Geography Study Notes: 22 TEST GD UPDATE #___

Earth:
- Inner Core:
- Very center of earth
- 5000 degrees celsius
- Densest part of earth
- Nickel and iron
- Outer Core:
- Second closest layer to the
center
- 4000 degrees celsius
- liquid
- Mesosphere:
- 2550 km thick
- Lower layer of mantle
Geomorphic Cycle:
- Asthenosphere:
1. Earth Building:
- 250 km thick
- Faulting
- Solid, plastic layer
- Folding
- Made of mantle rock
- Volcanism
- Flows slowly
2. Forces of Erosion:
- Allows plates to shift on it
- Glacial / ice
- Lithosphere:
- Aeolian / wind
- 15-300 km thick
- Fluvial / water
- Cool
3. Eroded Materials from earth's
- Outermost layer of earth
surface are returned to the crust.
- Consists of the crust
REPEAT
- Divided into hughes pieces
4. DRAW IN CIRCLE
called plates
- Move around on top of
Weathering:
asthenosphere
- the breaking down of rock strength
-
in situ
- Mantle:
- Second layer of the earth's
Erosion:
surface
- the start of movement of the
- 900-4000 Degrees celsius
weathered material
- Liquid
- 2900 km long
Transportation:
- Crust:
- the downslope movement of
- Surface of the earth
material
- -50 Degrees celsius
- Least dense layer
Deposition:
- 5-7 km thick
- the stopping of movement as the
- Made up of lithosphere and
energy transporting the
asthenosphere
material runs out

Science Study Notes: / / 21 #___

Science Study Notes

- subducts (sinks) beneath the

continental plate
- Constructive:
Rock types: - Two oceanic plates move
- Igneous: away from each other
- Formed from solidification of - Conservative:
molten rock - Two plates move past each
- Extrusive other causing friction
- Cools quickly, smaller - Collision:
crystals - Two continental plates collide
- Obsidian, pumice,
scoria, basalt
- Intrusive:
- Crystalized below
earth surface
- Cools slowly, larger
crystals
- Sedimentary:
- Formed by accumulation of
sediments
- 3 basic types of sedimentary
- Normally formed under water
- Some organic
- Some chemical

Plate Boundaries:
- Destructive:
- An oceanic plate meets a
continental plate and
Science Study Notes

Constructive / Divergent Plate Boundary:

- Small earthquakes
- Not very explosive earthquakes
- Erupt basalt lava and create islands
like iceland
- New oceanic crust being made as
plates pull apart and magma rises to
fill the gap and becomes solid rock
- Plates move away from each other
Destructive Plate Boundary:
- Lava erupts onto the surface the
- Very powerful earthquakes
surface to fill the gap
- Tsunamis can form
- The process continues as plates
- Very explosive, destructive
move, more lava erupts and so a
volcanoes, steep sided
volcano builds
- Oceanic crust is destroyed
-
because it is forced below
the less dense continental
crust
- The partially melted rock
forces its way to an area of
lower pressure where it is
ready to erupt
- Plates move towards each
other
- The oceanic plate sinks
beneath the continental plate
because it is denser - this
causes earthquakes
- Oceanic plate is destroyed in
the mantle
- Rock is different density and
so tries to force its way back
to the surface
- It erupts through a weak
point in the crust, thus
building a volcano
Collision Plate Boundary:
Science Study Notes
- Very destructive earthquake
- Produces No earthquake
Conservative Boundaries:
- As the plates move at different
speeds, and in slightly different
directions they get stuck and
pressure builds
- If pressure builds released suddenly
an earthquake occurs
- Crust is neither created nor
destroyed as they move past each
other
- Plates move past each other in
similar direction and speed
- Plates get stuck because there is a
difference in speed & direction
- Pressure builds as plate move
Collision / Convergent Boundary:
- Plates move towards each other
- As they are the same density, one
cannot be sunken below another
- Pressure builds as neither can move
- Rocks are forced together and push
up to create fold mountains
=================================
Volcanoes:
Dormant:
- Sleeping, not active but could still
erupt in the future
Extinct:
- Never likely to erupt again
Stratovolcanoes / Composite Cone
Volcanoes:
- Built up of alternating layers of lava
and ash
- Mixture of lava and pyroclastics
Science Study Notes
- Explode with great violence
- Eruptions may be pyroclastic flow
Shield (basic Volcanoes)
rather than lava flow
- Alternate between periods of lava
flows (constructive phase) and
periods of explosive eruptions
(destructive phase)
- Commonly called composite
volcanoes because they are made
up of both lava and pyroclastic
deposits
- Steep slopes
- May lay dormant for thousands of
years
- Can grow to thousands of meters
high during constructive lava flow
phases
- Extensive ash falls and ash flows
are commonly produced during
explosive phases
- After an eruption, a large caldera
remains
Pyroclastic Flow:
- Mixture of hot steam, ash, rock and
dust
Cinder Cones:
- Can roll down sides of a volcano at
very high speeds with temps of over
400 Degrees Celsius
-
- Enormous built from only layers of
lava
- Dominated by lava flows
- Produce lots of lava but tend not to
erupt violently
- Usually found at constructive
boundaries
- They are low, with gently sloping
sides
- Formed by eruptions of thin, runny
lava
- Eruptions tend to be frequent but
gentle
- Typical slopes approx 15 degrees
(angle)
- Lava flows downslope, away from a
central vent
- Many shield volcanoes have a
central caldera:
- Calderas form after an
eruption when the surface
collapses
- Each caldera is located at
the site of a former eruption
-
- Dominated by pyroclastics
- Forms an isolated conical mound of
tephra
Science Study Notes

