboratory test results
In this study, UCS laboratory tests were conducted on five litholog­
ical units from the Legacy skarn deposit: calcareous mudstone, garnet-
pyroxene skarn, and beige, red, and black varieties of quartz-
plagioclase granodiorite. Of the three varieties of granodiorite, it was
found that the matrix-type beige granodiorite specimens had, on
average, lower elastic properties, brittle damage thresholds, and peak
strength compared to the red and black granodiorites. The beige
granodiorite differences are attributed to variable disseminated alter­
ation features (i.e. extra-granular heterogeneities), namely compara­
tively smaller sizes (3 mm diameter) and fewer amounts of phenocrysts
than the red and black granodiorite units which contain phenocrysts up
to 6 mm diameter. Although mineralogy differs somewhat between the
red and black granodiorites, there was no significant difference between
their UCS test properties. The variability observed between matrix-type
specimens of the three granodiorite units demonstrates that dissemi­
nated alteration, particularly differential grain size (e.g. phenocrysts), is
an important type of extra-granular heterogeneity to consider in
geotechnical core logging and sample selection for UCS and other
geotechnical testing programs.
The UCS test results on matrix-type and veined specimens from all
five lithologies demonstrate that veins can have a significant influence
on their geomechanical properties and failure modes, but not always.
Matrix and vein mineralogies, vein orientation, vein thickness, and vein
density were measured on the UCS specimens to investigate correlations
to geomechanical properties.
7.1.1. Influence of vein mineralogy
In terms of vein mineralogy, the granodiorite specimens hosted
carbonate (primarily calcite) veins, the calcareous mudstone hosted
primarily calcite veins, and the garnet-pyroxene skarn stockwork veins
were primarily composed of quartz. This study used hand sample field
identification techniques, thin section petrography, XRD, and μ-XRF to
determine the mineral compositions of the matrix and vein components
of the five lithologies. Hand sample field identification was essential for
measuring vein geometries and phenocryst size. The best techniques for
determining vein mineralogy were found to be equally XRD and thin
section petrography. The XRD results for vein mineralogy showed good
similarities (score values greater than 85%) between the sample and
ICDD 2015 PDF 2 crystallographic mineralogy database on all tests
conducted on veins. Thin section petrography was effective for
analyzing veins because the veins generally contained large and unal­
tered mineral crystals. In contrast, the best technique for determining
matrix mineralogy was XRD because the matrix minerals were fine
grained and had more alteration that impacted the optical properties of
the minerals in thin section. However, as the XRD samples were
powdered, spatial information about mineral distribution was only
possible when combined with μ-XRF data. Overall, a combination of
several analysis tools was required to determine the mineralogies of the
units in this study.
Carbonate minerals such as calcite and ankerite are relatively soft
and weak (Mohs’ hardness of 3), while quartz is hard and strong (Mohs’
hardness of 7). Although the granodiorites and calcareous mudstone
units both hosted carbonate veins, their influence on geomechanical
properties had contrasting effects, such that the granodiorites tended to
be weakened by veins, whereas the calcareous mudstone tended to be
strengthened by veins. This result demonstrates that knowing the vein
mineralogy alone in isolation from the matrix mineralogy is insufficient
for predicting geomechanical properties. Although quartz is a hard and
strong mineral, the matrix mineralogy of the skarn samples included
18
Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106067
diopside (Mohs’ hardness of 5–6), albite (Mohs’ hardness of 6–6.5), and
almandine (Mohs’ hardness of 7.5–8.5), which are also hard and strong
minerals. The arrangement of these matrix minerals typically resulted in
a matrix with higher stiffness and strength than veined specimens. These
results highlight the importance of equally investigating and under­
standing mineral compositions of both vein and matrix components of
intact rocks and rockmasses.
7.1.2. Influence of vein density, thickness, and orientation
Vein orientation was found to have a significant effect on geo­
mechanical properties of veined samples. The strength of the beige and
black granodiorite units agreed with the foliation failure model by
Jaeger and Cook (1979), where UCS sample strength is reduced when
foliations are critically oriented with respect to the load orientation.
However, when veins are not critically oriented (β < 38◦ ), the matrix
material controls failure. There were no critically oriented veins in the
tested red granodiorite, so no observations were made for that unit;
however, the similarities in mineralogy and vein thickness suggest red
granodiorite specimens with critically oriented veins would behave
similarly to the veined beige and black granodiorites. In contrast, the
calcareous mudstone and garnet-pyroxene skarn units did not agree with
the foliation failure model; in these units, critically oriented veins
strengthened the rock samples. For the calcareous mudstone, veins
increased the strength of samples by acting as barriers to crack propa­
gation and interaction, while also inhibiting failure along inclined
bedding planes. Failure occurred through the most critically oriented
garnet-pyroxene skarn veins, but this produced the highest recorded
peak strengths of this unit.
