Science Study Notes: / / 21

#___
Osmosis: -Removal of waste that couldn't be
- allows water to pass through cell digested
membranes Pathway of air:
- The transfer of water from a dilute - nasal cavities (or oral cavity) >
solution to a concentrated solution pharynx > trachea > primary
over a partly permeable membrane bronchi (right & left) > secondary
- Eg: Feeling thirsty after having bronchi > tertiary bronchi >
salty food. bronchioles > alveoli (site of gas
exchange)
Variables (3):
- dependent: Circulatory System:
- Relies on something - The circulation of blood
- Measured - Sometimes called the vascular
- Dependent on the system
independent - System includes
- Y axis - Heart (pump)
- Independent: - Heart is a double pump
- Only variable to be - Blood tissues
adjusted / changed - Blood vessels
- X axis Heart:
- Controlled: - Muscular organ
- Kept constant - Size of a closed fist
- Pumps blood around the body
Respiration: - It is a double pump
- Not a physical movement - The left and right atria collect the
- Chemical blood coming from the lungs and
- chemical process that supplies the body
body with energy for all other life - The left and right ventricles have
processes thick muscular walls for pumping
- The chemical processes that break he blood to the lungs and body
down nutrient molecules in living -
cells to release energy. - Has double circulation system to
keep blood rich in oxygen and food
separate from the blood low in
Assimilation: oxygen and food
- Taking in / uptake of of the
digested food from the blood to
every cell in the body

Absorption:
- Taking in of digested food in the
alimentary canal into the
bloodstream
Assimilation is not Absorption

Egestion:
Science Study Notes: / / 21

#___
Science Study Notes

Blood
circulates in the following sequence:
- Heart → arteries → capillary network
with an organism → vein → heart
Exchange of materials between
the blood and the cells take place
through the walls of the capillaries
via the tissue fluid

Arteries:
- Thick elastic walls as they are
under high pressure
Science Study Notes
Pulmonary vein
Pulmonary artery
Aorta
Vena Cava
Blood Vessels:
- Arteries:
- Carry blood from the heart
to the other organs of the
body
- Thick elastic and muscular
walls due to high pressure
- They are high pressured
each time heart pumps
blood into them
- Veins:
- Blood vessels
- Carry blood from the body’s
organs towards the heart
- Thinner less muscular and
less elastic walls
- Blood pressure is
comparatively low
- They are lined with valves
to prevent the backflow of
blood
- Capillaries:
- Make up the bulk of the
body's blood vessels
- They form a network
through every tissue and
are in close contact with
every cell
- Tiny vessels with thin walls
- The key task of the
circulatory system takes
place through capillaries
- Diffusion:
- The evenly spread out
movement of particles in a
liquid or gas
- If there is a situation where
the particles are in a higher
concentration, they move to
a lower concentration area
- Particles will move in all
directions
- Will end up spread out
evenly
Active Transport:
- Movement of a substance across a
concentration gradient using
energy
- Cells need it to stop harmful
substances diffusing the cell
-
Gas Exchange System:
- Physical process in which gas
(oxygen) is exchanged for carbon
dioxide across a membrane
surface
- When air is taken in (inspired) and
taken out (expired)
2 Blood Circulatory Systems:
Science Study Notes

- Heart to lungs & return -

- Heart to body & return
How does air get in:
- Breathing in or inhaling flattens the
diaphragm, a domed shaped
muscle that separates the thorax
and abdomen
- If the abdomen is relaxed, it cause
the abdomen to bulge outwards,
which causes an expansion in the
lungs
- Expiration follows the relaxation of
diaphragm and abdominal muscles
but can be increased by downward
action of abdominal muscles on
the ribcage
- Once the air is in the alveoli, some
of the oxygen is moved into the
blood vessels through the walls of
alveoli, and some carbon dioxide
moves out