- Dominated by viscous, gaseous - Controls the amount of gas that can

magma be trapped in the magma
- Relatively cool basaltic magma or - The greater the viscosity, the more
andesitic magma predominate gas in the magma
- Internally constructed entirely of
layers of pyroclastic deposits
- Angle of 30 - 40 degrees (angle)
- Range from several meters to over
300m in height
- (blocks, bombs, lapilli)

Volcano:
- Mound of material that is extruded to
the earth's surface from a bent that it
connected to a magma chamber via
a feeder conduit
- Result from magma
Magma:
- Molten rock within the earth
- Maga is called lava when it reaches
the surface
- 3 main types of magma:
- 1. Basaltic Magma
- 2. Andesitic Magma
- Rhyolitic Magma
- Names are based on the rock types
that forms when the magma
crystallizes
-
Viscosity:
- A measure of how easily a liquid
flows
- Water has low viscosity, lava has a
higher
Science Study Notes

Lava tube:
Lava: - A tube formed by cooling and
- Upto 1200 degrees celsius solidifying of the lava walls while
- Fluid, molten rock that flows along fluid lava continued to flow inside
the land surface
Pahoehoe:
- Lava with a ropelike surface texture
due to partial cooling as the lava
flowed. Relatively hot, low viscosity
lava

Aa:
- Blocky, rough lava flow. Due to high
viscosity lava that flowed pushing
chunks of solid and semi-solid
Pillows:
blocks
- A form of closed lava tube (with a
bulbous end) that forms when a lava
flows into water (e.g., a lake or
ocean) and cools very rapidly.
Science Study Notes

- Can be generated when a volcano

Pyroclastic material:
- Debris formed by a volcanic
explosion. Results when magma is
very viscous.
Tephra:
- The general term for all pyroclastic
material that is ejected from a
volcano. Different terms apply
according to the size of the tephra.
(syn. Ejecta)
Ash:
- Tephra that is finer than 2mm in
diameter
Lapilli:
- Tephra from 2mm to 64mm in
diameter
collapses during an eruption
Tsunamis:
- Caused by the displacement of
seawater by eruptions of volcanic
islands and submarine volcanoes
=====
Mathus’ Basic Theory:
- Show we only have enough
resources for a certain number of
people before it causes a problem
and reaches the point of crisis
Boserup’s Population theory:
- Argues that as population
approaches the limit of food supply,
new technology will improve and
society will adapt

Blocks: Hans’ Rowling Speech:

- Tephra hard fragments greater than
64mm in diameter
Bombs:
- soft, partially melted fragments
greater than 64 mm in diameter.
Tuff: A deposit made up of ash
Ash Flow:
- Pyroclastic debris that flows
downslope
- 3 bil population at 1960
- 1960, 1 bil wealth in HIC, 2 billion
people in other
- Rich 1 billion save for car
- Poor 2 billion save to buy food
- 2010
- 2 billion in absolute poverty
- LIC’s saving for car
- HIC, saving for holiday
Emerging Countries:
- MIC’s, Middle Income Countries