Vein thickness was found to be a more useful measurement for single
veins in a rock specimen (calcareous mudstone unit), whereas vein
density was found to be more useful for multiple stockwork veins or vein
networks (garnet-pyroxene skarn unit). For the granodiorite units, the
range of vein thicknesses was limited to most often 1 mm and a
maximum of 2 mm. Consequently, vein thickness and vein density are of
limited use to predict geomechanical properties in the veined granodi­
orite specimens. In contrast, the calcareous mudstone unit contained a
very large range of vein thickness of 2 to 35 mm across all tested spec­
imens. Calcareous mudstone specimens with thicker calcite veins had
higher stiffness, brittle damage thresholds, and peak strength. In the case
of peak strength, the sample with minimum vein thickness (5 mm)
measured 27 MPa, and the sample with the thickest vein (35 mm)
measured 75 MPa. This amounts to a 178% increase in peak strength for
a 600% increase in vein thickness. In the garnet-pyroxene skarn unit,
vein thickness was more consistent between specimens (between 1 and
10 mm in all specimens); however, vein density measurements of the
skarn specimens exhibited a negative correlation to stiffness, CI, CD, and
peak strength properties. Skarn specimens with the most critically ori­
ented veins that exhibited the highest CD and peak strength also had the
lowest vein densities.
7.1.3. Failure modes
Regarding failure mechanism of the UCS tests, failures in matrix-type
specimens were primarily controlled by differential grain size. Speci­
mens with low differential grain sizes, such as the beige granodiorite,
calcareous mudstone, and skarn units, primarily failed by axial splitting
and shearing because cracks were able to freely propagate through the
matrix and therefore energy was not able to be stored. By comparison,
specimens with high differential grain sizes, such as the red and black
granodiorite units and garnet-rich specimens of the garnet-pyroxene
skarn, failed primarily by spalling and explosive failures as crack
propagation was arrested by phenocrysts, causing energy to be stored in
the material. The primary failure mode in veined specimens was vein
failure. The second most common failure mode in veined specimens was
shear, which occurred in cases where veins were not critically oriented
with respect to the axial load direction.
M.D. Clark and J.J. Day
7.2. UCS sample selection for heterogeneous rockmasses
There are no industry standards for UCS sample selection from dia­
mond drill core. Consequently, the number of samples collected for in­
dustry projects varies between the project type, budget and stage of
design or development, variability of the rockmass, existing material
characterization, and project risk and uncertainty. In all cases, the
objective of UCS laboratory testing is to determine representative geo­
mechanical properties of the intact rocks in a project. By extension, the
objective of UCS sample selection from drill core is to capture the
variability of intact rocks in a project. Pieces of drill core that are long
enough for UCS test specimens are the primary target for UCS sample
selection, followed by lithological units. Further targets can be made
based on other characteristics of the rock, such as grain size and colour.
Typically, matrix-type intact rock samples are targeted while veined
samples are excluded from UCS sample selection. The UCS test results
presented in this study and others (e.g. Bewick et al., 2019) demonstrate
the importance of selecting both matrix-type and veined samples from
heterogeneous rockmasses that contain intrablock structure. The
remaining question of how many samples are required to capture the
variability of geomechanical properties for both matrix-type and veined
samples from each lithological unit was analyzed in this study with
known source locations of each test specimen from boreholes MBL-13-
04 and MC-92-18 from the Legacy skarn deposit. The total of 50
tested UCS specimens from these two boreholes (total of 264 m of drill
core) provided a high spatial density of samples and maximized the
capture of variability from the five lithologies.
The analysis of four sample selection methods on the reported UCS
test results from each lithological unit included the typical method
(Method 1: matrix-type samples only) and three experimental methods
(Method 2: veined samples only; Method 3: all matrix-type and veined
samples; and Method 4: an objectively sampled subset at 2 m intervals).
Method 1 usually resulted in higher reported stiffness and strength
properties than Method 2, except for the calcareous mudstone unit that
contained strengthening veins. Method 3 is the most representative since
it uses all possible data from the boreholes. The Method 4 results are in
good agreement with Method 3 for most units using approximately only
half of the tested specimens. This is an important finding for optimiza­
tion of sample selection when working with a limited laboratory testing
budget, which demonstrates that a smaller number of UCS tests that are
carefully and objectively selected to include intrablock structures and
extra-granular heterogeneities is able to capture the variability of geo­
mechanical properties within a lithological unit.
8. Conclusions
The importance of including veined rocks in sample selection and
UCS testing for heterogeneous rockmasses is demonstrated in this study
using a variety of lithologies from the Legacy skarn deposit. Further­
more, mineralogical analysis of the lithologies (both matrix and vein
components) and analysis of the geometrical properties of veins in UCS
samples is shown to underpin the interpretations of geomechanical
properties and laboratory sample failure behaviour for heterogeneous
rocks.
Recognizing that the mineralogies of matrix and vein components of
intact rock are of equal importance to the geomechanical properties is an
important step in furthering our understanding of the geotechnical
behaviour of veins. For example, soft minerals in veins such as calcite
are usually assumed to weaken a rock without regard for the matrix
(wall rock) composition. However, the occurrence of calcite veins in the
granodiorites and calcareous mudstone units in this study exhibits both
weakening and strengthening behaviour for these units, respectively.