Diaphgram:
- Rexales = moves up
- Contracts = moves down
Science Study Notes
- Trachea:
- Windpipe
- At the top is a piece of
tissue called epiglottis, it
closes the trachea when
food is swallows and
prevents you from choking
Alveoli:
- Air sacs
- Thin walls
- Walls are wrapped with capillaries
on the outside, this allows oxygen
to diffuse across the walls of the
alveoli into the blood, while carbon
dioxide diffuses the other way
Cellular Respiration:
- Respiration releases energy - it is
an exothermic process. It releases
heat energy
- Happens in cells
- Only 40% efficient
- Glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide +
water
Aerobic Respiration:
- glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide +
water + energy released
Why organisms need energy:
- Energy is used:
- To drive the chemical
reactions needed to keep
organisms alive
- Movement
- Growth and repair
- Cell division
- Transmission of nerve
impulses
Aerobic Respiration:
- Respiration using oxygen to break
down food molecules is called
aerobic respiration
- Glucose is the
molecule normally used for
respiration
- glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide +
water + energy released
Protons are held together by the strong
nuclear force
Electron Arrangement:
- Rule 1. Each orbit or energy level
can hold a certain maximum
number of electrons.
- Find number from number of
electrons
- The 1st level can hold a
maximum of 2 electrons
- The 2nd level can hold a
maximum of 8 electrons
- The 3rd level can hold a
maximum of 8 electrons.
- Rule 2. Electrons fill up lower
levels before starting on the next
level
- Rule 3. The electron configuration
is written as a number sequence
- Eg: Calcium (20 electrons):
2,8,8,2
Atomic Number, Mass Number and
electron number:
- Atomic number (z)
- Number of protons in an
element
- Number of protons will also
equal number of electrons
in an atom
- Mass Number (a):
- Number of protons plus
number of neutron
- Aka nucleon number
-
Neutrons = Z-A
Science Study Notes
Protons = Atomic number (bottom)
Neutrons = mass number (top) - atomic
number (bottom)
Electrons = atomic number (bottom)
Eg:
Na
Atomic # = 11
Proton # = 11
Electron # = 11
Mass # = 23
Neutrons = Mass # - Atomic # = 12
Why does some elements not conduct
electricity:
- The ions are not free to move
through the solid / lattice
Isotopes:
- Atoms of an element with the
same number of protons and
electrons but different numbers of
neutrons
Grp = Group (Down a column)
Pd = Period (Across a row)
Group 1 - The Alkali Metals
- All have one outer (valence)
electron
- All are metals (except hydrogen)
- All react vigorously with water to
form hydroxide and Hydrogen gas.
- All tend to lose one electron in a
reaction
Group 2- The Alkaline Earth Metals
- All have two outer (valence)
electrons
- All are metals
- All are reactive
- All tend to lose two electrons in a
reaction
Group 7 - The Halogens
- All have seven outer (valence)
electrons
- All are non-metals
- All are very reactive with metals
- All tend to gain one electron in a
reaction
Group 8 - The Inert (Noble) Gases
- All have a full valence shell
- All are gases
- All exist in nature as atoms
- They tend not to react with any
other element
Metals are generally found on the left
hand side, non metals and found on the
right hand side
Bonding:
- Ions and the Ionic Bond:
- Ion is an atom or group of
atoms that has lost or
gained electrons
- The inert gases all have full
valence shell
- This is a low energy
/ stable
arrangement
- Chemical systems will tend
to have the arrangement
with the lowest possible
energy
- Elements will either lose or
gain electrons to have a full
outer / valence shell
Science Study Notes
Reactions of metals with water:
sodium + water → sodium hydroxide +
hydrogen
Reactions with steam
Magnesium + steam → magnesium oxide +
hydrogen
Reactions of metals with dilute acids:
- Magnesium + hydrochloric acid →
magnesium chloride + hydrogen
Reaction of metals with oxygen:
- Magnesium + oxygen → magnesium
oxide
========
Pressure:
- Force per unit area
- The effect of a force on a surface
- Measured in pascals (Pa)
- 1 Pa = 1N per m squared
- Pressure (P) is measured in
Pascal (Pa)
- Force (F) is measured in Newton
(N)
- Area (A) is measured in metres
squared (m2)
Particle Motion:
- Gas particles move quickly in
random directions
- Speeds vary but as they get hotter,
they move quicker
- They move to spread out evenly
- Pressure gets higher underwater
as it gets deeper
Atmosphere Pressure:
- 100,000 Pa
- Becomes less dense as the
altitude increases
Pressure and Temp:
- Pressure increases as temp
increases
- The temperature of a gas is a
measure of the average kinetic
energy of its particles - the higher
the temperature, the greater the
average kinetic energy. The
greater the kinetic energy the
greater the speed of the particles
so hotter particles move faster
101,000 Pa = 101kPa
Density is measured in: g/cm3(cubed)
Pressure and Volume:
- If a balloon is squeezed, it will get
smaller. If the pressure squeezing
the balloon is increased, the
volume will decrease
Density of Materials:
- Matter is made up of small
particles called atoms
=== Page 6 topic latest
Atmospheric pressure decreases as the
height of a surface above ground level
increases. This is because,
as the altitude increases:
Science Study Notes
- the number of air molecules
decreases
- there is less air above a surface
- the weight of the air decreases
Solids, Liquids and Gases:
- All matter contains particles
- Difference between water, gas and
solid is how particles are arranged
- In a solid:
- Particles tightly packed in
regular structure
- In a liquid:
- Tightly packed but free to
move past each other
- In a Gas:
- Particles spread out and
move randomly
- There is little difference between
solid and liquid
Calculating density:
- Density = mass / volume
- 1 g/cm3 is equal to 1,000 kg/m3
- To convert from kg/m3 to g/cm3 ,
divide by 1,000.
- To convert from g/cm3 to kg/m3 ,
multiply by 1,000
- If a object has an irregular shape,
volume can be measured by using
a displacement can›´
- As the irregular object is lowered
into the displacement can, water
rises
- Since the level was already at the
bottom of the sprout, all displaced
water comes out the spout and into
the measuring cylinder
- The excess water in the measuring
cylinder is the amount of volume of
the irregular object
Measuring Forces:
- Important things to consider (2):
- Size / magnitude &
direction
- Easiest way to measure is to use a
spring balance
Unit Force:
- A force of 1n is approx enough
force to push the inside of a
matchbox out
- A mass of 1N weigh 100g on earth
Weight:
- The gravitational force of attraction
on an object caused by a massive
second object such as the earth,
moon or sun
Moments:
Science Study Notes
- The turning effect of a force
- Act around a point in a clockwise
or anticlockwise direction
