A Module in Forensic 2

A Learning Manual Exclusive to the Criminology Students of NEMSU CANTILAN | Personal Identification|
A Module in
FORENSIC 2 – PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES
Compiled by:
LAURENCE P. BAZAN-DEAN CCJE
TERESITO O. DELOS ARCOS, Jr., RCrim
CARL IAN E. CLAPERO, RCrim
ROCHELLE M. BUQUE, RCrim
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Chapter 1: Overview of Dactyloscopy

Historical Evolution of Fingerprint System:
Foreign Setting:
NEHEMIAH GREW (1641-1712) – He was an English
plant anatomist and physiologist, known as the
“Father of Plant Anatomy”. Grew was the only son of
Obadiah Grew, nonconformist divine and vicar of St.
Michaels, Coventry, and was born in Warwickshire. He
graduated at Pembroke College, Cambridge in 1661,
and ten years later took the degree of MD at Leiden
University, his thesis being Disputatio medio-
physica de liquore nervosa. He was the first European
to publish friction ridge skin observations. The author of
the thesis entitled “Philosophical Transaction” in 1684. Dr. Grew presented his observations on
the appearance of the ridges on the fingers and palms. He describes the pores and the
arrangement of ridges and showed a drawing of the configurations of the same on the palm.
GOVARD BIDLOO (1649-1713) – He was a Dutch Golden
Age physician, anatomist, poet, and playwright. In
1685 he published an anatomical atlas, Anatomia
Hvmani Corporis described papillary ridges on skin
(fingerprints). This was one of the pioneering scientific
observations which laid the foundation of forensic
identification using fingerprints. The atlas was illustrated
with 105 plates by Gerard de Lairesse, showing the human
figure both in living attitudes and as dissected cadavers.
The book was later plagiarized by English surgeon
William Cowper for his Anatomy of Human Bodies (1698),
which gave no credit to either Bidloo or de Lairesse. This led to a
number of vitriolic exchanges between Bidloo and Cowper, including several pamphlets
published in each anatomist’s defense.
MARCELLO MALPHIGI (1628-164) – He was an Italian biologist
and physician, who is referred to as the “Father of
microscopical anatomy, histology, physiology, and embryology”.
In 1686, Malphigi, a professor of anatomy at the
University of Bologna, noted in his treatise; ridges, spirals
and loops in fingerprints. He was an Italian anatomist published
his work “De Externo Tactus Organo” in book form. He described
the ridges found on the palmar surface of the hand which
course in diverse designs and the pores which served as
the mouth of the sweat glands. More than this, he was
noted for his discovery of the inner and outer structures of
the skin.. He named the inner layer dermis and the outer one
epidermis. A layer of skin was named after him;
“Malphigi layer”, which is approximately 1.8mm thick
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THOMAS BEWICK (1753-1828) – He was an

English engraver and natural history author.
Early in his career he took on all kinds of
work such as engraving cutlery, making
the wood blocks for advertisements, and
Illustrating children’s books. He gradually
turned to illustrating, writing and publishing
his own books, gaining adult audience for
the fine illustrations in A History of Quadrupeds.
In 1767 at the age of fourteen years old he
already apprenticed to a local metal engraver.
He decorated some of his work with fingerprints.
A caption added to one of his cravings
–“Thomas Bewick – his marks”. Bewick was also
noteworthy for having used his fingerprints
as a form of signature, in conjunction with
his written name to denote individuality in his publications. Is so
faithfully reproduced that possible that Bewick was one of the first to recognized the
individuality of a fingerprint.
JOHANN CHRISTOPH ANDREAS MAYER (1747-1801) – He