Lahar: Absaloute Poverty:

- A water saturated slurry of ash other
volcanic debris that flows downslope
- Extremely fast, picks up objects on
its way down
- Extremely dangerous
- make less than $1 a day
Population Growth will stop in 2050 if the
poorest 4 billion will become wealthier

Landslides: Child Survival = less child per women

Science Study Notes

Reasons for Child Survival Rates - Better healthcare

Increasing: - Clean water
- Soap - Vaccines
- Hygiene - Safer houses
- Education and Gov Facilites
- Penecillian
- Vaccines DTM / Demographic Transition Model:
- Shows how population changes as
countries become more developed
Overpopulation: - Stage 1:
- When too many people are living - High death rate
and there are not enough resources - Poplation fluctuates but stays
to support them relatively stable
- High birth rate due to no birth
control
Increase Child Survival = Population Growth - High death rate due to
Stop: famine and no healthcare
- Because families in LIC’s will have - LIC
many children to support them when - Stage 2:
they grow old and to help provide for - Improved Hygiene
their family - Improved healthcare
- They may also have large families - Less death rates
due to religious reasons - Very rapid population
increase
Children that have large families will often - Stage 3:
have large families them selves - Widespread birth control
- Preference for smaller
families
How the Population becomes stable: - Expense for raising kids goes
- Investments to reduce poverty up
- Increase healthcare, education and - Death rate falls
access to clean water and food - Population increases but less
- The role of the HIC in the new world rapidly
will become the foundation / base of - Stage 4:
the modern world - Working women have fewer
children later on in life, to
focus on career
Reasons for Population Variations: - Very slow population
- Total Population = (Births increase
+Immigration) + (Deaths -
Emmigration)
Age / Sex Pyramid:
Reasons for Population Growth: - 0-14 = children
- Development of modern medicine
Science Study Notes
- 15-64 = economiclly active, they
work
- 65+ = ageing population
- Females live on average 4 more
years than a man
One Child Policy:
Dependency Ratio:
- (% under 15) + (% over 65)
- —---------------------------------
- % between 15 & 64
- Multiple by 100
Gambia literacy rate under 50%
Why are there so many young people in
Gambia:
- 95% of people are muslim
- Large families because:
- Religion
- Family planning is shamed
upon
- Children used as assistance
on rural farms
- Government doesnt have enough
money to build new infrastructure
- 1/10 children die before the age of 5
- Due to desise
- Famine
- More than ⅔ of forest have been
destroyed
- NGO’s provide free food for children
at school, as well as books and
resources
Japans’ Ageing Population:
- Ageing populations are unique to
HIC’s
- Japan spends more than ⅓ of its
budget on pensions and eldercare
- Increases pressure on economically
active people, and possibly take
them out of a job
- Increased cost of living
- Economic growth halts
- 2:1 worker ratio
- 40% of social aid goes to elders
- Lau wanted to grow chinas
population and empire to become
strong
- The policy was a result of a pro-
natilist policy
- This was to encourage the growth of
china as a nation
- Then china’s population exploded
and started to grow rapidly - china
was becoming overpopulated
- Which was dangerous - as a result,
multiple policies were put in place to
restrict having more than 1 child
- You would be fined, and if you didn't
pay the fine, you could get a forced
abortion or your child wouldn't be
registered, which would restrict your
child from using services such as
education, transport, library etc…
- You could lose your job or have a
large salary reduction
- The policy was officially removed in
2015
- Before the policy, avg amount was 6
children per woman
- The population was so high, that it
couldn't support itself
- It was unsustainable, as the
resources available couldn't support
the population
- The policy was introduced by Deng
Xiaoping in 1979
- The goal was to keep the population
below 1.3 billion by 2020
- There were boxes to report people
who were illegally pregnant
Science Study Notes

- It had a very small youthful - NZ got to sign the treaty, first

population time being recognized as
more than a British Colony
Essay: - NZ Issues:
S = Statement - Issues with neighbouring
D = Describe islands
E = Explain - Outcomes not aligned
E = (Illustrative) Example expectations. Labor not
L = Link happy, saying treaty will
cause another war in 20
Descriptive Paragraphs: (History) years
- 3 separate points
- 3 marks

