PASSAGE ARGUMENT

VERBAL
Lecture Sheet 10

ASSUMPTION QUESTION

1. According to one psychological theory, in order to be happy, one must have an 'intimate
relationship with another person. Yet the world's greatest composers spent most of their time in
solitude and had no intimate relationships. So the psychological theory must be
wrong.(MEDIUM LEVEL)

The conclusion above assumes that

(A) the world's greatest composers chose to avoid intimate relationships

(B) people who have intimate relationships spend little time in solitude
(C) solitude is necessary for the composition of great music
(D) less well known composers had intimate relationships
(E) the world's greatest composers were happy

2. The overall operating costs borne by many small farmers are reduced when the farmers
eliminate expensive commercial chemical fertilizers and pesticides in favor of crop rotation and
the twice-yearly use of manure as fertilizer. Therefore, large farmers should adopt the same
measures. They will then realize even greater total savings than do the small farmers. (MEDIUM
LEVEL)

The argument-above assumes that

(A) it is more cost-effective for small farmers to eliminate the use of commercial fertilizers and
pesticides than it is for large farmers to do so
(B) a sufficient amount of manure will be available for the fields of large farmers
(C) large fanners would not realize similar cost benefits by using treated sewage sludge instead
of commercial chemical fertilizers
(D) large fanners generally look to small farmers for innovative ways of increasing crop yields or
reducing operating costs
(E) the smaller the farm, the more control the farmer has over operating costs

3. While many people think of the lottery as a harmless way to have fun and possibly win some
money, buying lottery tickets is a form of gambling. Therefore, public officials shouldn’t buy
lottery tickets. (MEDIUM LEVEL)

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The argument above relies upon which of the following assumptions?

(A) Individuals who play the lottery are less likely to win a big payout than they are to be killed in
a car crash.
(B) Some public officials are guilty of much more serious offenses than gambling.
(C) Public officials shouldn’t gamble.
(D) Many public officials are easily tempted to violate rules governing their positions.
(E) Most lottery winners are not made as happy by their winnings as they expected.

4. Some insects are able to feed on the leaves of milkweed, a toxic plant, by first cutting and
draining the vein that secretes the toxin. This method of detoxification guarantees that some
insects will always be able to eat milkweed, because the plant could never evolve to produce a
toxin that is lethal in the trace amounts left after the vein is cut. .(MEDIUM LEVEL)

The conclusion drawn in the passage above depends on which of the following assumptions?

(A) The insects that successfully detoxify milkweed are not able to undergo the evolutionary
changes necessary to allow them to detoxify other plants.
(B) Unlike milkweed, other kinds of toxic plants would be able to overcome their vulnerabilities
to predators through evolutionary changes.
(C) The toxin-carrying veins of the milkweed plant can never evolve in such a way that insects
cannot cut through.
(D) The method of detoxification used by insect predators of milkweed would not successfully
detoxify other kinds of toxic plants.
(E) There are insects that use means other than draining the toxin in order to feed on toxic
plants

5. A placebo is a chemically inert substance prescribed more for the mental relief of a patient than
for its effect on the patient's physical disorder. It is prescribed in the hope of instilling in the
patient a positive attitude toward prospects for his or her recovery. In some cases, the placebo
actually produces improvement in the patient's condition. In discussing the use and effect of
placebos, a well-known medical researcher recently paid physicians the somewhat offbeat
compliment of saying that physicians were the ultimate placebo. (HARD)

By comparing a physician to a placebo, the researcher sought to imply that

(A) physicians should always maintain and communicate an optimistic attitude toward their
patients, regardless of the prognosis
(B) the health of some patients can improve simply from their knowledge that they are under a

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physician's care
(C) many patients actually suffer from imagined illnesses that are best treated by placebos
(D) physicians could prescribe less medication and achieve the same effect
(E) it is difficult to determine what, if any, effect a physician's behavior has on a patient's
condition

STRENGHTEN QUESTION

1. The school board has responded to the new school lunch guidelines by replacing fried potatoes
with fruit in a standard meal option that used to consist of a hamburger, fried potatoes, and
milk. However, the guidelines specifically require that vegetables, not fruits, be included in
every meal.

The information above most strongly supports which of the following conclusions?

(A) Fruit provides just as much health value to students as vegetables.

(B) Students are more likely to eat fruit than vegetables.
(C) The school board is not following the new school guidelines.
(D) The school board is responsible for the health of the student population.
(E) The new school lunch guidelines are unnecessarily strict.

2. In the 18th and 19th centuries, it was believed by many in coastal cities of the United States
that the waterfront was an undesirable location for residential buildings. As a result, much of
the waterfront in these cities was never developed aesthetically and instead was left to
industry and commerce. Today, however, waterfront properties are generally seen as
prestigious, as evidenced by the large sums paid for homes along the beach front. A developer
who wishes to make a large profit would be wise to buy urban waterfront lots and erect
residential buildings on them.

Which of the following, if true, most strongly supports the claim made about urban waterfront
properties?

(A) People today have more money, relatively speaking, to spend on real estate than they did in
previous centuries.
(B) Homeowners will be willing to spend large sums on residential properties in traditionally

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industrial or commercial districts.
(C) Many urban waterfront lots are available for purchase.
(D) Many coastal cities are encouraging developers to rehabilitate the waterfront through tax
incentives.
(E) Properties in interior residential districts in coastal cities are significantly more expensive
than those along the waterfront.
3. That sales can be increased by the presence of sunlight within a store has been shown by the
experience of the only Savefast department store with a large skylight. The sky-light allows
sunlight into half of the store, reducing the need for artificial light. The rest of the store uses
only artificial light. Since the store opened two years ago, the depart-ments on the sunlit side
have had substantially higher sales than the other departments.