- The chosen point could be any
point on the object but the pivot (or
fulcrum) is usually chosen
-
- The anticlockwise moment acts
downward on the left, and the
clockwise moment acts
downwards on the right
- Moment of a force = force x
distance
- T=Fd
- T = moment of a force or turning
effect of a force
Moments and balanced forces
- If an object is bsllncred, the total
clockwise moment about a pivot is
equal to the total anticlockwise
moment about that pivot
- If the object is balanced: total
clockwise moment = total
anticlockwise moment
- The diagrams show two examples
of balanced objects where there is
no rotation.
Motion in a straight line:
- Speed is the rate change of
direction
distance travelled = speed × time or d = v t
Velocity and Acceleration:
- Velocity of an object is its speed in
a particular direction
Ecology:
- Study of a living house
- Study of the relationship of
organisms with their environment
and surroundings
Species:
- Group of organisms that can
reproduce
- Often have similar structural and
behavioural features
Population:
- Made up of members of the same
species that are living and
interacting in a defined area at the
same time
Habitat:
- The place of where an organism is
found
Niche:
- The role or job that an animal or
plant carries out in their
environment
Science Study Notes
- No 2 species can occupy the same
niche
Community:
- Multiple populations and non living
things
Ecosystems
- Multiple communities
Autotrophs:
- Build up all organic molecules they
need from simple substances
- eg : plants
Heterotrophic:
- Compounds that have been made
by autotrophs (plants)
- Feed off of other organisms to get
food
- These can be:
- Herbivores
- Carnivores
- Omnivores
Food Chain:
- Shows how energy is transferred
by6 food for each different trophic
or feeding level
- A food chain begins with a
producer followed by a consumer
- Secondary consumers eat
herbivores and are carnivores
- The primary consumer is a
herbivore
- After the primary consumer, you
can have 3 carnivores or
omnivores
- Goes down 90% energy lost per
level
- Maximum amount you can have in
a food chain is 5
Producer = can create its own food
without killing something else
Food Webs:
- Made up of multiple food chains
- A network of all food chains in a
community and shows how energy
flows through the ecosystem
- It is possible for a consumer to
occupy more than one trophic level
Trophic Level:
- Feeding level an organism
occupies in an ecosystem
Organisms that carry out photosynthesis
are called producers
========
Decomposers break down dead or waste
material and have an important role in
making the nutrients available to other
composers
Feeding Level /Trophic Level:
- Position of an organism is referred
to in a food chain as its trophic
level
- At each level, there is only a small
amount of energy available to be
passed onto the next level
- This is because organisms use
energy to carry out their life
processes
- Because only 10% of energy is
available to be passed to the next
level, it is rare to see more than 5
trophic levels
Relationships between living things:
- Symbiosis:
- Relation between species
- They can be one of the
following things:
- Mutualism:
- Relationship where both
species benefit
- Commensalism:
Science Study Notes
- When 1 species benefits,
and the other is not helped
nor harmed
- Parasitism:
- Relationship where one
species benefits and the
other is harmed
Carbon Cycle:
- Carbon is found in most chemical
compounds
- Plants get carbon from the
atmosphere
- There is a finite amount of carbon
on earth
- During photosynthesis, plants use
light and carbon dioxide to make
glucose
- Some of the glucose is used to
make starch, cell walls, proteins,
and other compounds found in
plants
Fossilisation:
- Occurs when carbon in dead
animals is trapped and
compressed
- Carbon may form from fossil fuels
such as coal, oil or gas
Respiration:
- Process where cells use oxygen to
break down glucose into carbon
dioxide and water
- The carbon dioxide gets returned
to the air
Decomposition:
- Process where dead organisms
and waste products are broken
down and the stored carbon is
released into the environment
Neutrualisation:
- reaction where an acid reacts with
an alkali to form a neutral solution
of a salt and water.
Displacement:
- the action of moving something
from its place or position.
Combustion:
- When fuels like wood, coal or
petrol are burnt, they release
carbon dioxide into the
environment
-
PH Level
Main Causes of Habitat Destruction:
- Food Suply
- Increase of human
population meant increased
need of food
- Humans changed the
environement to meet their
needs
- When humans removed
plants and crops to suit
their needs and their food,
the animals died due to
starvation
- Increased area needed for food
crop growth, livestock production
and housing
- The extraction of natural resources
(over harvesting)
- Pollution and climate change
Deforestation can lead to (4):
- Extinction
- Soil erosion
- Flooding
- Carbon dioxide building up in the
atmosphere
Pollution:
- The contamination of the earths
environment by release of harmful
substance
Science Study Notes
Pollutents:
- Things that contaminate
environment such as
- Sewage water
- Harmful chemicals
- Gases
- Biodegradeable Pollutents
- Can be broken down into
biological agents
- Non biodegradeable pollutents:
- Cannot be broken down
Types of Pollution:
- Air Pollution
- Carbon particles
- Sulphur dioxide
- Lead
- CFC’s
- Water Pollution
- Waste water from factories,
homes, fertilizers
- Soil Pollution:
- Polythene
- Plastic
- Waste from industries
- Fertilizers
- Pestisides
- Insectisides
- Noise Pollution
- Industries
- Transportation systems
- Entertainment
- Construction
Eutrophication:
- excessive richness of nutrients in a
lake or other body of water,
frequently due to run-off from the
land, which causes a dense growth
of plant life.
- Main Causes in NZ:
- Agriculture, meat, and dairy
processing industries
Biodiversity:
- The greater the number of different
populations, and therefore species,
the greater the biodiversity
Why
Maintain
Biodiversity:
- Medical reasons
- All medicines used to treat
desises come from
chemicals in plants
- Loss of organisms through
extinction will mean that the
unique chemicals needed
will no longer be available
=====
Transition Elements:
- Most metals are transition metals
- They conduct electricity in solid
and liquid state
- Shiny when freshly cut
- Most have
- Higher melting points
- Higher densities
- Greater strength and
hardness
Animal Cell:
- Nucleus
- Contains genetic material
(DNA)
- Controls cell’s activities
- Cytoplasm:
- Liquid that makes up most
of the cell
- Where chemical reactions
happen
- Mainly water
- Cell Membrane:
- Flexible outer layer that
surrounds the cell
- Controls which substances
can pass into and out from
it
- Mitochondria:
- Tiny parts of cell floating in
the cytoplasm
Science Study Notes