Evaluate Paragraphs: (History)

- 2 marks
- 2 points

Describe Parapgraph (geo)

- What
- Where
Weathering:
- Process of erosion
Explain (Geo):
- Breaking down of rocks in situ
- Why
- No transport is involved
- Where
- It is important for moisture to be
present
- Physical breakdown and chemical
Source Anaylsis (History):
alteration of rocks at Earth’s surface
- Dates, title, tagline/s, where
published, bias
Denudation:
- Wearing down of earths surface
through wind, water and hydro
- Weathering is a type of denudation
Treaty of Versallies - NZ:
- NZ Gained
2 Types of Weathering:
- western samoa
1. Physical Weathering
- $500k
2. Chemical Weathering
- First time on world stage as a
country
Freeze Thaw / Frost Wedging
- Memorabilia (canons)
1. Water enters cracks in the rocks
- Strengthened alliances
2. Waer freezes as temperature drops.
- Both NZ Pm’s invited
Ice expands against walls of rock
Science Study Notes
3. Cracks are enlargened and falls
apart
Salt Wedging:
- Most likely to take place in seaside /
coastal areas
- Water will exaporate, but salt
doesnt, and heats up and turns into
crystal and will split the rock
Pressure Release (Mechanical Exfoliation of
a Pluton):
1. When rocks that have been formed
deep under ground are exposed at
the surface they are under much
less pressure than when they were
buried.
2. The rock tends to "spring back" due
to the release of overburden
pressure.
3. The result is weathering in a sheet
or rounded pattern.
Onion Skin Weathering:
- Found often in deserts and place
with a large temp range
1. Rock surface heats up from sun
2. At night, the rock surface cools down
3. Process is repeated, and the bonds
between the layers of rock weaken,
causing layers of the rock to “peel
off”
Increased Rock Surface Area = Increased
possibility of weathering
All chemical weathering needs water
Hydrolysis:
- Happens when rain is slightly acidic
- takes place when acid rain reacts
with rocks to produce clay and salt
1. Fespar becomes clay mineral layers
2. Absorbed water molecules cause
rock to expand
3. Rock ends up destroying layers and
cracking rock
Carbonation / Soloution:
- Limestone is made of calcium
carbonate.
- When carbon dioxide is dissolved in
rainwater, it makes a weak acid
called carbonic acid.
- When carbonic acid comes into
contact with limestone, it reacts with
the rock to form calcium
bicarbonate.
- The calcium bicarbonate is soluble
and is carried away in solution,
gradually weathering the limestone.
Glaciers:
Formation:
- Form where more snow
accumulates in the winter than melts
in the summer
- Form above snow line, where snow
fall = snow melt
- Crevases are large cracks which
reach the glacier surface
- Formed by glacier bending
- From snowflakes to dense glacial ice
- They are large slow moving rivers of
ice
- Valley (Alpine) Glacier:
- A glacier which occupies a
previously formed river valley
- Advancing Glaciers:
- moves foward when snow
and ice accumulation is
greater than ablation
(melting)
Retreating Glaciers:
- Ice melts backward when snow and
ice fall is less than snow melt
Science Study Notes
- Ice bed begins to melt, allowing
glacier to slowly retreat downwards
Glacial Equilibrium:
- Rate of melting is the same rate as
snow falling (accumiliation)
- Glacial ice continues to move
downslope (gravity), ice front
remains in same position
Plucking:
- Process of erosion
- As glaciers move, they scrape rocks
and pull them away causing erosion
Abrasion:
