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Received: 25 September 2021 Revised: 11 August 2022 Accepted: 22 August 2022
DOI: 10.1002/oa.3158

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Blue fibers found in dental calculus from Maya sacrificial

victims

Amy M. Chan 1 | James E. Brady 1 | Linda Scott Cummings 2

1
California State University, Los Angeles, Los
Angeles, California, USA Abstract
2
PaleoResearch Institute, Golden, Colorado, Surveyed in 2008–2010, the Midnight Terror Cave contains the comingled remains
USA
of at least 118 Maya sacrificial victims from the Classic Period (250 CE–925 CE). In
Correspondence order to determine what the victims were consuming, microscopic analysis was
Amy M. Chan, California State University, Los
Angeles, 5151 State University Drive, Los
carried out on dental calculus. Given the minimal calculus present, calculus from three
Angeles, CA 90032, USA. teeth from one area of the cave (operation V) and three teeth from another area
Email: amymchan@ucla.edu
(operation VIII) was each combined to create two samples for analysis. Samples were
Funding information sent to the PaleoResearch Institute for analysis where they were examined for pollen,
Orange County Chapter of the Archaeological
Institute of America
phytoliths, starches, and other inclusions.
Aside from organic components, both samples were found to contain blue fibers. We
were able to exclude contamination as explanation for their presence. Given the time
frame needed to encase the fibers within calculus, the fibers were introduced several
days or weeks prior to death. The unusual color of the fibers could be attributed to
Maya blue; a unique pigment used mainly in ritual settings. A few possible answers
exist as to how the fibers were introduced to the victims' mouths. The fibers could
be from consuming a blue-dyed pulque. They could also have been introduced during
utilitarian activities or through some form of dentistry. Another possible explanation
is that the fibers were present after using gags as the victims were paraded from
town to town, then to the sacrificial site.

KEYWORDS
dental calculus, Maya blue, sacrifice

1 | I N T RO DU CT I O N elements, with a MNI of 118, was concentrated in Operations V and

VIII. All remains were recovered from the surface and no subsurface
Midnight Terror Cave (MTC), located 19 km south and west of Belmo- deposits were revealed by looters' pits. The remains were dated to
pan in the Cayo District of Belize, was named by residents of the the Classic Period (250 CE–925 CE) by radiocarbon dating and
Mennonite community of Springfield who rescued a looter injured in ceramic analysis. Prout and Brady (2018) documented a large number
a fall in 2006 (Figure 1). In 2008, California State University, Los of juvenile remains (43%). Based on context, demographics and
Angeles, undertook a 3-year survey as part of the Western Belize evidence of perimortem trauma, the remains were interpreted as
Regional Cave Project and divided the cave into eight areas desig- representing sacrificial victims (Brady & Kieffer, 2012;
nated “Operations.” A skeletal assemblage comprising over 10,000 Verdugo, 2020).

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License, which permits use and distribution in any
medium, provided the original work is properly cited, the use is non-commercial and no modifications or adaptations are made.
© 2022 The Authors. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Int J Osteoarchaeol. 2022;1–5. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/oa 1

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2 CHAN ET AL.

FIGURE 1 Map of Midnight Terror Cave. Cartography by Nancy Pistole

The present report grew out of an analysis of the MTC dentition

in which several samples of dental calculus were analyzed
(Chan, 2020; Scott Cummings & Miller, 2019). Dental calculus is the
calcified, rock-like remains of food and particles left on the teeth
(Figure 2). Called dental plaque or tartar in the early stages, saliva
causes plaque to harden over time into calculus. This process can vary
depending on the diet and the individual. Calculus remains long after
death and can be examined to determine the microscopic elements
left behind by various plants and animals, such as phytoliths, starches,
and pollen. Few studies of Maya dental calculus (Scott Cummings &
Magennis, 1997) have been undertaken as dental studies tend to
focus on rates of LEH and dental caries. The most noteworthy is
Evans' (1973) study of tooth calculus build-up and caries to under-
stand Maya diet. Although he analyzes the rates of calculus formation
over time, there is no microanalysis of the inclusions. Another study
looked at the human microbiome across cultures but did not focus on
microscopic inclusions (Jacobson et al., 2020). Quite unexpectedly,
the analysis performed at PaleoResearch Institute discovered the
presence of blue fibers in both the samples tested (Scott Cummings &
Miller, 2019).