- Where energy is released - Contain green

from glucose from food pigment called
chlorophyll, where
photosynthesis
occurs

Photosynthesis:
- A chemical reaction that
- Where most respiration occurs in the chloroplasts of plants
happens in which the energy in light is
stored in glucose.
Respiration:
- A chemical reaction that occurs in
the mitochondria of cells in which
glucose and oxygen react to
produce carbon dioxide and water,
releasing energy.

Plant Cell:
- They have the same components
as animal cells:
- Nucleus Covalent Bonding:
- Cell membrane - Formed when a pair of electrons is
- Cytoplasm shared between two atoms,
- Mitochondria usually non metals
- They also have: - These shared electrons are found
- Cell Wall in the outer shell of the atoms
- Tough outer layer of - each atom contributes one
the cell which electron to the shared pair of
contains cellulose to elections
provide strength - each atom then has a complete
and support to the outer shell of electrons
plant
- Vacuole:
- Space inside the
cytoplasm
- Contains watery
liquid called cell sap
- Keeps the cell firm
- Chloroplasts:
- Found in the cells
of green parts of
plants only (leaves
and stems)
Science Study Notes

Dot & Cross Diagram: - Pearticles are tightly

- only outer shell is drawn packed in a regular
- outer shell of each atom is drawn structure
as a circle - In a liquid:
- circles overlap when there is a - Tightly packed but free to
covalent bond move past each other
- electrons from one atom are drawn - In a gas:
as dots - Spread out and move
- other electron from other atoms randomly
are drawn as as crosses Calculating Density:
- Example: Water: mass
- Density=
1. The formula for water is H2O volume
2. Dot and cross diagram includes 2 m
- p=
“H” atoms and 1 “O” atom v
3. H has 1 outer electron - Density (p) is measured in
4. O has 6 outer electrons kilograms per metre cubed (kg/m3)
5. The H circles must each overlap - Mass (m) is measured in kilograms
the O circle (kg)
- Volume (v) is measured in metres
cubed (m3)

Double Bonds:
- A covalent bond resulting from the
sharing of four electons (2 pairs)
between 2 atoms
- Consists of 2 shared pairs of Indicators:
- When an acid is dissolved in
water:
- Forms acidic soloution
- When a base dissolves in water:
- Forms an alkaline soloution
- If a soloution is neither acidic or
alkaline, then it is neutral like water
- Litmus:
electrons - Turns red in acidic
soloutions
- Blue in alkaline soloutions
Density:
- Descirbes how closesly packed
THE PARTCILES ARE IN A
SOLID, LIQUID OR GAS
- Amount of mass per unit volume
- All matter contains particles
- In a solid:
Science Study Notes