- Occurs when rocks and stones
become embedded in the base and
sides of the glacier
- They are rubbed against the
bedrock, and worn away as the
glacier moves
- Like sandpaper
Wind:
- Desert areas with little vegetation
means ground surface is exposed to
direct sunlight and elements such as
wind
- 20% of deserts are covered in sand
- Wind moves this material around to
form dunes
Aeolian Erosion Processes (2):
- Abrasion:
- Is main erosion method
- Wind picks up sand and uses
it like sandpaper to wear
down and shape landscape
- Surface Deflation:
- Wind removes loose material
and over time the whole area
is lowered
- Where harder rocks resist,
MESA’s may form
Hydrological Cycle is what type of System:
- Closed system
Where is Earths Water:
- 96.5% in oceans
- 0.9% other saline water
- 2.5% freshwater
Rock Pedestals:
- Mushroom rocks
- Formed by wind blasting sand
against rocks
- It wears down the softer lower
surface leading to iregullar edges on
alternative bands of softeer and
harder rocks
- Grooves and hollows cut in the rocks
surface, carved into a grotueqe
looking pillars known as rock
pedestals
- Rocks will be eroded near the base
where friction is the greatest
Ventifacts & Drelkanter:
- Ventifacts are generally pebbles
edged by sand blasting
- Rock fragment weathered from
mountains
- Are shaped and polished
through wind abrasion
- If wind direction changes, another
facet is created
- Ventifacts with 3 wind faceted
surfaces are known as drelkanter
Material may be transported by Wind by: (3)
1. Surface Creep - rolling, sliding along
ground
2. Saltation - Hopping
3. Suspension - lifted and carried
above the ground
Science Study Notes
Transportation:
- Wind can transport fine materials
great distances, this is called loess
When does Wind Transportation occur:
- Occurs when wind speed exceeds
the forces holding the material in
place
Aeolian Erosion (2):
- Deflation
- When loose materiaal is
picked up and carried away
- Dry areas more vunlrable to
deflation
- A desert pavement is created
as the wind cannot pickup
the bigger rocks
- Abrasion:
- When wind blasts materials
(dust) and erodes rocks and
other materials
- These rocks are smoothened
and flattened
- Most effective upto 1.5m
above ground
- Saltation:
- Practicles sized 0.1-1mm
bouncing along the ground
upto 1.5m height
- Surface Creep:
- Sized >1m
Deposition (Wind):
- Will occur when the wind strength
falls to a point where the wind can
no logner carry/transport material
- loes s can be distributed over a wide
distance and build up to great
depths
Sand Dunes:
- A mound of sand formed from the
wind
- Usually found along beach or in a
desert
- Form when wind blows sand into a
sheltered area
- Dunes grow as areas of sand
accumulate
- Sand cannot move until it reaches
the fluid threshold velocity
- Wet sand particles are more difficult
for wind to pick up as wet sand
tends to clump together
RIVERS==========
—----------------------------------
Tributary:
- Small river that feeds into a main or
bigger river
Delta:
- Large river that turns into many
small rivers as it slows down and
deposits sediment at the mouth of
the river
- Provide fertile land
Watershed:
- Boundary of the drainage basin
Confulence:
- Where 2 rivers meet
Source:
- Highest top part of the river
- Where it starts
Inputs (water coming into the system):
- Precipitation – all forms of moisture
that reach the Earth’s surface e.g.
rain, snow, sleet and hail.
Science Study Notes