Which of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument?

A) On particularly cloudy days, more artificial light is used to illuminate the part of the store
under the skylight.
B) When the store is open at night, the departments in the part of the store under the skylight
have sales that are no higher than those of other departments.
C) Many customers purchase items from departments in both parts of the store on a single
shopping trip.
D) Besides the skylight, there are several significant architectural differences between the two
parts of the store.
E) The departments in the part of the store under the skylight are the departments that
generally have the highest sales in other stores in the Save fast chain.
4. Sparva, unlike Treland’s other provinces, requires automobile insurers to pay for any medical
treatment sought by someone who has been involved in an accident; in the other provinces,
insurers pay for nonemergency treatment only if they preapprove the treatment. Clearly,
Sparva’s less restrictive policy must be the explanation for the fact that altogether insurers
there pay for far more treatments after accidents than insurers in other provinces, even though
Sparva does not have the largest population.

Which of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument?

A Car insurance costs more in Sparva than in any other province.

B The cost of medical care in Sparva is higher than the national average.
C Different insurance companies have different standards for determining what constitutes
emergency treatment.
D Fewer insurance companies operate in Sparva than in any other province.

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E There are fewer traffic accidents annually in Sparva than in any of the provinces of
comparable or greater population.
5. Consumer Advocate: Happy Smiles Daycare, a popular child-care facility in Rolling Hills, boasts
an average child-to-caregiver ratio of 5: 1, a number it cites as the lowest in the county.
Furthermore, the daycare claims that compared to some other daycare centers in the county, it
doesn’t include helpers, or those who are involved in cleanup and diaper changing, when
computing the ratio. Yet Happy Smiles Daycare’s claim that parents with children aged 1– 3 will
find no other facility with such a low child-to-caregiver ratio isn’t accurate.

Which of the following, if true, provides the best justification for the Consumer Advocate’s
position?

A. Happy Smiles Daycare has two rooms, one for children 1– 2 years old and another for those
2– 3 years old, both of which have a child-to-caregiver ratio of 5: 1.
B. Kenton School, which has fewer than 100 students and a legitimate child-to-caregiver ratio
of 6: 1, provides classes for each year up to age 6, though the classes for those over 3 years old
have a child-to-caregiver ratio more than three times that of the other classes.
C. The number of students enrolled in Happy Smiles Daycare remains relatively fixed
throughout the year.
D. Tiny Tots Daycare, which boasts a 4: 1 child-to-caregiver ratio, includes any adults who are in
a classroom throughout the day.
E. Looming budget cuts indicate that Happy Smiles Daycare may not be able to sustain such a
low child-to-caregiver ratio in coming years.

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WEAKEN QUESTION
1. The recent decline in the employment rate was spurred by predictions of slow economic
growth in the coming year. However, those predictions would not have affected the
employment rate if major industries had not lacked capital reserves. So if major industries
increase their capital reserves, the employment rate will not decline in the future.

Which of the following, if true, casts the most doubt on the validity of the argument above?

(A) Major industries foresaw the drop in employment.

(B) Some major industries had appreciable capital reserves.
(C) An increase in labor costs could adversely affect the employment rate.
(D) The government could pass legislation mandating that major industries set aside a fixed
amount as capital reserves every year.
(E) The drop in the employment rate was more severe this year than last.

2. The people of Prohibitionland are considering banning the service of alcoholic

beverages in restaurants to curb unruly behavior on the part of its residents.
Proprietors of restaurants in Prohibitionland are protesting the ban on the grounds that
it will reduce their revenues and profits. However, several provinces in
Prohibitionland enacted restrictions on alcoholic beverages last year, and the sales
taxes paid by the restaurants in those provinces rose by an average of 50%. In
contrast, the sales taxes paid by restaurants located in areas of Prohibitionland that did
not have any restrictions rose by an average of 30 percent.
Which of the following, if true, supports the restaurant proprietors’ economic stance
against the ban?

(A) In the provinces that restricted alcoholic beverages, there was a short-term
negative impact on restaurant visitation in the beginning of last year.
(B) The sales tax in Prohibitionland is lower on food and beverages than it is on other
consumer goods, such as clothing.
(C) The consumption of alcoholic beverages in Prohibitionland has been on a gradual
decline the last 20 years.
(D) The restrictions on alcoholic beverages enacted last year allowed for the service
of alcohol beginning around dinner time each evening.
(E) Overall sales tax revenue did not increase at a substantially higher rate in the
provinces that enacted the restrictions on alcoholic beverages than in the rest of
Prohibitionland last year.
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3. Geographers and historians have traditionally held the view that Antarctica was first sighted
around 1820, but some sixteenth-century European maps show a body that resembles the
polar landmass, even though explorers of the period never saw it. Some scholars, therefore,
argue that the continent must have been discovered and mapped by the ancients, whose
maps are known to have served as models for the European cartographers.

Which of the following, if true, is most damaging to the inference drawn by the scholars?

A) The question of who first sighted Antarctica in modern times is still much debated, and
no one has been able to present conclusive evidence.
B) Between 3,000 and 9,000 years ago, the world was warmer than it is now, and the polar
landmass was presumably smaller.
C) There are only a few sixteenth-century global maps that show a continental landmass at
the South Pole.
D) Most attributions of surprising accomplishments to ancient civilizations or even
extraterrestrials are eventually discredited or rejected as preposterous.
E) Ancient philosophers believed that there had to be a large landmass at the South Pole to
balance the northern continents and make the world symmetrical.
4. Nonprescription sunglasses shield the wearer's eyes from damaging ultraviolet sunlight.
Squinting, however, provides protection from ultraviolet rays that is at least as good as the
protection from nonprescription sunglasses. There is, therefore; no health advantage to be
gained by wearing nonprescription sunglasses rather than squinting.(MEDIUM)

Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens support for the conclusion above?