was a German anatomist who published a book which
was an atlas of anatomical illustrations of fingerprints in
1788. This was accompanied by brief explanations. His
remarks contain statement which clearly pronounced
one of the fundamental principles of fingerprint science.
“Although the arrangement of the skin ridges is never
duplicated in two persons, never the less the similarities are
closer among some individuals. He was the first European to
recognize fingerprints were unique to each individual.
JOHANN EVANGELIST PURKINJE (1787- 1869) – In 1823,
Czechoslovakian psychologist who published
his doctoral thesis entitled “Commentacio de Examine
Physiologico Organi Visus et Systematis Cutanei
”( A Commentary on a Physiological Examination
of the Organs of the Vision and the Cutaneous System”.
In this study, he describes and illustrates fingerprints
ridges formation into nine different types which was
classified in Latin with the following English
translation: Transverse Curve, Central Longitudinal Stria,
Oblique Loop, Almont Whorl, Spiral Whorl, Ellipse, Circle,
and the Double Whorl. The pattern was later on referred
to arches, tented arches, loops, whorls and
twinned loops. Considering that the study of Purkinje, was also
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anatomical, he made no mention of the individuals being

identified by the pattern that he described but
recommended for further research.
EUGENE FRANCOIS VIDOCQ (1775- 1875) – He was a
French criminal and criminalist whose life story
inspired several writers, including Victor Hugo,
Edgar Allan Poe, and Honore de Balzac. The former
criminal became the founder ad the first director of the
crime-detection Surete Nationale as well as the head
of the first known private detective agency. Vidocq is
considered to be the “Father of Modern Criminology”
and of the “French Police Department”. He is also
regarded as the first private detective. He introduced
a method of identifying criminals by memory
(photographic eye). Police officers are required
to remember his facial characteristics as accurately
as possible. In 1833, Vidocq founded “Le bureau des renseignements” (Office of
Information), a company that was mixture of a defective agency and a private force. It is
considered to be the first known detective agency. Once again, he predominantly hired ex-
convicts.
ALPHONSE BERTILLON (1853-1914) – He was a French police
officer and biometrics researcher who applied the
anthropological technique of anthropometry to law
enforcement creating an identification system based on
physical measurements. Anthropometry was the first
scientific system used by police to identify criminals. Before that
time, criminals could only be identified by name or
photograph. The method was eventually supplanted by
fingerprinting. He is also the inventor of the mug shot.
Photographing of criminals began in the 1840s only a few years
after the invention of photography, but it was not until 1888
that Bertillon standardized the process.
BERTILLON SYSTEM – The specific anthropological
technique practiced by Bertillon is often referred
to as the Bertillon system. This system consisted of five
initial measurements: head length, head breadth, length
of middle finger, length the left foot, and the length off the
cubit. Along with these measurements, Bertillon used
photography, now known as a mug shot, to complete
this system of record. These methods of identification
were combined into a system for law enforcement officials
to access information and images quickly. Although the
system was based in scientific measures, it was known to
have its flaws. For example, it may not have been able to
accurately apply to children or women, as it was mostly
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designed for men who had reached full physical maturity

and had short hair. The supremacy of Bertillon systems
infiltrates worldwide and was accepted for almost 30 years.
Until 1903, when the case of Will West and William
West unveiled and destroyed the credibility and
the reliability of the Bertillon system.
WILL WEST AND WILLIAM WEST CASE –
When a man named Will West entered the
Prison System, in 1903, he was “booked”
into the prison, as all other inmates. His
face was photographed, and his Bertillon
measurements were taken. Upon completion
of this process, it was noted that another
inmate, known as William West, who was
already incarcerated at Leavenworth, had the
same name, Bertillon measurements, and bore
a striking resemblance to Will West. The
incident called reliability of Bertillon
measurements at more positive means of
identification was necessary. As the Bertillon System began to
decline, the use of fingerprints in identifying and classifying individuals began to rise. After 1903,
many prison systems began to use fingerprints as the primary means of identification.
ADOLPHE QUETLET (1796-1874) – He was Belgian
astronomer, mathematician, statistician and
sociologist. In his 1835 text on social physics, in which he
presented his theory of human variance around the
average, with human traits being distributed according to a
normal variation provide a basis for the idea that
populations produce sufficient variation for artificial or
natural selection to operate. In terms of influence over
later public health agendas, one of Quetlet’s lasting
legacies was the establishment of a simple
measure for classifying people’s weight relative to an
ideal for their height. His proposal, the body mass index
(Quetlet Index), has endured with minor variations to
the present day. Anthropometric data is used in
modern applications and referenced in the development of every consumer-based product. He
proposed a “Starling Theory” in 1849 that there are no two persons in the world who are exactly
of the same physical measurements. His rule sated,” Nature never duplicates his works and
creations”.
HERMANN WELCKER (1822-1897) – He was a German
anatomist and anthropologist who born in Giessen. In 1851
he earned his doctorate from the University of Giessen,
and in 1859 he became a professor and prosector at the
University of Halle. In 1876 he succeeded Alfred Wilhelm
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Volkmann as director of the anatomical institute at Halle.