Although conventional thinking labels veins as defects, which implies a
reduction of strength, this is evidently not always the case. The authors
therefore recommend rockmass characterization of veined rockmasses
should include assessment of both the vein and wall-rock mineralogies.
19
Engineering Geology 285 (2021) 106067
Measurement methods for elastic properties, brittle damage thresh­
olds, CI and CD, and peak strength were originally developed using
homogeneous, matrix-type rock samples that are free from extra-
granular heterogeneous features. The veined specimens in this study
exhibited complex strain and crack responses under load due to the
combined responses of the matrix and vein components of each spec­
imen. This often caused abnormal or noisy geomechanical data, leading
to the data analysis recommendations for veined rocks proposed in this
study.
For elastic properties, the standard measurement method of Young’s
modulus and Poisson’s ratio for homogeneous rocks is taken at 50 ±
10% of peak strength to capture the linear elastic behaviour of a spec­
imen. However, in veined rocks, this data range captured both elastic
(linear) and plastic (nonlinear) behaviours. Therefore, to minimize the
plastic component and improve the calculation accuracy, elastic mea­
surements at 35 ± 10% of peak strength are recommended for veined
rocks.
For measuring CI in veined rocks, lateral strain nonlinearity (LSN)
was found to be the most suitable method in this study. For measuring
CD, instantaneous Young’s modulus ±20 (IYM ± 20) was most suitable
for the granodiorite units and axial strain nonlinearity (ASN) was most
suitable for the garnet-pyroxene skarn and calcareous mudstone units.
Future work will aim to evaluate the usefulness of other CI and CD
methods for use in veined rocks.
For peak strength, some veined rocks in this study exhibited post-
peak strain hardening behaviour. It is therefore important to measure
peak strength without assuming it is simply the maximum axial stress
value during a UCS test. Further research is recommended to address the
post-peak geomechanical behaviour of veined rocks.
Vein orientation, vein thickness, and vein density are important
geometric parameters to consider for different styles of veining. The
insights demonstrated in this study, with respect to these parameters,
provide a baseline for practitioners to improve sample selection for UCS
and triaxial laboratory tests in addition to core logging procedures.
Adding records of vein geometric parameters to geotechnical core logs
has the potential to create a step-change in the useful application of core
logging data for extrapolating the results of a limited number of labo­
ratory tests to provide more accurate estimations of geomechanical
properties of veined intact rock along full lengths of boreholes.
Finally, the UCS sample selection analysis on reported UCS test re­
sults shows significant differences in geomechanical properties between
matrix-type and veined specimens. Although conventional selection
practice is to discard heterogeneous samples, this study demonstrates
the importance of including all varieties of rock samples in a UCS testing
suite. An objective sampling method for heterogeneous rockmasses at
fixed intervals along a borehole that includes both matrix-type and
veined samples is recommended. Although a 2 m interval was selected
for this study and provides a baseline interval length, the authors
recommend the interval length of objective sample selection be evalu­
ated for each project. Factors to consider for this evaluation include
length of borehole availability, quantity and quality of intact rock and
full core cylinders available for sample selection, number of lithologies
or geotechnical units, and budgetary factors related to laboratory testing
capacity.
The results of this study are significant for geotechnical engineering
design of civil infrastructure and mines in heterogeneous complex
rockmasses where intrablock structures and extra-granular heteroge­
neities such as hydrothermal veins and porphyritic textures have the
potential to impact rockmass stability, effectiveness of ground support
design, and efficiency of rockmass fragmentation in caving.
This paper provides insight to the influence of mineralogy on geo­
mechanical properties of intact rocks, uses mineralogy to explain their
variability, and ultimately demonstrates the merit of including intact
rock samples that contain veins and extra-granular heterogeneities in
sample selection and UCS testing programs.
UCS test results from such rigorous programs will provide
M.D. Clark and J.J. Day
practitioners with more accurate geomechanical information about
intact rocks for application to engineering design, for example as input
data to geomechanics numerical models.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge financial support from the Natural Sci­
ences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, the University of
New Brunswick, and Queen’s University. The field study components of
this research would not have been possible without the generosity of Jim
Walker at the Government of New Brunswick. The drill core used in this
study from the Legacy deposit was obtained from the Department of
Energy and Resource Development of the Government of New Bruns­
wick. Thanks to Dr. Chris McFarlane and Brandon Boucher from the
Department of Earth Sciences at the University of New Brunswick for
technical support with micro-XRF laboratory analysis, and to Agatha
Dobosz from the Queen’s Facility for Isotope Research for technical
support with XRD laboratory analysis. We owe additional thanks to Dr.
Mark Diederichs, Dr. Jean Hutchinson, and the Queen’s University
Geomechanics and Geohazards Group for laboratory testing support and
editorial reviews.
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