- Purple in neutral

Universal Indicator
For example, the main solute in
- Unlike litmus, it can show how
sea water is sodium chloride.
strongly acidic or alkaline a
soloution is
Solvent:
- Measured using pH scale
- The liquid in a solution which
- 0-6 = acidic
dissolves the solute. For example,
- 7 = neutral
the solvent in sea water is water.
- 8-14 = alkalis
- The liquid that the solute dissolves
- More accurate
into

Ameter:
Flame Test for Ions:
- Measures current
- Different metal ions produce
different flame color when they are
Voltmeter:
heated strongly
- Measures potential difference
Ion Present Flame Test Color
Lithium Li+ Red
Sodium, Na+ Yellow Low Resistors = conductors
Potassium, K+ Lilac High Resistors = insulators
Calcium, Ca2+ Orange – red
Barium, Ba2+ Green Electric Charge:
Copper, Cu2+ Blue - green - Some particles carry an electric
charge
- in electric wires, these particles are
Tests: electrons
- Test for Oxygen - we get an electric current when
- will relight a glowing splint these charged particles move from
- Test for Carbon Dioxide place to place
- Reacts with calcium
hydroxide to produce a Electric Current:
white precipitate of calcium - flow / movement of charge, and in
carbonate a wire, it is a flow of electrons
- Limewater, milky, cloudy
white 2 Things for an electric current to flow:
- Test for Hydrogen: 1. something to transfer energy to the
- If hydrogen is present, a electrons, power pack
lighted splint will produce a 2. complete path for electrons to flow
sqeaky pop through
Solute Def:
- The solid (or occasionally a gas) Potential Differnce:
which dissolves into a solvent - electric circuits can be series or
(liquid) in order to make a solution. parallel
Science Study Notes
- an ammeter measures current
- same as Voltage
Current:
- “I” is used to measure current and
an arrow the direction of the world
- Current is a measure of how
quickly electric change flows
through a circuit
- The more charge that flows each
second, the bigger the current
- Current is measured in Amperes
(amps), symbol is “A”
Measuring Current:
- A device called an ammeter is
used to measure current
- To measure current you must have
an ammeter attached to it
Potential Difference:
- A measure of the difference in
energy between 2 parts of a circuit
- Bigeer the difference in energy,
bigger potential difference
- Measured in volts
- Voltage = potential difference
- 230V has a bigger potential
difference than 12V
Measuring Potential Difference:
- Measured using a Voltmeter
- You must connect the volmeter in
parallel
Series Circuit:
- Components are one after another
- If there are 2 lamps in a series
circuit and one breaks, the other
lamp will not work, the circuit is
broken
- Current is the same everywhere in
a series circuit
- It doesn’t matter where you put the
ammeter, it will always give the
same reading
- The current in a series circuit
depends on the number of cells
- Higher number of cells = stronger
current
- If you put more lamps in a series
circuit, all the lamps will be dimmer
than before because less current
will flow through them
- The resistance increases when
you add more components
in series. For example, the
resistance of two lamps in series is
greater than the resistance of one
lamp. Less current will flow
through them and they will not light
up as brightly.
-
Parallel Circuit:
- Different components are on
different branches of the wire
- If a lamp breaks, the components
in the other branches will continue
to work
- The lamps stay bright if more
lamps are added, unlike a series
circuit
- The current is shared
- When 2 components are in
parallel, total current is
shared between the
components
Resistance:
Science Study Notes

- Wires and other components in a

circuit reduce the flow of charge
through them
- More electrical resistance = less
current
- Unit of resistance is ohms

Calculating Resistance:
- You need to find potential
difference
- Current flowing through it
- Resistance = potential difference ÷
current
V
- R=
I