Along with his anatomical duties, Welcker was also a
specialist in the fields of anthropology, ethnology,
microscopy and biology. HE published numerous
articles on each of these subjects. In 1854 he devised
a method for measuring blood volume in human and
animals. He also devised a method for measuring red
blood cell volume. The eponymous” Welcker’s angle”
is named after him, which is the anterior, inferior angle of the
parietal bone. He supported the statement of Mayer by undertaking in 1856 an experiment by
printing his right palm to prove to himself if the ridges change. By 1897, forty-one years later, he
again printed his right palm. The following year in 1898 he published these palm prints. Through
taken two scores a part, it proved that the ridges characteristics do not change.
WILLIAM JAMES HERSCHEL (1833-1917) – He was a British
ICS/ Indian Civil Service officer in India who used
fingerprints for identification on contracts. In 1858, while
Herschel is working as employee of East India Company,
he wanted a good way of to seal a contract with
Bengali Firm opted using fingerprint on contract. Few years
after, William James Herschel became a Chief Magistrate of
the Hooghly district in Jungipoor, India. As magistrate part of his
official duty is to make sure that the natives of the area will
receive the pensions that were due to them and to prevent fraud
in claiming such. Majority of the pensioners at that time were
illiterate, and therefore incapable in making signature, thus
fraud raised drastically. To avoid fraud, he then required all
pensioners to use their fingerprint as a form of signature so that
they can get what is due for them. As his fingerprint collection
grew, he began to note that the inked impression could, indeed,
prove or disapprove identity and in 1877 he try to ask for approval
that his system of identification be used in a small prison in Bengal, India but his request was
turned down by the prison administrator. Later, Herschel took his own fingerprints and noted
that no change had occurred in them for over 50 years.
HENRY FAULDS (1843-1930) – He was a Scottish
physician, missionary and scientist who is noted for
the development of fingerprinting. In 1880, a Scottish
missionary doctor of the United Presbyterian Church
conducted a careful experiment and observation of
fingerprint patterns in the hospital he established in
Tsukinji, Tokyo, Japan. He conducted that fingerprint
patterns are unchangeable and that superficial injury
of the fingers did not alter them, they returned to their
former design as the injury healed. Moreover,
Faulds important conclusion was that fingerprint
left on objects with bloody or greasy fingers may
lead to the scientific identification of criminals.
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Upon learning that a thief was arrested by the

police for allegedly claiming over the white washed garden wall of a house in Tokyo who left
sooty handprints behind, Faulds requested the police that he may allowed to compare the sooty
handprints and the handprints of the suspect, and then found out that the suspect was not the
thief. Later, another man was arrested and confessed the crime.
GILBERT THOMPSON (1839-1909) – He was an American typographer, draftsman,
topographer and soldier. At age ten his parents moved to the Utopian community of Hopedale,
Massachusetts. In Hopedale he trained to become a printer, and his first job was as a printer’s
assistant in a newspaper influenced by Adin Ballou. In
1861 he left Boston, where he enlisted into the Union Army to fight in
the American Civil War. The enlistment clerk wrote his
profession as painter rather than printer when he signed up. This
caused him to be changed from being an infantryman to becoming
a combat engineer. Thompson claimed to have been the first
person to use fingerprints for identification in 1882, when he had
his thumb print on a message that said “August 8, 1882 –
Mr. Jonas Sutler will pay Lying Bob Seventy Five Dollar”. He
used his thumbprint to ensure that the amounts were not
changed or altered on payroll cheques. When issuing a
payroll cheque, he would put an inked thumbprint over the
amount. This is to prevent fraudulent cheque alternations.
ARTHUR KOLLMAN (1858-1941) – He was a German
medical researcher from Hamburg who studied the
fingerprint characteristics of friction ridges and volar
pads. In the 1880s (1883, 1885), Kollman was the
first researcher to address the formation of friction
ridges on the fetus and the random physical
and tensions which may have played a part
in their growth. Kollman may have been the
first researcher to study development of
friction ridges. He grouped the volar pads of
humans and also grouped the volar pads of
many primates. Kollman is credited with
establishing and then naming ten volar
pads in humans, and he was first to study
epidermic markings in different races.
FRANCIS GALTON (1822-1911) – He was an English Victorian
era statistician, progressive, polymath, sociologist,
psychologist, anthropologist, eugenicist, tropical explorer,
geographer, inventor, meteorologist, proto-geneticists, and
psychometrician. In a Royal Institution paper in 1888 and three
books Fingers Prints, 1892; Decipherment of Blurred Finger
Prints,1893; and Fingerprint Directories,1895, Galton estimated
the probability of two persons having the same fingerprint
and studied the heritability and racial differences in
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fingerprints. He wrote about the technique inadvertently