Storage (water stored in the system):

- Interception:
- this is when precipitation
ulands on buildings,
vegetation and concrete
before it reaches the soil.
Interception storage is only
temporary as it is often
quickly evaporated.
- Vegetation storage:
- this is water taken up by
vegetation. It is all the
moisture in vegetation at any
one time.
- Surface storage:
- the total volume of water
held on the Earth’s surface in
lakes, ponds and puddles.
- Groundwater storage
- the storage of water
underground in permeable
rock strata.
- Channel storage:
- the water held in a river or
stream channel.
Science Study Notes
Flows and Processes (water moving
from one place to another)
- Baseflow
- water that reaches the
channel largely through slow
throughflow and from
permeable rock below the
water table
● Channel flow
○ the movement of water within
the river channel. This is also
called a river’s discharge.
- Groundwater flow:
- the deeper movement of
water through underlying
permeable rock strata below
the water table. Limestone is
highly permeable with lots of
joints and can lead to faster
groundwater flow.
- Infiltration:
- the downward movement of
water into the soil surface.
- Interflow:
- water flowing downhill
through permeable rock
above the water table.
- Percolation:
- the gravity flow of water
within the soil.
- Stemflow:
- water running down a plant
stem or tree trunk.
- Surface Runoff:
- the movement of water over
the surface of the land,
usually when the ground is
saturated or frozen or when
precipitation is too intense
from infiltration to occur.
- Throughflow:
- the movement of water
downslope within the soil
layer.
- Throughflow is fast through
pipes (cracks in the soil or
animal burrows).
Outputs (water leaving the system):
- Evaporation:
- the transformation of water
droplets into water vapour by
heating.
- Evapotranspiration:
- the loss of water from a
drainage basin into the
atmosphere from the leaves
of plants + loss from
evaporation.
- Transpiration:
- evaporation from plant
leaves.
Meander:
- Winding river
Storm Hydrograph:
- Discharge is the volume of water
which flows through a river at a
given time
- Measured in cubic metres per
second
- River discharge can fluctuate a lot in
a matter of hours in response to
periods of rain
Discharge Calculation:
- River velocity x cross section area at
a given point and time
Storm Hydrograph:
- Precipitation are done in bar graph
- Higher discharge = high change of
flooding
Lag-time:
- Difference between peak discharge
and peak precipitation
- Longer lag time = less chance of
flooding
Science Study Notes
Factors affecting rivers’ lag time:
- Long Lag Time:
- Permeable rocks
- High infiltration
capacity absorbs
water quickly
reducing overland
flow
- Drainage basin with less
steep gradient
- Vegetated Areas:
- Helps reduce floods
as plants absorb
water
- Large Drainage Basin:
- Takes longer to reach
- Short Lag - Time:
- Impermeable rocks:
- Dont allow water to
pass through,
resulting in large
amounts of surface
runoff
- Drainage Basin with Steep
Gradient:
- Impermeable man made
surface:
- Concrete
- Deforestation Areas:
- Respond quicky to
rainfall due to
reduced interception
- Small drainage basin
- If the soil has already been
saturated
- If ground surface is frozen
Flood Defence Responses (2):
- Hard Engineering
- Soft Engineering
Hard Engineering:
- A controlled disruption of natural
processes using man-made
structures
- Artificial Levees, sandbags,
Damms
- More expensive
- Immediate results are seen, but may
create problems in future
- Involves use of tech:
- Dams, drains, river
straightening, divert the river
Soft Engineering:
- Less expensive
- Natural levees
- Planting more vegetation
- Do nothing
Formation of Waterfalls & Gorges:
1. Rapids flow over harder rock, before
flowing over softer rock, eroding it
2. A plunge pool forms from the softer
rock being eroded, creating an over
hang where the harder rock is
3. Over hange eventually collapses as
pluge pool gets bigger, going below
the harder rock, overhang is
weakened by erosion and
weathering and is pulled down by
gravity
4. Collapsed rocks are used as tools of
abrasion erosion
a. Waterfall retreats back up
stream to create a gorge, as
the water continues to erode
as the over continues to
collapse
Hydraulic Action:
- When fast flowing water goes into
the cracks in the rock and breaks up
the bank by compressing the air
Attrition/Saltation:
Science Study Notes

- “Bashing” of rocks against other - Created during overbank flowing

rocks when sand and silt are deposited
bext the chanel banks creating belts
Abrasion: of higher land on either side of the
- Rubbing away, like sandpaper channel
Floodplain uses:
Lateral Erosion: - Fertile land for farming
- River gets wider - Transport
- Hydro power
Vertical Erosion: - Fresh drinking water
- River gets deeper - Livestock

Corrosion / Solution: Hjulström Curve:

- Alkali rocks such as limestone are -
dissolved by acid in the water

Deposition:
- Proccess where a river deposits or
drops its load, always happening in
the slowing part of the river

Meanders:
- Fastflow is on the outside
- Outside curve erodes the bank, and
inside curves slows down, causing
deposition of material
- The river continues to bend, until it
meets up with another river, creating
an oxbow lake, and cutting of the
curved channel to follow the new
straighter, faster channel
-

Bluffs:
- Flood plain is bounded by either side
by rising steep called bluffs

Natural Levees:
Science Study Notes

- shows the relationship between the

size of sediment and the velocity
required to erode (lift it), transport it

and deposit it
- Competence is the maximum size of
load that a river can carry
- largely determined by
velocity

Bradshaw Model:
- theoretical model that helps describe
the changes we would expect as a
river travels from its source regions
in its upper course with increasing
distance downstream towards its
mouth