Periodic Table:
- Horizontal rows = periods
- Vertical collums = groups
Science Study Notes
Acids and Metal:
- Always form a metal salt and hydrogen
gas
Acids and Base:
- Always form a salt and water
Acids and Carbonate:
 -  Form water and other neutral
products
 -  Carbon dioxide is referred to as
a product in this reaction
Cations: +
Anions: -
Rules for writing chem formulas:
1. Possitive ion always goes first and
then negative ion seccond
2. Possitive nad Negative charges
need to balance and cancel
eachother out
3. You can add additional positive
and negative ions to cancel out
ions with a higher charge
4. If ion is made up from more than
one atom, put the ion in brackets.
Oxygen is ALWAYS O2
Alkali Metals are Groups 1& 2
Hydrogen is always H2
Voltage is the same everywhere in series
and parallel
Salt = Chloride
------- TERM 3
Organic Chemistry Topic:
Objectives:
Define Organic Chemistry:
- Study of carbon
Define Fractional Distillation:
-
Define Alkanes:
- Saturated hydrocarbon
- compound of hydrogen and carbon
only
Define Alkenes:
- Unsaturated hydrocarbon with a
double bond between the carbon
atoms
Define Polymerisation
Hydrocarbons:
- Compounds that contain hydrogen
and carbon only
- Different hydrocarbons have
different boiling points
Crude Oil:
- Finite resource
- Found in earth crust
How is crude oil made?:
- the remains of organisms that lived
and died millions of years ago
What does Crude Oil Make and how:
- makes petrol and other fuels from
fractional distillation
What is Fractional Distillation:
- a process used to separate crude oil
into simpler, more useful mixtures
Science Study Notes
- -
- Crude oil enters a column
(cyllander) and is heated.
- Different parts of the crude
oil are burnt at different
temperatures, producing
different mixtures
- The different mixtures
produced from distillation are
called "Fractions"
Define Fractions:
- Mixture created from fractional
distillation of crude oil
Fractions:
- Each fraction contains a mixture of
hydrocarbons
- The hydrocarbons in a fraction are
mainly hydrocarbons called alkanes
- They have similar:
- numbers of
hydrogen and
carbon atoms in
their molecules
- boiling points
- ease of ignition
- viscosity
Complete Combustion of a Hydrocarbon:
- happens when there is good supply
of oxygen
Carbon and hydrogen atoms in the fuel
react with oxygen in an exothermic
reaction:
- carbon dioxide and water are
produced the maximum amount
of energy is given out
Incomplete Combustion:
- happens when oxygen supply is
poor
- water is still produced
- carbon monoxide and carbon are
produced
- in a bunson burner, it happens when
the air hole is closed
Alkanes:
- simplest group of organic
compounds are the hydrocarbons
- not very useful except for fuels
-
- alkanes are the first family of
hydrocarbons\
- formula for alkanes: C n H 2 n +2
- where n is the number of carbons
- C n H 2 n +2
- Alk (stem), ane (suffix)
- Stem tells the number of
carbons
- Suffix tells what type of
compound it is
- Alkanes form a homologous series
Molecular Formula:
- Shows the number of each type of
atom present in one molecule
Structural Formula (Displayed Formula)
- Shows how all the atoms in one
molecule are arranged
- Particularly useful to show branches
in chains
Why are Alkanes Saturated
Hydrocarbons:
- Hydrocarbons
- They are compounds
containing hydrogen and
carbon only
- Saturated:
- Their carbon atoms are
joined by C-C single bonds
Science Study Notes

Prefixes: - 1 carbon atom (meth)

- Number of carbons - C H 3 OH
- Meth = 1 carbon - Boiling point of 65*C
- Eth = 2 Carbons - Was originally made from
- Prop = 3 Carbons distilling wood
- But = 4 Carbons -
- Pent = 5 Carbons - Ethanol + steam + (High
- Hex = 6 Carbons pressure and temp 300degrees
- Hept = 7 Carbons celcius) = ethanol
- Oct = 8 Carbons
- Non = 9 Carbons Polymers:
- Dec = 10 Carbons - Long chain molecules that
Eg: Methane: occur naturally in living things
- C H4 - Plastics are polymers
- Very large molecules made when
- meth = 1 carbon
many smaller molecules join
- 4 hydrogen surround it
together, end to end
Define Isomerism:
- The smaller molecules are called
- Alkanes show this
monomers
- the atoms can be arranged
- Lots of monomer molecules =
differently to make slightly
polymer molecule
different compound with
- Alkenes can be used to make
different properties
polymers
Alkenes:
========
- Cn H2n
Waves
- Require 2 pairs of electrons
- One corbon-carbon double bond per
Light Waves:
molecule
- Transverse
- Eg: Ethane
- Travels faster than speed
- C2 H4 - Reflected, refracted, dispersed
- Unsaturated - Can travel through a vacuum (empty
- More reactive than alkanes space)
- Used to make chemicals
such as plastic
- How does Light Travel:
- In transverse waves
- Straight lines