sparking a controversy between Herschel and Faulds that
was to last until 1917, identifying common pattern in
fingerprints and devising a classification system that survives to
this day. He is credited with being the first scientist of friction skin
identification as well as his role in promoting its use. Galton, a
cousin of Charles Darwin, was wealthy and probably the most
able scientist of his day. He attained pre-eminence not only
in the field of anthropology and genetics but also in meteorology and exploration. With deep
interest in his study, Galton was able to discover the three families of fingerprint patterns – Arch,
Loop, and Whorl. He revealed the ridges patterns remain constant throughout the life of the
individual and that these ridge patterns are useful in devising a method of classification. His
eminence rests on the appearance of the ridges characteristics which was named after him: the
Galton details.
HERMANN KLAATSCH (1863-1916) – He was a German
physician, anatomist, physical anthropologist, evolutionist,
and professor at the University of Heidelberg from 1890
and at the University of Breslau until 1916.Klaatsch was
a Professor of Anatomy and studied evolutionary theory,
being mentioned in some fingerprint books for his early
studies on friction skin development. He researched the
volar pads associated with the epidermal patterns,
grouping the volar pads of humans and primates together.
Subsequently to Arthur Kollman, Klaatsch also gave
names to the various volar pads in 1888. Klaatsch
was one of the most important researchers in the
field of physical anthropology from the late
1890s to the time of his death. He made many
discoveries and advocated separating
anthropology from religion.
JUAN VUCETICH (1858-1925) – He was a Croatian born
Argentine anthropologist and police official who pioneered
the use of fingerprinting. In 1891 Vucetich began the filing of
fingerprints based on ideas of Francis Galton which expanded
significantly. He became the director of the Center for
Dactyloscopy in Buenos Aires, Argentina. At the time, he
included the Bertillon system alongside the fingerprint files. In
1892 Vucetich made the first positive identification of a criminal in
a case where Francisca Rojas had killed her two children
then cut her throat, trying to put the blame on the outside
attacker. A bloody print identified her as the killer. Argentine
police adopted Vucetich’s method of fingerprinting
classification and its spread to police forces all over the
world. Vucetich improve his method with new material in 1904
published “Dactiloscopia Comparada” (Comparative
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Dactyloscopy). He traveled to India and China and attended

