BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY HISTORY OF BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Biological psychology is defined as “the branch
of psychology that studies the biological
foundations of behavior, emotions, and mental
processes.” (Pickett, 2000).
Biological psychologists try to answer four types
of questions about any given behavior.
- Physiological: How does it relate to the
physiology of the brain and other
organs?
- Ontogenetic: How does it develop
within the individual?
- Evolutionary: How did the capacity for
the behavior evolve?
- Functional: Why did the capacity for
this behavior evolve? (That is, what
function does it serve?)
Researchers in biological psychology draw
techniques and theories from psychology,
biology, physiology, biochemistry,
neurosciences, and related fields to identify the
relationships between the nervous system's
activity and observable behavior.
Biological explanations of behavior do not
necessarily assume that the individual
understands the purpose or function of the
behavior.
Philosophers and scientists continue to address
the mind-brain or mind-body relationship.
Dualism, the view that the mind exists
separately from the brain, is opposed by the
principle that only matter and energy can affect
other matter and energy.
Nearly all philosophers and scientists who have
addressed the mind-brain problem favor some
version of monism, the belief that the universe
consists of only one kind of substance.
No one has found a way to answer the “hard
problem” of why brain activity is related to
mental experience at all. However, later chapters
discuss studies of what types of brain activity
are necessary for consciousness.
3000 B.C.
- Egyptians discard the brain during the
mummification process; however,
published case studies indicate accurate
observations of neural disorders.
400 B.C.−200 A.D.
- Hippocrates declares that the brain is the
source of intellect.
- Galen makes accurate observations from
dissection; however, believed that fluids
transmitted messages.
1600–1800
- René Descartes suggests mind-body
dualism; hydraulic transmission.
- Anton van Leeuwenhoek invents the
light microscope.
- Galvani and du Bois-Reymond discover
that electricity transmits messages in the
nervous system.
1800–1900
- Bell and Magendie determine that
neurons communicate in one direction
and that sensation and movement are
controlled by separate pathways.
- Gall and Spurzheim demonstrate that
phrenology is inaccurate, but the notion
of localization of function in the nervous
system is accurate.
- Paul Broca discovers localization of
speech production.
- Fritsch and Hitzig identify the
localization of motor function in the
cerebral cortex.
1900–Present
- Ramón y Cajal declares that the nervous
system is composed of separate cells.
- John Hughlings Jackson explains brain
functions as a hierarchy, with more
complicated functions carried out by
higher levels of the brain.
 - Otto Loewi demonstrates chemical
signaling at the synapse.
- Charles Sherrington coins the term
“synapse,” wins Nobel Prize in 1932.
- Sir John Eccles, Andrew Huxley, and
Alan Hodgkin share the 1963 Nobel
Prize for their work in advancing our
understanding of the way neurons
communicate.
- Bernard Katz receives the 1970 Nobel
Prize for his work on chemical
transmission at the synapse.
- Society for Neuroscience counts more
than 38,000 members in 2007.
RESEARCH METHOD IN BIOLOGICAL
PSYCHOLOGY
HISTOLOGY refers to the study of microscopic
structures and tissues. Histological methods
provide means for observing the structure,
organization, and connections of individual
cells.
- MICROTOME - A device used to make
very thin slices of tissue for histology.
- GOLGI SILVER STAIN - A stain
developed by Camillo Golgi used to
observe single neurons.
- NISSL STAIN - A stain used to view
populations of cell bodies.
- MYELIN STAIN - A stain is used to
trace neural pathways.
- HORSERADISH PEROXIDASE - A
stain used to trace axon pathways from
their terminals to points of origin.
AUTOPSY - The word autopsy means “to view
for oneself.” Researchers have frequently relied
on observations made during an autopsy, or
examination of the body following death.
IMAGING - New imaging techniques provide
significant advantages over the autopsy. With
current imaging technologies, we can watch the
living brain as it engages in processes such as
reading or emotional response. We can identify
differences in the ways the brains of serial
murderers function compared with the brains of
typical people.
- COMPUTERIZED TOMOGRAPHY
(CT) - An imaging technology in which
computers are used to enhance X-ray
images.
- POSITRON EMISSION
TOMOGRAPHY (PET) - An imaging
technique that provides information
regarding the localization of brain
activity.
- MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING
(MRI) - An imaging technique that
provides very high-resolution structural
images.
- VOXEL - Short for “volume pixel”. A
pixel is the smallest distinguishable
square part of a two-dimensional image.
A voxel is the smallest distinguishable
box-shaped part of a three-dimensional
image.
- FUNCTIONAL MRI (FMRI) - A
technology using a series of MRI
images taken 1 to seconds apart in order
to assess the activity of the brain.
RECORDING – methods that allow researchers
to record the electrical and magnetic output from
the brain continue to be useful.
- ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM (EEG)
- A technology for studying the activity
of the brain through recordings from
electrodes placed on the scalp.
Note: German psychiatrist Hans Berger
made the first EEG recording. Berger
observed that his recordings varied with
wakefulness, sleep, anesthesia, and
epilepsy.