(A) Many opticians offer prescription sunglasses that not only screen out ultraviolet sunlight
but also provide corrective vision.
(B) Some nonprescription sunglasses provide less protection from ultraviolet sunlight than
does squinting.
(C) Squinting strains facial muscles and causes headaches and fatigue.
(D) Many people buy sunglasses because they feel that sunglasses are fashionable.
(E) Some people squint even when they are wearing sunglasses.
5. In order to stimulate job growth immediately, legislators have recently enacted legislation
that reduces taxes on small businesses. This enormous piece of legislation contains many
other components that are also advantageous to small businesses: loan support, more
advice and assistance from the SBA (U.S. Small Business Administration), as well as favorable
lease terms on federal property. Clearly, the new legislation is in the long-term interest of
small business owners.

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Which of the following, if true, would most undermine the argument above?

A. In this same legislation, the reduction in taxes for larger corporations is substantially
greater than for small businesses and the larger corporations receive even more additional
incentives than small businesses.

B. Some of the biggest problems facing small businesses—health care costs and workman’s
compensation insurance—are not addressed in the legislation.

C. The tax reductions are only valid for 3 years, and most of the companies that can be
profitable with this new tax structure would fail under the current structure.

D. There are very few government properties that are available for lease by small
businesses.

E. Advice and assistance from the SBA is rarely helpful for small businesses.

CAUSE AND EFFECT

1. The findings of recent research indicate that prolonged exposure to radiation from computer
monitors diminishes mental capacity. The evidence cited in the study shows that workers who
spend in excess of 20 hours per week directly in front of a computer monitor exhibit an average
12% reduction in cognitive abilities after 15 years in the same occupation.

The response to which of the following questions would be most helpful in evaluating the
reasoning presented in the survey?

(A) Was the exhibited decline in cognitive abilities permanent or reversible?

(B) What was the reason for analyzing a 15 year period instead of a 12 or 18 year period?
(C) Did workers performing varying occupational tasks exhibit different reductions in mental
capacity?
(D) Did the cognitive abilities of some of the workers decline by less than 12% over the course of
the study?
(E) By what percent do the cognitive abilities of the average worker decline over a 15 year
period?
2. Biological functions of many plants and animals vary in cycles that are repeated every 24 hours.
It is tempting to suppose that alteration in the intensity of incident light is the stimulus that
controls these daily biological rhythms. But there is much evidence to contradict this
hypothesis.
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Which of the following, if known, is evidence that contradicts the hypothesis stated in lines 2-5
above? (Bolded)

(A) Human body temperature varies throughout the day, with the maximum occurring in the
late afternoon and the minimum in the morning.

(B) While some animals, such as the robin, are more active during the day, others, such as mice,
show greater activity at night.

(C) When people move from one time zone to another,their biological rhythms adjust in a
matter of days to the periods of sunlight and darkness in the new zone.

(D) Certain single-cell plants display daily biological rhythms even when the part of the cell
containing the nucleus is removed.

(E) Even when exposed to constant light intensity around the clock, some algae display rates of
photosynthesis that are much greater during daylight hours than at night.
3. Biological functions of many plants and animals vary in cycles that are repeated every 24 hours.
It is tempting to suppose that alteration in the intensity of incident light is the stimulus that
controls these daily biological rhythms. But there is much evidence to contradict this
hypothesis. (MEDIUM LEVEL)

Which of the following, if known, is evidence that contradicts the hypothesis stated in lines 2-5
above? (Bolded)

(A) Human body temperature varies throughout the day, with the maximum occurring in the
late afternoon and the minimum in the morning.

(B) While some animals, such as the robin, are more active during the day, others, such as mice,
show greater activity at night.

(C) When people move from one time zone to another,their biological rhythms adjust in a
matter of days to the periods of sunlight and darkness in the new zone.

(D) Certain single-cell plants display daily biological rhythms even when the part of the cell
containing the nucleus is removed.

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(E) Even when exposed to constant light intensity around the clock, some algae display rates of
photosynthesis that are much greater during daylight hours than at night.
4. Alpha Cola, the best selling soft drink nationally among soda drinkers aged 18 to 25, recently
completed an expensive and successful ad campaign. The makers of Epsilon Cola, a less popular
soft drink that has been on the market for many years, claim that without the recent ad
campaign, Alpha Cola would be no more popular than Epsilon.

Which of the following, if true, would cast the most serious doubt on the assertion of the
makers of Epsilon Cola?

(A) Alpha Cola’s recent ad campaign was intended in part to increase sales of the soft drink to
soda drinkers aged 18 to 25.
(B) Beverage buying decisions can be significantly influenced with effective ad campaigns.
(C) Alpha Cola’s recent advertising campaign was one of the most expensive advertising
campaigns in history.
(D) Prior to the recent campaign, Alpha Cola had never advertised but had significantly outsold
all other soft drinks on the market for several years.
(E) Most people prefer the taste of Epsilon Cola to that of Alpha Cola.
5. Medical Student: Last week, a certain patient at this hospital weighed 150 lbs. Since the same
patient weighs 160 lbs. today, and he appears to be much healthier than he was last week, he
would be well advised to gain another ten pounds during the coming
week.

Which of the following, if true, undermines the argument above?