scientific conferences to gather more data.
ROBERT HEINDL (1883- 1958) - He was a German
criminologist and lawyer. In 1902, Heindl discovered
a journal article as a young lawyer, which showed
that the British Inspector Genera of Bengal, Henry,
at the turn of the century had introduced a procedure
that allowed the indication of persons with the help
of a fingerprint. Heindl was sent a copy of the
corresponding files from Calcutta ad then, after
careful study, suggested to the great police authorities
of Germany in 1903 that method which soon
conquered the whole world. His is the most
important method of criminal investigation connected the
fingerprint show or “dactyloscopy”. He had made a study of the use of fingerprints in Asia and
reported that the use of fingerprint identification had been common during the Tang Dynasty in
China and that the Chinese had developed a system of classifying fingerprints based on loops
and whorls for use in identifying criminals.
EDWARD RICHARD HENRY (1850-1931) - He was the
Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis, head of
Metropolitan Police of London from 1903 to 1918. He was
considered the father of fingerprint science because of his persistence in
devising a workable system of classification. After assuming
the post left by Herschel in India, he elicited the help of two
Hindu police officers Khan Bahadur Azizul Haque and Rai Hem
Chandra Bose attached to his staff to help him in
attaining his goal. With the assistance of a Hindu professor in
mathematics at Presidency College in Calcutta, India. Khan
Bahadur Azizul Haque, and his mathematics professor friend
helped Henry worked out in detail the combination of numbers
ad letters based on the appearance of the 10 inked recorded
fingerprint patterns. It was gradual development carefully and
painstakingly plotted and planned out until the six divisions
– Henry fingerprint classification system was perfected. In
1899, Henry returned to England and in the city of Dover he read
his workable system before the British Association for the
Advancement of Science. Mary Holland became an advocate of Henry System and began
teaching it around in the United States. In 1906 she introduced the Henry System and then
taught it to the Navy Department. Her teaching advanced the Henry System throughout the
country, while Parke’s System spread only to the New England states (today it is used only in
New York, and some believe it is superior to the Henry System).
Holland was considered the first American female instructor in
fingerprinting.
EDWARD FOSTER (1863- 1956) – Foster, Canadian constable of
the Dominion Police attended the World’s Fair to guard a display of
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gold. He attended Ferrier’s presentation at the convention and intrigued by the possibilities that
fingerprinting had to offer, he felt that a bureau would be effective than anthropometry bureau.
He also felt that a national organization in Canada, similar to the International Associations of
Chiefs of Police, would encourage cooperation among Canadian police departments and be an
ideal body to promote a national interest in fingerprinting. Upon returning to Canada, he
presented his new-found knowledge and in July 21, 1908, an Order in Council was passed
sanctioning the use of fingerprint system and that provisions of
“The identification of Criminal Act” were applicable. During 1911,
the Chicago Police Department arrested a man named Thomas
Jennings for murder. Jennings had murdered a man when he
had been caught attacking the man’s daughter. The evidence
against Jennings was slim except for fingerprint evidence. The
prosecution wanted to ensure the fingerprint evidence would be
admitted before the Illinois Supreme Court, which had not
previously ruled out on the issue. To strengthen its case, the
prosecution called several recognized fingerprint experts as
witnesses, including Edward Foster. During the cross
examination, Foster was asked by the defense if he could raise
fingerprints on various surfaces. He took the paper and
developed a fingerprint on it. The Jennings trial is considered a
“landmark case” in the courts. Jennings was convicted and sentenced to hang on December 22,
1911. The first conviction in Canada based on fingerprint evidence took place in 1914 Peter
Caracatch and Gregory Parachique broke into the CPR Station in Petawawa, Ontario. They left
fingerprints on glass at the point of entry, Edward Foster gave expert evidence at their trial.
EDMOND LOCARD (1877- 1966) – He was a French criminologist, the pioneer in forensic
science who became known as the “Sherlock Holmes of France”. He formulated the basic
principle of forensic science: “Every contact leaves trace”. This became known as Locard’s
exchange principle. He held this post until 1910, when he began the foundation of his criminal
laboratory. He was the first chief of the police laboratory in Lyons, France, which served, in
effect as sort of international training school in scientific police techniques for police officials
from many parts of the world. He proved successfully not only that fingerprints are unique but
also the pore patterns within a fingerprint are equally unique. He is considered as the “Father of
Poroscopy”.
JOSEPH FAUROT (1872- 1942) - He was a New York City Policeman. He established “NYPD’s
Fingerprints Bureau”. Faurot was important to forensics because he was the first man to
introduce fingerprinting to the U.S in the 1990’s. in 1906, he visited Scotland Yard (London) to
study the use of fingering printing as a forensic tool. When he returned he made history with his
arrest of a notorious con-artist Father Hans Schmidt for the murder of Anna Aumuller, dubbing
him the first criminal in the U.S to be apprehended through the use of fingerprints. Faurot traced
Anna’s embodied handkerchief back to the scene of the crime (aka Schmidt’s house) where he
would soon find the murder weapons with Schmidt’s fingerprints all over them. After slashing
her throat and dumping her remains in the Hudson River, the priest would later confess to the
murder of his wife, “ I loved her, Sacrifices should be consummated in blood”. (Schmidt 1908).
Faurots method of fingerprint analysis is still heavily used in present day forensic investigations.
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His method is very important to forensics because it allows investigators to connect criminals to
crimes and to track criminal records. Faurot rose to become a deputy police commissioner
before his retirement in 1926 and died 16 years later on November 20, at the age 70.
ROBERT JAMES PITTS (1914- 1976) – In 1932, while Pitts was serving a sentence in Alcatraz
prison, he formulated a plan to have the ridge system of his fingertips removed. In 1941 after he
committed a burglary in Charlotte, North Carolina he went to Newark, New Jersey to visit a
doctor who wanted to experiment with the alternation of fingerprints. The skin was removed
from the distal phalange of each finger, down to the regenerative dermal layer, and fingers were
then sewn into incisions made on each side of Pitts chest. This was an attempt to graft chest
skin onto the fingertips. However, when the fingers were removed after six weeks, only scar
tissue remained although all traces of the friction ridges system had disappeared along with
Pitts sense of touch. Nearly a year later Pitts was arrested while hitchhiking in Texas during a
crackdown on draft dodgers. The police were surprised to find that he had no fingerprints. The
middle phalanges of his fingers were printed and subsequently compared with all the persons
listed was wanted by the F.B.I Pitts was identified and became infamous as “The man Without
Fingerprints”. He was arrested many times after that for a variety of offenses including murder.
Pitts died in prison in1976 at the age of 62 having had active criminal record for 42 years.
JOHN DILLINGER (1903- 1934) – He was an American gangster in