- EVOKED POTENTIAL - An alteration
in the EEG recording produced in
response to the application of a
particular stimulus.
Note: The analysis of evoked potentials
allows researchers to map the brain’s
EEG response to environmental stimuli.
 - MAGNETOENCEPHALOGRAPHY
(MEG) - A technology for recording the
magnetic output of the brain.
Note: (a) To record the tiny magnetic
fields generated by the brain, a series of
supercooled sensors known as
superconducting quantum interference
devices (SQUIDs) are arrayed around
the participant’s head. (b) This sequence
illustrates the process of using MEG to
record a participant’s response to a tone.
BRAIN STIMULATION - One of the important
questions raised in biological psychology relates
to the localization of functions within the brain
and nervous system. Interpretation of the results
of stimulation research must be done with great
caution. Because brain structures are richly
connected with other areas of the brain,
stimulating one area will also affect other areas
to which it is connected.
- REPEATED TRANSCRANIAL
MAGNETIC STIMULATION (rTMS) -
A technique for stimulating the cortex at
regular intervals by applying a magnetic
pulse through a wire coil encased in
plastic and placed on the scalp.
Note: In this procedure, small magnetic
pulses are delivered to the brain through
a wand held above the scalp. The
magnetism temporarily changes the
activity of small areas of cortex lying
below the wand. This technique shows
promise for research as well as for the
treatment of depression and
hallucination.
LESION - A lesion is an injury to neural tissue
and can be either naturally occurring or
deliberately produced. As was the case with
stimulation, the primary purpose of lesion
analysis is to assess the probable function of an
area. The behavior observed prior to the lesion
can be compared with behavior occurring after
the lesion, with changes attributed to the area
that was damaged. Neuropsychologists evaluate
naturally occurring lesions that result from
injury
or disease, gaining a great deal of information
about the function of the brain.
The lesion is pathological or traumatic damage
to tissue.
Note: To investigate the function of a particular
part of the brain, radio frequency current is
passed through the tips of insulated electrodes
that have been surgically implanted. The
resulting changes in behavior are correlated with
the lesions produced.
- ABLATION – Deliberate lesions are
performed in a number of ways. In some
studies, large areas of brain tissue are
surgically removed and it’s called
ablation.
BIOCHEMICAL METHOD - allow for the
artificial stimulation of the nervous system with
chemicals as well as the assessment of the
biochemical environment in an area of particular
interest within the nervous system.
- MICRODIALYSIS - A technique for
assessing the chemical composition of a
very small area of the brain.
- MICRODIALYSIS - allows researchers
to identify which neurochemicals are
active in a precise location, as well as
the approximate quantity of these
chemicals.
GENETIC METHOD - Many researchers strive
to identify the relative contributions of
hereditary and environmental variables on a
particular behavior. There are a number of ways
to approach this type of question. None of these
approaches is completely satisfying, but each
has resulted in dramatically furthering our
knowledge of the role of heredity in behavior.
- TWIN STUDIES
o Twin Studies One approach to the
question of heredity versus environment
is to compare the variable of interest by
 using identical (monozygotic) and
fraternal (dizygotic) twins. - STUDIES OF GENETICALLY-
o Comparisons between the two types of MODIFIED ANIMALS
twins, therefore, provide a sense of the o By using this method, researchers can
extent of genetic influence on a trait of assess the roles of particular genes and
interest. the proteins they encode.
o Some psychological disorders, such as o Opiates, such as morphine and heroin,
bipolar disorder and schizophrenia, are activate receptors for naturally occurring
significantly influenced by heredity. substances known as endorphins.
o Others, such as major depressive o We can therefore conclude that certain
disorder, show some evidence of genetic aspects of an animal's normal reaction to
vulnerability but are also heavily morphine are dependent on the existence
influenced by environmental variables. of opiate receptors. Without these
o This indicates that some heritability for receptors, pain reduction, addiction, and
depression does occur but that withdrawal do not occur.
environmental variables play a more
significant role than in the case of - KNOCKOUT GENES - Genes that take
bipolar disorder. the place of normal genes but that fail to
produce the specific protein produced by
- ADOPTION STUDIES the normal genes.
o Another approach to quantifying the - STEM CELL - An undifferentiated cell
influences of heredity and environment that can divide and differentiate into
is to compare the similarities of an other types of cells. Growing
adopted individual to his or her replacement tissue for repairing
biological and adoptive parents. damaged organs, including the brain and
o Similarities to the biological parents spinal cord
suggest a role for heredity, whereas
similarities to the adoptive parents
suggest a role for the environment.
o Adoption studies have been used to
assess the relative contributions of
heredity and environment to such
characteristics as intelligence and
criminality.
o In contrast, if you planted seeds under
more variable conditions, the resulting
plants would reflect the contributions of
both genetic and environmental factors.
o Like the ideal conditions for our plants,
genetic influences may be magnified by
the similar environments provided by
adoptive parents.

- HERITABILITY - The amount of

variability of a trait in a population that
is due to genetics.