(A) The same scale was used to measure the patient’s weight in both instances.
(B) The patient was notified by his physician of this week’s weight gain.
(C) During the past week, the patient has eaten less food than he would normally eat.
(D) When the patient was weighed last week, an illness had caused the patient’s weight to drop
ten pounds below its normal level.
(E) Quick weight loss can be hazardous to one’s health.

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BOLDFACE PORTIONS

1. Many people choose listening to a particular kind of music that is compatible with the
mental state they are in. However, studies have shown that people can report feeling
happier and calm after listening to sad music. Nevertheless, it is uncalled for to
conclude that sad music actually makes people happy. The studies also found that the
people only felt positive emotions after listening to sad music when the purpose of
listening to it was to release emotions. Contrarily, when the purpose of listening to such
music was to recall memories, people felt even more morose after listening to sad
music. (Tough Level)

In the above argument, the two boldface portions play which of the following roles?

A) The first is an observation that the argument accepts as true; the second is a belief that
forms part of the support for the main conclusion of the argument.
B) The first is evidence against the main conclusion of the argument; the second is an
intermediate conclusion used to support the main conclusion of the argument.
C) The first is evidence that is used to support a conclusion drawn in the argument; the
second is part of the reasoning used to support another conclusion drawn in the argument.
D) The first is an observation, an implication of which is disputed in the argument; the
second is part of the reasoning used to support the position taken by the argument as a
whole.
E) The first is a belief that the argument does not dispute; the second is an observation
that forms part of the support for the main conclusion of the argument

2. Several of a certain bank's top executives have recently been purchasing shares in their own
bank. This activity has occasioned some surprise, since it is widely believed that the bank,
carrying a large number of bad loans, is on the brink of collapse. Since the executives are well
placed to know their bank's true condition, it might seem that their share purchases show that
the danger of collapse is exaggerated. However, the available information about the bank's
condition is from reliable and informed sources, and corporate executives do sometimes buy
shares in their own company in a calculated attempt to calm worries about their company's
condition. On balance, therefore, it is likely that the executives of the bank are following this
example.

In the argument given, the two boldfaced portions play which of the following roles?

A. The first describes the circumstance the explanation of which is the issue that the argument
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addresses; the second states the main conclusion of the argument.

B. The first describes the circumstance the explanation of which is the issue the argument
addresses; the second states a conclusion that is drawn in order to support the main conclusion
of the argument.

C. The first provides evidence to defend the position that the argument seeks to establish
against opposing positions; the second states the main conclusion of the argument.

D. The first provides evidence to support the position that the argument seeks to establish; the
second states a conclusion that is drawn in order to support the argument’s main conclusion.

E. Each provides evidence to support the position that the argument seeks to establish.

3. Recently, since rumors have been confirmed that the most prominent multi-property owners in
the condominium complex have been using home equity credit to make renovations, other
owners, who feared that the complex's property values were rapidly decreasing, have been
greatly relieved. They posit that, since the largest stakeholders in the complex evidently believe
in the soundness of their properties, the worry that values are declining must be false. This may
not be sound reasoning, however, because the largest stakeholders may simply be protecting
their investments by creating the image that the property values will stay high so that other
owners do not sell their properties and further perpetuate the decrease.

In the argument above, the two boldfaced portions play which of the following roles?

(A) The first describes evidence that has been taken as supporting a conclusion; the second
states a contrary conclusion that is the main conclusion of the argument.

(B) The first provides evidence in support of the main conclusion of the argument; the second
states that conclusion.

(C) The first describes evidence that has been taken as supporting a conclusion; the second gives
a reason for questioning that support.

(D) The first describes the circumstance that the argument as a whole seeks to explain; the
second gives the explanation that the argument seeks to establish.

(E) The first describes the circumstance that the argument as a whole seeks to explain; the
second provides evidence in support of the explanation that the argument seeks to establish.

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COMPLETING THE PASSAGE

1. The deficit is the difference between the amount that the government taxes in as revenue and
the amount that it spends in a given year. There are only two ways to cut the deficit: raise
revenue or cut spending. The current government has carried out all possible efforts to cut
spending without any significant effect on the deficit. It then follows that the deficit will remain
at the current level for a few years since _________________

Which of the following best completes the passage?

A- No practical means currently exist to raise revenues.

B- The economy is stagnant and does not allow for any more industrial spending.

C- The government has to comply to international limits placed on its export contacts

D- The government is against increasing the tax burden on its citizens

E- The government is currently focusing on internal revenue management

2. Which of the following most logically completes the argument?

United States manufacturers currently produce most of the world's solar-power generators—
most of which are exported to Europe. However, European manufacturers are emerging and
probably will ultimately capture much of the European market. The United States government is
funding initiatives intended to encourage use of solar power within the United States. If these
initiatives succeed in increasing the demand for solar-power generators in the United States,
United States manufacturers will probably maintain significant production levels, since
__________.

(A) some United States manufacturers have been substantially increasing their output over the
last several years

(B) the efficiency of solar-power generators in converting energy from the Sun into electric
power is not improving as fast as it once did

(C) just as European manufacturers enjoy certain competitive advantages in Europe, so do

United States manufacturers in the United States

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(D) European governments are currently undertaking initiatives to stimulate the use of solar
power within Europe

(E) the current market for solar-power generators in the United States is very limited
3. Due to high jet fuel costs, airline carriers are looking for new ways to increase revenues and
thereby counteract declining profits. Airline A has proposed increasing the number of
passengers that can fit on its airplanes by creating several standing room only "seats" in which
passengers would be propped against a padded backboard and held in place with a harness. This
proposal, since it relates to passenger safety, cannot be implemented without prior approval by
the Federal Aviation Administration.