the Depression-era United States. He operated with a group of men
known as the Dillinger Gang or Terror Gang, which was accused of
robbing 24 banks and four police stations, among other activities. He
was tried to efface his fingerprint by burning them with acid, but it was
failed. The acid temporarily destroys the fingerprint but the prints
restore to its original formation few days later. Dillinger escaped from
jail twice. He was also charged with, but never convicted of, the
murder of an East Chicago, Indiana, police officer who shot Dillinger
in his bullet-proof vest during a shootout, prompting him to return fire;
despite his infamy and unlike the rest of the other members of his
gang, it was Dillinger’s only homicide charge. He courted publicity
and the media of his time ran exaggerated accounts of his bravado
and colorful personality, styling him as a Robin Hood figure. In response, FBI Director J. Edgar
Hoover developed a more sophisticated Bureau as a weapon against organized crime, using
Dillinger and his gang as his campaign platform. After evading police in four states for almost a
year, Dillinger was wounded and returned to his father’s home to recover. He returned to
Chicago in July 1934 and met his end at the hands of police and federal agents who were
informed of his whereabouts by Ana Cumpanas (the owner of the brothel where Dillinger has
sought refuge at the time). On July 22, 1934, the police and the Division of Investigation closed
in on the Biograph Theater. Federal agents, led by Marvin Purvis and Samuel P. Cowley,
moved to arrest Dillinger as he exited the theater. He drew a Colt Model 1908 Vest Pocket and
attempted to flee, but was killed. This was ruled as a justifiable homicide.
PHILIPPINE SETTING:
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MR. JONES – The history of fingerprints in the Philippines could be traced back in 1901. A
certain Jones, who taught fingerprint in the Philippine Constabulary, had introduced fingerprints
in the Philippines.
BUREAU OF PRISON – In 1968, “CARPETA” fingerprint was used.
L. ASA N. DARBY – Under his management during the re-occupation of the Philippines by the
American Forces, a modern and complete Fingerprint File has been established in the
Philippine Commonwealth.
GENEROSO REYES – The first Filipino fingerprint technician, who employed in the Philippine
Constabulary.
AGRIPINO RUIZ – He made an impression as the first expert witness whose expert opinion
receives merit in the Philippine Judicial history. This could be the landmark case where
fingerprint evidence serves as basis in the conviction of Marciano Medina.
CAPT. THOMAS DUGAN & FLAVIANO G. GUERRERO – Capt. Thomas Dugan of New York
City Police Department and Flaviano G. Guerrero of the Federal Bureau of Investigation,
Washing, gave the first examination for Fingerprint in 1927 at National Bureau of Investigation
and Agustin Patricio of the Philippines topped the said exam.
PEOPLE OF THE PHILIPPINE VS. MEDINA – 59, Phil. 330 of December 23, 1933 was the first
conviction based on fingerprint and led to the judicial decision in the Philippine jurisprudence.
ISABELA BERNALES – The first Filipina fingerprint technician.
LUCILA LALU – The first Filipina chop-chop lady who was identified through fingerprint.
PLARIDEL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION (PEI) – Now the Philippine College of Criminology
(PCCr), Manila is the first government recognized school to teach the science of fingerprints and
other police sciences.
THE PHILIPPINE NATIONAL POLICE (PNP) – AFIS
AFIS was approved under Japanese General Grant Aid Program (GGAP) in April 1998 in the
amount of ¥839,291,634 (P 419,645,817.80). In August 2004, AFIS started operation and was
eventually turned over to the PNP in May 2005. In 1980 to 1997, during the incumbency as
Chief of Philippine Constabulary Crime Laboratory (PCCL) of Col. Pedro Elvas up to then
PSSupt. Reynaldo Acop, the idea of having an AFIS has been nurtured and carefully laid out.
Leg works, studies and initial contacts with the Japanese government were initiated. In April
1998, then PNP Chief PDG Santiago Alinio signed the letter addressed then NEDA Secretary
Cielito F. Habito recommends the endorsement to the Japanese Government, through JICA of
the proposed AFIS project. The recommendation was made based on the memorandum sent
during the incumbency of the PNP Director of Crime Laboratory PCSupt. Victor G. Batac. In
1998 to 2001, conduct of planning activities and sourcing of funds for the required building for
AFIS during the incumbencies of then PCSupt. Hercules Catalun͂a, PCSupt. Virtus Gil and
PCSupt. Matowe Pedregosa as Crime Laboratory Director. In December 2001, the construction