F I G U R E 2 Example of dental calculus on maxillary incisor (VIII

14B 188). Photograph by Amy Chan [Colour figure can be viewed at
2 | METHODS
wileyonlinelibrary.com]

Of the 1193 teeth recovered, 922 were available for analysis. Each
tooth was measured and examined for oral health. The teeth exhibit
few dental caries, dental calculus, abscesses, linear enamel hypoplasia
(LEH), or dental wear. This is an unusually healthy dentition for a May-
a population (Cucina & Tiesler, 2003, 2007). Given the sugary and
starchy nature of the predominately maize diet (Scherer, 2015;
White, 2006), Maya assemblages generally exhibit high rates of caries.
Of the 922 analyzed, 87.96% had no calculus, and 9.11% had minor
buildup of calculus. Deciduous teeth with any amount of calculus
were rare and were, therefore, excluded from this study. Microscopic
analysis was carried out on two samples of dental calculus, one from
Operation V and the other from Operation VIII, to examine the
inclusions.
Given the minimal calculus present, two samples were formed
consisting of three loose teeth each from Operations V and VIII

CHAN ET AL.
(Table 1). The Operation V sample included teeth V-05-36, V-01c-2c,
and V-07-97. The Operation VIII sample consisted of VIII-11D-226,
VIII-14B-188, and VIII-14B-189. All lacked enamel defects or carious
lesions. To account for age range, teeth were selected using criteria
outlined in Lovejoy (1985). Although Lovejoy uses varying degrees of
wear to age teeth for the Libben population, wear and dental eruption
confirm that the six teeth are from adults; however, the method is not
reliable enough to assign a definite age. The samples were sent to
Dr. Linda Scott Cummings at the PaleoResearch Institute for analysis.
At PaleoResearch Institute the calculus was scraped from each
tooth and placed in their respective sample vials. A dilute hydrochloric
acid wash was used to remove calcium carbonate. The samples
received several rinses of reverse osmosis deionized water and were
acetylated to remove extraneous organic matter. PaleoResearch Insti-
tute used a light microscope to compare the MTC samples with the
comparative collection at the lab.
3 | RESULTS
The PaleoResearch Institute found that both samples yielded primarily
cotton fibers. Several of these fibers were dyed a bright blue and tied
in microscopic knots (Figure 3). Scott Cummings and Miller assured
that the fibers were not a result of lab contamination (2019). More-
over, the blue fibers were embedded in the calculus during life. Once
solidified, the calculus would have remained free of contaminants.
The fibers were found in both operations indicating a larger trend
at work and not accidental contamination. The report further specu-
lates that the blue fibers could be an example of the Maya blue pig-
ment pointing out “Indigofera guatamalensis is reported to have been
used to create a blue dye in the Maya region (Scott Cummings &
Miller, 2019).” Currently, the blue fibers exist only in a liquid slide that
cannot be safely transported to another research facility so it is not
possible to use light spectroscopy to determine if the blue pigment
chemically matches the known signature of Maya blue.
4 | MAYA BLUE
Maya blue is composed of both organic and inorganic components.
The clay, palygorskite or attapulgite, is found throughout
Mesoamerica (Isphording & Wilson, 1974). As such, most studies of
TABLE 1 PaleoResearch Institute samples for calculus testing
Sample Provenience Object
1 V-05-36 Third premolar
V-01c-2c Canine
V-07-97 Canine
2 VIII-11D-226 Third premolar
VIII-14B-188 First incisor
VIII-14B-189 First incisor
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3
Maya blue study the chemical composition while archaeological stud-
ies focus on tracing the origins of the pigment ingredients
(Gettens, 1962; Littmann, 1980). The pigment was used in ceremonies
and is associated sacrificial victims who were painted blue prior to sac-
rifice (Vail & Hernández, 2007; Coggins, 1992; Tozzer, 1941, pp. 117,
n. 537, 119). The blue color of the fiber is significant in suggesting that
it is related to ritual. Dean Arnold, in particular, published on the
acquisition of materials and creation of Maya blue (Arnold, 2015;
Arnold et al., 2007, 2008, 2012; Arnold & Bohor, 1975, 2008).
5 | DI SCU SSION
About half of the objects identified in Sample 1 were fibers, and most
of the objects identified in Sample 2 were cotton fibers. This indicates
that the results cannot be dismissed as representing a single anoma-
lous individual. Taking into account that samples were taken from two
separate operations, at least two, but most likely more, individuals had
these fibers incorporated into their dental calculus indicating that they
had similar experiences before their deaths. Thus, we seem to be look-
ing at a pattern. The fact that some of the fibers were dyed a bright
blue appears significant. The survey documented a dollop of blue
paint on the ground close to a large concentration of human bone in
Operation V (Figure 4).
F I G U R E 3 Possible cotton fiber died blue and tied in knot from
Sample 1, Midnight Terror Cave, Belize. Photograph by Linda Scott
Cummings, PaleoResearch Institute [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
Side Maxilla/mandible
Right Mandible
Left Maxilla
Right Mandible
Left Mandible
Right Maxilla
Right Maxilla