The above statements, if true, indicate that Airline A has made which of the following
conclusions?

A. The addition of standing room only "seats" will generate more revenue than the cost of
ensuring that these seats meet safety standards.

B. The Federal Aviation Administration will approve Airline A's specific proposal.

C. The revenue generated by the addition of standing room only "seats" is greater than the
current cost of jet fuel.

D. There are no safer ways in which Airline A can increase revenues.

E. Passenger safety is less important than increasing revenue.

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Finding out the Conclusion (HARD LEVEL)

1. In response to the increasing cost of producing energy through traditional means, such as
combustion, many utility companies have begun investing in renewable energy sources, chiefly
wind and solar power, hoping someday to rely on them completely and thus lower energy costs.
The utility companies claim that although these sources require significant initial capital
investment, they will provide stable energy supplies at low cost. As a result, these sources will
be less risky for the utilities than nonrenewable sources, such as gas, oil, and coal, whose prices
can fluctuate dramatically according to availability.

The claim of the utility companies presupposes which of the following?

(A) The public will embrace the development of wind and solar power.
(B) No new deposits of gas, oil, and coal will be discovered in the near future.
(C) Weather patterns are consistent and predictable.
(D) The necessary technology for conversion to wind and solar power is not more expensive
than the technology needed to create energy through combustion.
(E) Obtaining energy from nonrenewable sources, such as gas, oil, and coal, cannot be made less
risky.
2. A certain medication used to treat migraine headaches acts by blocking pain receptors in the
brain. When a person takes the medication within one hour after ingesting grapefruit or
grapefruit juice, however, the effectiveness of the medication is significantly diminished.
Researchers have determined that the grapefruit contains a compound that alters the shape of
the pain receptors, with the result that the medication can no longer bind with them
completely.

Which of the following conclusions could be most properly drawn from the information given
above?

(A) If one takes the medication more than an hour after ingesting grapefruit, its effectiveness is
not diminished.
(B) Ingesting grapefruit after taking the medication does not diminish the effectiveness of the
medication.
(C) There is only one type of pain receptor in the brain.
(D) The medication is fully effective only when it properly binds with its target pain receptors.
(E) It is not possible to design a medication for migraine headaches that can bond with the
altered receptors.

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DISCREPANCY (MEDIUM AND HARD LEVEL)

1. Because the process of freezing food consumes energy, many people keep their electric freezers
halfempty, using them only to store commercially frozen foods. Yet freezers that are half-empty
often consume more energy than they would if they were kept fully stocked. (MEDIUM LEVEL)

Which of the following, if true, contributes most to an explanation of the apparent discrepancy
described above?

(A) A given volume of air in a freezer requires much more energy to be maintained at a
temperature below freezing than does an identical volume of frozen food.
(B) The more often a freezer's door is opened, the more energy is required to maintain that
freezer's normal temperature.
(C) When unfrozen foods are placed in a freezer, the average temperature of a given volume of
air inside that freezer rises temporarily.
(D) A person who normally maintains a half-empty freezer can cut energy costs considerably by
using a freezer that is 50 percent smaller.
(E) An electric freezer can operate efficiently only if chilled air is free to circulate within the
freezing compartment.
2. Psychiatric research has shown that receiving high-quality outpatient care, rather than being
confined to an institution, produces the best quality of life for people who are mentally ill.
Responding to this research, Congress in 1963 passed a law that released 95% of the mentally ill
patients who had been confined to institutions. In 1983, however, researchers discovered that,
on average, mentally ill people in the United States were faring worse than ever.(Hard Level)

Which if the following, if true, best resolves the paradox in the above passage?

(A) More people were diagnosed with psychiatric disorders in 1983 than in 1963.
(B) In 1983, men who had been released from mental institutions fared worse than their female
counterparts.
(C) A number of psychiatric medications were discovered between 1963 and 1983, including
some early antidepressants.
(D) Congress never supplied the funding that would have been necessary to provide high-
quality outpatient care to the newly released patients.
(E) Most of the released patients who were doing badly in 1983 suffered from one of three
mental illnesses.
3. Tooten County is populated by a significantly lower percentage of young families than the
typical county in the nation. Yet, per capita retail sales of children's bicycles are above the

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national average.(Medium Level)

Which of the following, if true, best reconciles the seeming paradox described above?

A. The two leading retailers of children's bicycles in Tooten County spend more than half of their
marketing budget on attracting residents of neighboring counties.
B. A local manufacturer of children's bicycles has just announced that national sales are up 20%
over last year.
C. Retail outlets in Tooten County import the majority of their children's bicycles from Canada.
D. Elementary schools in Tooten County have been criticized for failing to promote the benefits
of exercise to their students.
E. Residents of Tooten County rent children's bicycles at about the same rate as residents of
other counties in the nation.

EVALUATING QUESTIONS

1. Sleep deprivation is a known cause of workplace error, and many physicians frequently go
without sleep for periods of 24 hours or more. However, few of these physicians have, in the
course of a routine examination by a peer, been diagnosed with sleep deprivation.So there is
little cause for concern that habitual sleep deprivation will cause widespread physician error.
(MEDIUM LEVEL)
The answer to which of the following questions would be most helpful in evaluating the
argument？

(A)Do physicians who have been diagnosed with sleep disorders also show signs of other ills not
related to sleep deprivation？
(B)Is the ability to recognize the symptoms of sleep deprivation in others significantly impaired
by habitual sleep deprivation？
(C)Do factors other than habitual sleep deprivation ever lead to errors in the workplace on the
part of physicians？
(D)Of people who have recently been treated by physicians, what percentage believe that many
physicians have occasionally suffered from sleep deprivation？
(E)Is the incidence of sleep deprivation higher among physicians than it is among other health
care workers？
2. In a certain country, individuals tend to change their political affiliation readily from one political
party to another. In the past the Union party grew larger because of this tendency, but although
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most of those who change to a new party affiliation change to the Union party, the Union party
has remained about the same size in recent years. (MEDIUM LEVEL)

Which of the following, if true, best helps to explain the change in the growth pattern of the
Union party mentioned above?