of AFIS building was started as required counterpart from the Government of the Philippines.
On July 15, 2002 to August 03, 2002, JICA sent initial study team to the Philippines. On January
19, 2003, confirmation of the main items of the basic design study report formally signed by the
PNP ChiefPDG Hermogenes Ebdane, Jr. and Mr. Motofeni Kohara, the leader of the JICA Basic
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Design Study (BDS) Team. In February 2003, formal submission of the BDS Report to the
Investment Coordination Committee through NEDA. On June 30, 2003, diplomatic notes were
signed and Exchanged by and between then Foreign Affair Secretary Blas Ople and Japanese
Ambassador Kojiro Takano which officially sealed start of the grant aid worth more or less 975
million yen. In December 2003, delivery and installations of the equipments started. While on
August 15, 2004, formal launching of the AFIS project. And on September 16, 2004,
registration/conversion or encoding fingerprint images and details in AFIS started.
PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION
Personal Identification is defined as establishing the identity of an individual. The need for
personal identification arises in natural mass disasters like earthquakes, tsunamis, landslide,
floods etc., and in man-made disasters such as terrorist attacks, bomb blasts, mass murders,
and in cases when the body is highly decomposed or dismembered to deliberately conceal the
identity of the individual. Alphonse Bertillon is credited a “ Father of Personal Identification”,
because he was the first to devise a scientific method of identification called “Anthropometry”.
EARLY METHODS OF PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION
Personal Identification during ancient period is very essential since recidivist or repeat offender
will receive severe penalty if found to be one. Thus, proper identification is required to every
felon prior to be admitted in jail for future reference, but fingerprinting is not yet in the vocabulary
of the prison administrator during that period.
The following were the methods employed:
1. Branding
2. Mutilation
3. Tattooing
4. Descriptive Clothing
5. Measurement of the Height (Quetlet’s method)
6. Photographic Eye (Eugene Francois Vidocq method)
7. Photographing (Daguerrotyping)
8. Anthropological Measurement (Bertillonage)
FORENSIC – the term forensic was derived from the Latin word “forum” meaning a market
place, where people gather for “public disputation” or “public discussion”. Suggest a relationship
to courts of justice and legal proceedings. It is sometimes used interchangeably with the word
legal.
FORENSIC SCIENCE - it is the application of a broad spectrum of sciences and technologies to
investigate and establish facts of interest in relation to criminal or civil law. It is otherwise known
as “Criminalistics”. Dr. Hans Gross is considered as the father of criminalistics.
DACTYLOSCOPY – it is the branch of criminalistics or forensic science that studies the
structure of fingerprints for the purposes of criminal identification, registration, and investigation.
It derivesfrom the word “dactyl” which means fingers, and “skopien” which means to examine.
ALLIED SCIENCES of DACTYLOSCOPY:
13
1. Chiroscopy – it is the science that deals with the study of the palm print in relation to
identification.
2. Podoscopy – it is the science that deals with the study of the sole human foot for
identification purposes.
3. Poroscopy – it is the science that deals with the study of human pores or sweat gland.
This method of identification is introduced by Edmond Locard.
DOGMATIC PRINCIPLES OF FINGERPRINT:
1. Principles of Individuality – this discussed that no two persons have the same
fingerprint patterns even our ten neighboring fingers are not merely exactly alike or
identical in every detail.
2. Principle of Permanency – this explains that fingerprint it remain constant or
unchangeable throughout life starts during third embryonic period(three to four months of
the fetus life until death arise). And it will only diminished once the skin undergone the
state of decomposition. It is otherwise known as “principle of womb of tomb” or “principle
of consistency”.
3. Principle of Infallibility – this elaborated that fingerprint is an accurate or reliable
means of personal identification and it cannot be forged.
FINGERS ABNORMALITIES:
1. Polydactylism – it is the appearance of extra finger as anatomically known. This extra
finger exists near the thumb or little finger.
2. Macrodactyl – it is a rare condition in which an infant’s finger or toes are abnormally