Alcohols:
- Based on an Define Waves:
alkane chain where one of - Vibrations that transfer energy from
the hydrogens is replaced by an place to place without the
-OH group transference of matter
- They end with “-ol”
- Ethanol is the alcohol found in
alcoholic drinks
- ethanol is mixed with petrol for use
as a fuel
- Eg: Methanol
Science Study Notes
What are Luminous objects:
- They are light sources
- Make their own light
Why do we see non-luminous light
sources?:
- Because they reflect light to our
eyes
- Eg:
- 1. Light rays traqvel away
from a light bulb in all
different directions
- 2. A ray reflects off a book
- 3. Ray enters the eye and
the person sees the book
How does light form shadows?:
- Made when an object blocks light, in
which the object is opaque or
translucent
Speed of Light:
- Maximum speed is approx.
300,000,000m/s when it travels
through a vacuum
- Vvery large difference between
speed of light in air, and speed of
sound in air
- That is why you see lightning
before you hear it
- Speed of light is quicker than speed
of sound
Reflection:
- Ray diagram
- Shows how light travels
- Shows what happens when
it reaches a surface
Incident Ray:
- Incoming ray
Normal:
- 45* angle of the plane mirror (object
reflecting)
Angle of incidence:
- Angle between incidence ray, and
normal line
Reflected ray:
- Ray that has been reflected by the
mirror
Angle of incidence = angle of refraction
Specular Reflection:
- Reflection from a smooth, flat
surface is called specular reflection
- Happens with a flat mirror
Virtual Image:
- is an image from which rays of light
appear to diverge, and do not
actually pass through.
Scattering:
- if light meets a rough surface, each
ray still obeys the law of refraction
- but the light may reflect in different
directions
- it explains why you can see a clear
image of yourself in a shiny flat
mirror, but not in a dull rough wall
Refraction:
- light waves change speed as they
pass through 2 substances with a
different optical density
- eg, air and glass
- causes rays to change
direction
- this is called refraction
At the Boundary of 2 different substances:
- light slows down when going into a
denser substance, ray bends
towards normal
- light speeds up when going into a
less dense substance, ray bends
away from normal
Science Study Notes

Total Internal Refraction ** -

Uses of Total Internal Refraction (TIR):

- fibre broadband internet
- Christmas decorations

What is White Light:

- White light is a mixture of many
different colours each at a different - Objects appear black in white light
wavelength because they absorb all colors and
- Can be split into a spectrum of reflect none
colours using a prism
Electromagnetic Waves:
How does color work in a prism: - Transverse
- Light is refracted when it enters the - Vibrations = oscillations = waves
prism, and each colour is refracted - Their oscillations are changes in
by a different amount electrical and magnetic fields at right
angles to the direction of wave travel
Light Spectrum:
- 7 colours All Electromagnetic Wave (3):
- Listed in order of their frequency, - Transfer energy as radiation from
lowest freq, to highest freq (freq = the source of the waves to the
waves per second) absorber
- Red - Can travel through vaccums such as
- Orange space
- Yellow - Travel at the same speed through a
- Green vacuum or air
- Blue
- Indigo What speed do EM’s travel at?:
- Violet - 300,000,000 metres per second
through a vacuum
Coloured light:
- 3 primary colours Electromagnetic Spectrum:
- Red, green, blue - EM’s form a continuous spectrum of
- All 3 colours make white light waves
- Can be separated into 7 different
Colour Absorption: groups
- When a light hits a surface, some of -
it is absorbed
- Some is reflected
- It will reflect (allow to pass) the
colour that is being shone, and will
absorb (turn to black), all other
colour
- Eg: blue object absorbs all - Long wavelength = low frequency
colours of the spectrum - Low frequency
except blue, it will reflect - Low energy
blue light - Short wavelength
- High frequency
- High energy
Science Study Notes
Increase EM frequency = more hazardous
Radio Waves:
- Transmitted easily through air
- Do not cause damage if absorbed
by human body
- Can be reflected to change their
direction
Microwaves:
- High freq microwaves have freq’s
which are easily absorbed by
molecules in food
- Pass easy through the atmosphere
- Can pass between stations on earth
and satilites in orbit
Infared:
- Used by heaters, cookers, security
systems, thermal heat detection
- Can cause burns to skin
- Has waves frequencys that can be
absorbed by some chemical bonds
- Internal energy of bonds increase
when they absorb infared light
Ultraviolet Light:
- Can have hazardous effects on body
- Can cause skin to tan or burn
- Kills batecria, can be used to
disinfect water
- Cannot see it
All waves transfer energy, but do not
transfer matter
Fossil Fuels:
- Formed from remains of dead
animals and plants that lived millions
of years ago in the sea
- These remains where covered in
salt and silt, pressure and heat from
earths core turned them into oil and
gas
Coal Formation:
- Fossil fuel
- Formed from dead plants 300 million
years ago
Disadvantages of Fossil Fues:
- Release carbon dioxide
- Carbon dioxide makes greenhouse
effect and increases global warming
- Mining can be dangerous
- Oil spill can cause environmental
damage
- Supplies are running out
- Oil is made mainly out of NZ. So
prices are set by other countries
Nucleur Power:
- Main fuels are uranium and
plutonium
- Nucleur fuel undergoes a controlled
chain reaction in the reactor to
produce heat
- Nuclear energy is converted
to heat energy
- Heat is used to change water into
steam in the boiler
- steam drive the turbine (heat to
kinetic energy)
- this drive the generator to produce
electricity
- non renewable
How is Nucleur Power Made:
- created from the release of energy
from nucleur reactions
- these reactions use uranium or
plutonium
- relatively small amount of fuel is
required to produce the energy
- it is radioactive
Advantages of Nuclear Power:
- only small amounts of fuel needed to
produce lots of energy
- 1kg of nucelur fuel produces millions
of times more energy than 1kg of
coal
- Low carbon emissions
- Do not produce carbon dioxide or
sulfur dioxide
- It isw cheap to produce electricity
once up and running
Disadvantages:
- Nuclear waste is highly radioactive
Science Study Notes

