Learning

Theories
Learning Theories
Constructivism
Learning as an active process where one looks at how learners construct their own
knowledge and understanding of the world
Social Constructivism
Learning is social and conducted through social interactions
Cognitive Constructivsim
Provides an ideal environment for learners to construct their knowledge and is
discovery based
Behaviourism
Primarily concerned with observable behaviour
Operant Conditioning
Process by which a behaviour becomes more or less likely to occur depending
on consequences
Reinforcement: strengthens the response, can be positive or negative
Positive Reinforcement: add something to increase behaviour
Negative Reinforcement: takeaway something to increase behaviour
Punishment: weakens the response, can be positive or negative
Positive Punishment: add something to decrease behaviour
Negative Punishment: take away something to decrease behaviour
Problems with punishment: temporarily suppresses a response, may lead
to lying and an increases in fear and anxiety
Law of Effect: pleasurable outcome vs unpleasant outcomes
Classical Conditioning
Pavlov's dogs
Learning where an unconditioned stimulus that brings a specific response is
paired with a new conditioned stimulus to bring about the same response
Watson and Little Albert
Conditioned the subject (Albert) to fear a white rat
Critiques
It ignores internal responses such as thinking and emotion, it only focuses on
the behaviour that can be observed
Flow Theory
Getting into the zone and controlling consciousness. It is what happens when we are
in the zone of optimal learning (i.e. fully engaged, present, etc.)
Apply to classroom through building more positive relationships and students to
have more autonomy over their learning
Metacognition
Describes the processes involved when learners plan, monitor, evaluate and make
changes to their own behaviours (i.e. the process of reflecting on and directing one's
own thinking)
Metacognition Knowledge
What learners know about learning
Declarative Knowledge
Knowing what to do
Make it meaningful
Procedural Knowledge
Knowing how to do it
Practice with feedback
Conditional Knowledge
Knowing the conditions, when and why
Metacognition Strategies
Thinking strategies, questioning, problem solving activities, self-assessment etc.
Metacognition Regulation
What learners do about learning
Planning
Evaluation
 Monitoring
4 D's of Learning
Didactics
Formal learning
Discourse
Social learning
Doing
Experiential learning
Discovery
Informal learning
Theoretical Frameworks
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Difference between actual development level and the potential development level
Children are not blank slates, they have prior knowledge
When learners have a new task they draw from prior knowledge to complete it
Scaffolding
Guided support given to learners that is removed over time
Identifies the importance of supporting learners more in the initial stages of learning
Critique: too focused on strategy acquisition
Facilitation
A teacher accompanying and shaping a learning process with the learner
Motivation Theories
Self-Determination Theory
Autonomy
A feeling of personal control
Belonging
The idea that people have an innate need for relatedness or attachment
Competence
Being capable and successful in dealings with the environment
Expectancy-Value Theory
Motivation for a learner is driven by expectancy and value
Learners
Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation
When a learner is internally motivated to do something (i.e. because they are
interested in it)
Extrinsic Motivation
When external factors drive motivation in learners (i.e. rewards)
Values
Attainment Value
Personal importance of doing well
Refers to beliefs about how one will do on different tasks or activities
Efficacy Expectations
Beliefs about whether one can effectively preform the behaviours
necessary to produce the outcome
Outcome Expectancies
The belief that specific actions will bring about a desired outcome
Intrinsic Value
The enjoyment the individual gets from preforming the activity/subject of interest
Instrumental Value/Utility Value
How well a task relates to current and future goals
Cost Value
Negative aspects of engaging in a task
Expectancies
Locus of Control
One should expect to succeed to the extent that they feel in control of their
success and failure
Rewards and Incentives
Interest
Challenge
 Autonomy
Carol Dweck
Her research focuses on praise
Praising intelligence tells children that they do not have to work hard to preform
well
Praising effort tells children that performance is the result of hard work
Mindset and motivation
Some Ways Learners Can Absorb Information
Visual
Spatial
Auditory
Hands-On
Learning Levels
Novice Learner
Slower learners who are just starting to build their knowledge
Expert Learner
Work faster than novice learners and tackle problems differently
Schemas
Way of organizing new knowledge through already available skills, knowledge, and
ideas
Equilibrium
Balance between what is understood and what is encountered
Disequilibrium
Imbalance (i.e. disconnect) between what is understood and what is encountered
Why We Should Know Our Learners
To customize the learning experience, understand motivation, and to help them learn
better
Adaptation
Assimilation
New information into new existing cognitive structures
Accomodation
Changing existing structures in response to new information and experience
Types of Learning
Informal/ Social
Unplanned learning that is self directed. Most of our learning occurs in an
informal/social setting
We know it's working when the learner is interested, has made progress, and their
is engagement
Formal
Learning that is delivered in a planned and systematic way (i.e. lectures)
Skill Development
Practice
Structuring Practice
Assimilate and acclimate
Spacing Out the Practice
How many times and how often
Flow
Balance between ability and challenge
Feedback
Describes what the learner has done and helps the learner decide what to do next
Feedback Criteria
Goal-referenced
Tangible and transparent
Actionable
User-friendly
Timely
Ongoing
Consistent
Formative Assessment
Feedback to improve learning
 Summative Assessment
Evaluates students against a standard or benchmark
Learning Environment
Job Aids
Reminds learners/employees how to do tasks
A job aid should be:
Clear
Concise
Readily Accessible
In the context of work to be done
Designed to:
Provide actionable knowledge
Minimize amount of prior knowledge needed
Prompts/Triggers
Context specific
Implementation intention supports goals intention
Pre decision: "If...then"
Evaluating Learning
Design with an end in mind
Forward Design
Think: What? How? Did it work?
Backwards Design
Consider learning goals first then plan acitivites
1. Identify desired results
Transfer
Meaning
Acquisition
2. Determine acceptable evidence
Think: how will I know if my students have achieved the desired results?
3. Plan learning experience and instruction
Evaluate in ways other than assesment
Sorting
Motivation
Feedback
Problems with Grades
Biased
Inconsistent
Any relatively permanent change in behaviour brought on by
experience or practice
Learning Memorization
Types of Memory
Sensory Memory
Precursor to short-term memory that allows you to process and recall the learning
you take in
Short Term Memory
Information learners are currently aware or thinking about
Working Memory
Overload Signs: incomplete recall etc
The ability to hold information in mind for a brief time and work with it
Long Term Memory
Unlimited and permanent storage of information
Explicit Memory
Memory with conscious recall
Episodic Memory
Personal experiences and events
Semantic Memory
Facts and general knowledge
Implicit Memory
Memory without conscious recall
Procedural Memory
 Motor skills and habits
Classically Conditioned Memory
Conditioned responses to conditioned stimuli
Priming
Earlier exposure facilitates retrieval
Information Processing Model
Dual Coding Theory
Explains human behaviour and experience in terms of dynamic processes that
operate on verbal and non-verbal networks
Spiritual Contiguity or Split Attention Principle
Integrate materials with one another when possible
Redundancy Principle
Redundant materials imped learning
Modality or Multi Media Principle
Use of words and graphics together
Cognitive Load Theory
Knowledge must be held in your working memory until it has been processed to go
to your long-term memory
Reducing Cognitive Load
Overload signs
Incomplete recall, task abandonment, and place-keeping errors
Extraneous Cognitive Load
Intrinsic Cognitive Load
Stress
Parasympathetic Division
Responsible for body's rest and digestion
Sympathetic Division
Triggers fight, flight, or freeze response