4 CHAN ET AL.
F I G U R E 4 Maya blue pigment deposit, Midnight Terror Cave.
Photograph by Melanie Saldaña [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
The fibers embedded in the dental calculus imply a fairly gener-
ous timeframe in that an individual must be living and producing
saliva for plaque to harden. This process can take several days or
even weeks (Kinaston et al., 2019). The problem is not with the
presence of fibers per se. Aebersold (2018) found cotton and uni-
dentified fibers in a small portion of her sample that she attributed
to “food or plants used for utilitarian purposes.” The blue coloration,
however, indicates some type of processing that requires explana-
tion. Below we consider a few possibilities as to how blue fabric
could have been introduced.
While this, to our knowledge, is the first instance of blue fibers
being found in dental calculus in the Maya area, Jorge Archer has
found no less than 10 cases from Teotihuacan, Mexico and from
three other sites. The samples are from burials of common people
(Jorge Archer, personal communication to James Brady, 3/13/21).
He feels that the fibers are of maguey and were dyed blue in pul-
que. The MTC fibers, however, appear quite different than those
from Teotihuacan, based on a single MTC image. Additionally, there
is no evidence that balche, the most frequently mentioned Maya
alcoholic beverage, was colored blue (Tozzer, 1941, p. 92, n. 399).
In an ethnographic description of balche making recorded by Red-
field and Villa Rojas (1934, p. 38), the drink is considered good
when it turns yellow.
Another possibility is having cotton cloth in the mouth, which
Scott Cummings and Miller (2019) proposed, “The presence of cotton
fiber suggests several possibilities, including use of a gag at the end of
life for one or more of these individuals.” There is evidence for the
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use of gags in connection with sacrifice in Mesoamerica. The remains
of gags were found with four sacrificed individuals discovered during
the investigation of the Pyramid of the Moon at Teotihuacan
 pez Luján, 2007, p. 130). De Landa, a colonial Spanish
(Sugiyama & Lo
bishop, indicates victims might be in custody for extended periods,
“led … from town to town with dancing” before being sacrificed
(Tozzer, 1941, p. 117). This extended time period would permit fibers
from gags to be incorporated into calculus even if victims were not
continuously gagged.
5.1 | Limitations of the study
Rates at which dental calculus forms and hardens is highly dependent
on the food consumed and the individual. It is impossible to know
when the fibers were introduced. The number of teeth with calculus
available for study is limited. Larger studies are also inadvisable as
extensive sample scrapings would be destructive to the teeth and
their context. The teeth come from a commingled collection so the
fibers cannot be identified down to the individual.
6 | CONC LU SIONS
This is the first instance of Maya blue fibers being reported in the
dental calculus of ancient Maya individuals. Several possible expla-
nations for the source of the blue fibers have been suggested
based on ethnohistoric accounts and limited archaeological data.
The archaeological context of the MTC deposit provides informa-
tion on how the remains ended up in the cave, and this has been
utilized in one of our suggested scenarios. It is recognized, how-
ever, that it is far from certain that the calculus formed in relation
to the ultimate events of these individuals' lives. It is hoped that
future studies will provide a more ample context for interpreting
this data.
ACKNOWLEDG MENTS
The archaeological investigation was carried out with the permission
and support of the Belizean Institute of Archaeology. This research
was made possible by a generous grant from the Orange County
Chapter of the Archaeological Institute of America. Thank you to
Dr. Steve Lee, Cinthia Campos, Jorge Archer, and Melanie Saldaña.
CONFLIC T OF INT ER E ST
All authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
DATA AVAILABILITY STAT EMEN T
The data that support the findings of this study are openly available in
tDAR at https://doi.org/10.6067/XCV8454736, reference number
454736.
OR CID
Amy M. Chan https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6186-6359

CHAN ET AL.
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How to cite this article: Chan, A. M., Brady, J. E., & Scott
Cummings, L. (2022). Blue fibers found in dental calculus from
Maya sacrificial victims. International Journal of
Osteoarchaeology, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1002/oa.3158