- Accidents and leaks can be deadly

and last a long time
- Storing nuclear waste is expensive
- Hazardous to health for thousands
of years if there is a leak

INHERITENCE:

DNA:
- They carry genetic code that
determine charactoristicss of a living
organism

Chromosones:
- Contained inside cell’s nucleus
- Long threads of dna made up of
many genes

Genes:
- Small section of DNA on a
chromosome Mitosis produces 2 genetically identical cells
- It can be copied and passed onto for growth , repair and replacement
the next generation
- Some characteristics are controlled Meiosis:
by a single gene - Type of cell division that produces
- Each gene might have different gametes
forms and these are called alleles - Human body contains 46
chromosones, arranged in 23 pairs
Mitosis: -
- Body cells are called diploids
- They are produced for:
- Growth
- Repair to damaged tissue
- Replacement of worn out
cells

Meiosis produces 4 genetically different

haploid cells (23 chromosones)
Science Study Notes
Who worked out DNA and When?:
- James Watson, Francis Crick
- 1953
Bitsize Links:
Alcohols:
- https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/
guides/z8sb2p3/revision/1
Polymers:
- https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/
guides/zyfgmnb/revision/1
- - Different versions of the same genes
Gamete:
- Sex cell
- Sperm and eggs
Variation:
- Characteristics such as eye color
and height differ in a population
Phenotype:
- The particular version of a
characteristic seen in an individual is
described as their phenotype
- Determined by the genes on the
chromosones they inherit from their
parents
Discrete Variation:
- Characteristics controlled by a single
gene (monogenic) (one copy
ingerited from each parent) tend to
have phenotypes that fall into
specific categories.
- to have blue eyes.
Continuous Variation:
- Characteristics controlled by more
than one gene and are described as
being polygenic
- Polygenic characteristics have
phenotypes thagt can show a wide
range of values
- Eg: height or body mass
- On a scale
Alleles:
- Pairs of chromosones in the nucleus
of a body cell
- Chromosones in a pair carry the
same genes in some places, but
different versions of the same
gene
are called alleles
- May be dominant or recessive
Dominant & Reccesive Genes:
- Dominant allele is always
expressed, even if one copy is
present
- Dominant alleles are represented by
a acapital letterr,
- for example, A. The allele for
brown eyes is dominant. You
only need one copy of
thisallele to have brown
eyes. Two copies will still
give you brown eyes.
- A recessive allele is only expressed
if the individual has two copies and
does not have the dominant
- allele of that gene.
- Recessive alleles are represented
by a lower case letter
- for example, a. The allele for
blue eyes is recessive. You
need two copies of this allele
- Homozygous alleles are both
identical for the same characteristic,
for example AA or aa.
- Heterozygous alleles are both
different for the same characteristic,
for example Aa.
Punnet Squares:
- Shows probability of certain
characteristics
Science Study Notes

- Dominant allele is capital letter, How long does it take for earth to spin on its
recessive is lower letter axis?:
- Always write the dominant allele first - 24 hours
-
\What angle is Earth’s Axis tilted on?:
- 23.4* from vertical

Where does the sun turn:

- Turns from west to east

Where does the sun rise and set?:

- Rise in the east
- Set in the west

Why od seasons happen?:

Is the Sun a planet or a star?:
- The sun is a star
What are Galexies:
- Immense groups of stars and
planets
- Contain millions of stars held
together by the force of gravity
How far away is the sun from the center of
the Galaxy?:
- It is halfway from the center on one
of the arms
How long doew it take for light from the sun
to reach earth:
- 8 minutes
- The earths axis is tilted as it moves
around the sound, so some parts of
the the earth receive more sunlight
each day then others
What are tides?:
- Regular rise and fall of sea levels
- Caused by the Gravitational pull of
the moon and sun
- 2 tides each day
- 1 high, 1 low
When is the difference between high tide
and low tide the greatest and why?:
- Full moon or new moon
- Because the sun and moon are in a
direct line, and the gravitational pull
is at its strongest

Why do we have tides?:

How long is a light year?: - Gravity from both the sun and moon
- 99.461 x 1015 m pull water across the arths surface,
jast as earth pulls water downwards
How many planets are in the solar system: - The weaker gravitational pull of the
- 8 sun and moon pull water sideways
across the arth
Order of Planets (closest to sun)
1. Mercury Why do we have 2 tides a day?:
2. Venus -
3. Earth
4. Mars
5. Jupiter
6. Saturn
7. Uranus
8. Neptune