(A) The economy has been prospering recently, and many of those who change party affiliation
are upwardly mobile and prosperous.
(B) In recent y~rs those who were previously nonaffiliated have tended to join the Union party if
they joined any party at all. '
(C) The percentage of voting-age citizens who change political party affiliation each year has
remained constant, and the number of voting-age citizens has remained the same.
(D) The percentage of voting-age citizens who are affiliated with any political party has
increased over the last ten years.
(E) Many members of the Union party have abandoned all political party affiliation in recent
years.
3. Because of a rare type of fungus that killed off many cacao trees in Brazil, there was an
unusually meager harvest of cacao beans this year. The wholesale price of cocoa solids and
cocoa butter has increased significantly and is unlikely to fall in the foreseeable future. As a
result, the retail price of chocolate is certain to increase within six months.( HARD LEVEL)

The answer to which of the following questions would provide information relevant to
evaluating the argument above?

(A) Has the price of cocoa solids and cocoa butter remained steady during other periods of poor
harvest?
(B) Are consumers willing to spend more for chocolate?
(C) Have the prices of other ingredients in chocolate decreased recently?
(D) What percentage of cacao trees in Brazil were affected by the fungus?
(E) Can the fungus be eliminated within the next six months?

4. A recent state survey of human resources found that the age to which secretarial school
graduates are expected to live is four years in excess of the age to which other graduates of high
school are expected to live. One possible conclusion is that secretarial school. attendance is
beneficial to one's health. (HARD LEVEL)

To evaluate the conclusion above, it would be most important to know the answer to which of
the following questions?

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(A) Have the average age of new high school graduates and the average age of new secretarial
school graduates recently increased?
(B) Do some secretarial school graduates have college degrees?
(C) Given that women have a greater life expectancy than men, what are the relative
proportions of men and women among high school and secretarial school graduates?
(D) Given that women have a greater life expectancy than men, what proportion of all women
attend secretarial school?
(E) Has the proportion of high school graduates who attend secretarial school increased in
recent years?
5. A recent state survey of human resources found that the age to which secretarial school
graduates are expected to live is four years in excess of the age to which other graduates of high
school are expected to live. One possible conclusion is that secretarial school. attendance is
beneficial to one's health. ( HARD LEVEL)

To evaluate the conclusion above, it would be most important to know the answer to which of
the following questions?

(A) Have the average age of new high school graduates and the average age of new secretarial
school graduates recently increased?
(B) Do some secretarial school graduates have college degrees?
(C) Given that women have a greater life expectancy than men, what are the relative
proportions of men and women among high school and secretarial school graduates?
(D) Given that women have a greater life expectancy than men, what proportion of all women
attend secretarial school?
(E) Has the proportion of high school graduates who attend secretarial school increased in
recent years.

EXCEPT QUESTIONS
1. People often do not make decisions by using the basic economic principle of rationally weighing
all possibilities and then making the choice that can be expected to maximize benefits and
minimize harm. Routinely, people process information in ways that are irrational in this sense.
(MEDIUM LEVEL)

Any of the following, if true, would provide evidence in support of the assertions above EXCEPT:

(A) People tend to act on new information, independent of its perceived relative merit, rather
than on information they already have.
(B) People prefer a major risk taken voluntarily to a minor one that has been forced on them,

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even if they know that the voluntarily taken risk is statistically more dangerous.
(C) People tend to take up potentially damaging habits even though they have clear evidence
that their own peers as well as experts disapprove of such behavior.
(D) People avoid situations in which they could become involved in accidents involving large
numbers of people more than they do situations where single-victim accidents are possible,
even though they realize that an accident is more likely in the latter situations than in the
former.
(E) People usually give more weight to a physician's opinion about the best treatment for a
disease than they do to the opinion of a neighbor if they realize that the neighbor is not an
expert in disease treatment.
2. The number of stray dogs picked up in Ford City last year by the city's dogcatchers was 50
percent lower than the previous year's figure. The mayor of Ford City attributed this decline to
the city's recent crackdown on unlicensed breeders that breed dogs dangerously fast and
release any unwanted puppies on the streets. Over a dozen operators of these so called "puppy
farms" have been incarcerated over the last year in Ford City. (MEDIUM LEVEL)

Each of the following, if true, could weaken the mayor's conclusion that the decline in the
number of stray dogs picked up by the city's dogcatchers is due to the crackdown on "puppy
farms" EXCEPT:

A) Agange City, located right next to Ford City, also experienced a 50 percent decline in the
number of stray dogs caught on its streets by its dogcatchers, but did not engage in a crackdown
on puppy farms in that city.

B) Ford City cut the budget for dog catching one year ago, forcing the firing of over half of the
Dog-Catching Department's staff.

C)The past winter was bitterly cold in Ford City, causing many unprotected stray animals to
perish.

D) One year ago, a privately funded organization began rounding up stray dogs in Ford City and
putting them up for adoption on the internet.

E) Ford City already had tough laws to punish operators of "puppy farms" long before the most
recent year.

3. Dengue fever is a viral infection transmitted by the Aedes mosquito, whereas malaria is a
parasitic infection transmitted by the Anopheles mosquito. Since both types of mosquito are

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prevalent on Nicaragua’s “Mosquito Coast,” anyone with a compromised immune system should
not travel to this region, particularly during the rainy season.

All of the following, if true, strengthen the argument EXCEPT:

(A) Medicines taken to prevent or treat malaria can cause serious health complications for
people with weak immune systems.
(B) The Nicaraguan government is trying to reduce the number of mosquitoes on the Mosquito
Coast.
(C) A compromised immune system has difficulty fighting either viral or parasitic infections.
(D) During the rainy season, the populations of both Aedes and Anopheles mosquitoes multiply
in the Mosquito Coast.
(E) The most effective chemical insect repellent has been shown to cause brain damage upon
repeated application to the skin.

INFERENCE QUESTIONS
1. The greater the division of labor in an economy, the greater the need for coordination. This is
because increased division of labor entails a larger number of specialized producers, which
results in a greater burden on managers and, potentially, in a greater number of disruptions of
supply and production. (MEDIUM LEVEL)

There is always more division of labor in market economies than in planned economies.

If all of the statements above are true, then which of the following must also be true?

(A) Disruptions' of supply and production are more frequent in planned economies than in
market economies.
(B) There are more specialized producers in planned economies than in market economies.
(C) The need for coordination in market economies is greater than in planned economies.
(D) A manager's task is easier in a market economy than in a planned economy.
(E) Division of labor functions more effectively in market economies than in planned economies.
2. Last January, in an attempt to lower the number of traffic fatalities, the state legislature passed
its “Click It or Ticket” law. Under the new law, motorists can be pulled over and ticketed for not
wearing their seat belts, even if no additional driving infraction was committed. Lawyers and
citizens groups are already protesting the law, saying it unfairly infringes on the rights of the
state’s drivers. Law enforcement groups counter these claims by stating that the new
regulations will save countless additional lives.

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Which of the following inferences is best supported by the passage above?

(A) Prior to the “Click It or Ticket” law, motorists could not be stopped simply for not wearing a
seatbelt.
(B) The “Click It or Ticket” law violates current search and seizure laws.
(C) Laws similar to “Click It or Ticket” have effectively reduced traffic fatalities in a number of
states.
(D) The previous seat belt laws were ineffective in saving lives.
(E) Law enforcement groups, rather than citizens groups, should determine how to best ensure
the safety of motorists.
3. A ten-year comparison between the United States and the Soviet Union in terms of crop yields
per acre revealed that when only planted acreage is compared, Soviet yields were equal to 68
percent of United States yields. When total agricultural acreage (planted acreage plus fallow
acreage) is compared, however, Soviet yield was 114 percent of United States yield.(HARD
LEVEL)

From the information above, which of the following can be most reliably inferred about United
States and Soviet agriculture during the ten-year period?

A A higher percentage of total agricultural acreage was fallow in the United States than in the
Soviet Union.
B The United States had more fallow acreage than planted acreage.
C Fewer total acres of available agricultural land were fallow in the Soviet Union than in the
United States.
D The Soviet Union had more planted acreage than fallow acreage.
E The Soviet Union produced a greater volume of crops than the United States produced.

LOGICAL FLAW
1. Town Representative: The new advertisements protesting plans by the town to build a new pier
for large cruise ships have been appearing daily. The advertisements claim that the new pier will
bring in more cruise ships and ruin the quaint charm of the town. However, these claims can be
dismissed. Most of these advertisements were paid for by a major developer who currently
profits greatly from allowing cruise ships to offload passengers at his property when they anchor
in the nearby bay.

Which of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the town representative’s argument?

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A It focuses on the motivations for the people making a particular claim without considering the
motivations of other people making the same claim.
B It directly attacks the merits of the claims made in the advertisements but does not provide
evidence to support the opposing view.
C It mischaracterizes the views put forth in the advertisements and then directly attacks these
mischaracterized views.
D It rejects a claim by addressing the motivations for the people making it rather than by
addressing its actual merits.
E It fails to consider the possibility that some of these advertisements were paid for by town
advocates with legitimate concerns on the effects of cruise ships.
2. Archeological excavations in Northern Africa revealed manuscripts written in contemporary
European languages, leading archeologists to hypothesize that some manuscripts were brought
to Northern Africa from Europe. However, the chemical composition of ink used at that time in
Northern Africa was significantly different from that of ink used in Europe, and all the
manuscripts found during the excavations were written with the same type of ink. Clearly, all
manuscripts found during the excavations were either written or transcribed in Northern Africa.

The argument above is most vulnerable to criticism on the basis that

(A)it fails to establish whether European manuscripts of that time had previously been found in
Northern Africa.

(B)it fails to establish the likelihood that European manuscripts had been transported to
Northern Africa.

(C)it fails to consider the possibility that African scribes knew European languages of that time.

(D)it fails to consider the possibility that all manuscripts found during the excavations had been
written in Europe.

(E)it fails to consider the possibility that European scribes could have lived in Northern Africa at
that time.
3. Benson: In order to maintain the quality of life in our city, we need to restrict growth. That is
why I support the new zoning regulations.

Willett: I had heard such arguments ten years ago, and again five years ago. Each time the city
council was justified in deciding not to restrict growth. Since there is nothing new in this idea of
restricting growth, I oppose the regulations.

Which one of the following most accurately describes a way in which Willett’s reasoning is

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questionable?
(A) It presumes that growth is necessarily good without offering support for that position.
(B) It is based on attacking Benson personally rather than responding to Benson’s reasoning.
(C) It ignores the possibility that new reasons for restricting growth have arisen in the past five
years.
(D) It fails to take into account the variety of factors that contribute to the quality of life in a city.
(E) It overlooks the possibility that the city council of ten years ago was poorly qualified to
decide on zoning regulations

METHOD OF REASONING

1. Telecom subscriber: It seems that all the telecom companies in our country are working in an
absolutely unprofessional manner. The online consumer complaint forum is full of negative
comments about all these companies, irrespective of the brand, while there are hardly any
positive comments.

Telecom company representative: But this is because the people who are happy with our
service don’t have any incentive to post comments.

The telecom company representative responds to the telecom subscriber’s complaint by:

(A) Raising doubts about the source of the customer’s evidence

(B) Pointing out that the customer has ignored the positive reviews that telecom companies get
(C) Highlighting that the evidence in question is not representative of the entire population
(D) Agreeing with the subscriber’s conclusion but contradicting his use of evidence
(E) Providing evidence that raises doubts over the claims made by the telecom subscriber
2. Which of the following most logically completes the passage?

Oil producers get a high price for their oil when market supply is low. But the price drops sharply
when oil supplies are abundant. Thus, in high-output years, some oil producers keep oil
stockpiles for one or two years, hoping to sell at higher prices in the future. This year's market
supply of oil was the lowest in five years. It is nonetheless quite possible that a portion of this
year's oil production will be stored into stockpiles, since _____________ .

(A) each of the last two years produced record breaking oil output
(B) the viscosity of this year's oil is no lower than the viscosity of the oil produced in each of the
previous five years
(C) oil prices have not been subject to sharp fluctuations in recent years

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(D) for some oil producers, this year's production was no smaller than last year's
(E) the practice of holding back part of one year's crop had not yet become widespread the last
time the oil output was as small as it was this year
3. Of every 100 burglar alarms police answer, 99 are false alarms. This situation causes an
enormous and dangerous drain on increasingly scarce public resources. Each false alarm wastes
an average of 45 minutes of police time. As a result police are consistently taken away from
responding to other legitimate calls for service, and a disproportionate share of police service
goes to alarm system users, who are mostly businesses and affluent homeowners. However,
burglar alarm systems, unlike car alarm systems, are effective in deterring burglaries, so the only
acceptable solution is to fine burglar alarm system owners the cost of 45 minutes of police time
for each false alarm their systems generate.

The statement that burglar alarm systems, unlike car alarm systems, are effective in deterring
burglaries plays which one of the following roles in the argument?

(A) It justifies placing more restrictions on owners of burglar alarms than on owners of car
alarms.
(B) It provides background information needed to make plausible the claim that the number of
burglar alarms police are called on to answer is great enough to be a drain on public resources.
(C) It provides a basis for excluding as unacceptable one obvious alternative to the proposal of
fining owners of burglar alarm systems for false alarms.
(D) It gives a reason why police might be more inclined to respond to burglar alarms than to car
alarms.
(E) It explains why a disproportionate number of the burglar alarms responded to by police
come from alarm systems owned by businesses

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SIMILAR REASONING

1. The widespread development of industrial robots is contributing to unemployment; therefore,

"intelligent" machines are dangerous.

The argument above is most like which of the following?

(A) M ussolini was an evil man; therefore, he became a fascist.

(B) Eating bacon is harmful to health; therefore, fatty foods are unsafe.
(C) Some judges are dishonest because they take bribes.
(D) Whales are in danger of becoming extinct; therefore, we should not trade with countries
that allow whales to be hunted.
(E) Birds are dangerous because they all spread disease.

2. As part of continuing efforts to control illegal immigration, the US government should institute a
system of internal passports similar to those in European nations. Drivers’ licenses currently
serve a kind of internal-passport function, but this system is severely limited because all states
do not require the same documentation before issuing photo ID. Illegal workers can get a
driver’s license in one state with lax regulations and use it as identification in another state with
stricter regulations but better-paying jobs. Internal passports will keep illegal workers from
slipping through the cracks by standardizing forms of photo ID.
Which of the following is most similar to the passage above in logical structure?
A. National standardized college entrance exams replace exams written independently by test
administration services affiliated with groups of universities.
B. A national association of doctors approves standards for diagnosis and treatment of
childhood development disorders, and these standards are used in private clinics across the
country.
C. Resale values of used cars are discussed, standardized, and published in an industry manual
also available to independent buyers and sellers.
D. The distance between rails of train tracks is standardized across the country, allowing trains
built by any manufacturer to travel along any rail line.
E. Employment applications and hiring processes for a national restaurant chain are
standardized in order to ensure uniform quality among employees.
3. The German baroque composer J.S. Bach notated most of the melodic lines in his works, leaving
little room for interpretation by performers. An unnamed baroque composition was recently
discovered in a church in Germany. Since the composition contains numerous notated melodic
lines, it is probably a work of J.S. Bach.
Which one of the following contains a pattern of flawed reasoning most similar to that in the

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argument above?
A. Most baroque composers wrote for a single instrument, such as organ or harpsichord. Since
The German Organ Mass was originally written for the organ, its composer probably always
wrote for the organ.
B. In baroque musical works, the single most common subject is religion, so the single most
common subject in all baroque art forms is also religion.
C. Works of art in the baroque period were mostly commissioned by patrons, so the baroque
musical composition Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue was probably commissioned by a patron.

D. The anonymously composed keyboard piece Tune for the Woodlark is probably a baroque
composition since it is written for the harpsichord, which was the most common keyboard
instrument employed by baroque composers.
E. Since baroque musical compositions were mostly concerned with religious subjects, the
baroque composer Charles Racquet, whose works are now lost, probably composed music
mostly concerned with religious subjects.

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