large because of overgrowth of bone and soft tissue. Babies are born with this condition.
Usually macrodactyly occurs in one hand or one foot, but multiple fingers or toes on that
hand or foot are affected.
14
3. Syndactyly – it is a condition of having two or more digits of fingers united or joined

together as by webbing.
4. Brachydactyly – it is a medical term which literally means “shortness and smallness of

the fingers and toes” (digits). The shortness is relative to the length of other long bones
and other parts of the body. Brachydactyly is an inherited, usually dominant trait.
Sometimes known as microdactyly.
5. Ectrodactyly – in this condition, it involves the deficiency or absence upon birth of one
or more central digits of the hand or foot and is also known as split hand/ split foot
malformation (SHFM).
15
Chapter 2
FRICTION SKIN
Friction Skin is an epidermal hairless skin usually found in the palms and soles of human
foot where fingerprints are formed. They are called “friction” because of their biological
function to assist in our ability to grasp and hold onto objects. They have been compared
to fine lines found in corduroy, however unlike corduroy; ridges vary in length and width,
branch off, end suddenly and, for the most part, flow in concert with each other to form
distinct patterns. The ridge path can sometimes be quite fragmented. So much so as to
show what appears to be individual ridge “units” present on the volar surface. There are
approximately two thousand seven hundred (2,700) ridge “units” per square inch of
friction skin. Each ridge “unit” corresponds to one primary epidermal ridge (glandular
fold) formed directly beneath each pore opening. Pore opening are present along the
surface of friction ridges. They are fairly even spaced due to the fact that once pore
opening along with one sweat gland exists for each ridges “unit”. Friction ridge are in
their definitive form on the fetus before birth. Once this blue print has been established
coma in the Stratum Basale (generating layer) of the epidermis on the fetus prior to birth,
it does not change except for injury, disease or decomposition after death. Injury to the
generating layer (Stratum Basale) may affect the skin’s ability to generate and scar
tissue forms.
TWO LAYERS OF THE SKIN

1. Epidermis – it is the upper or the outer layer of the skin, is a tough, waterproof and
protective layer.
2. Dermis – it is the lower or the inner layer of the skin. It is made up mainly of fibrous
proteins and other large molecules.
16
SWEAT GLANDS – also known as sudoriferous or sudoriparous glands, derive from Latin
word sudor meaning sweat. Are the small tubular structures of the skin that produce sweat.
Sweat glands are used to regulate temperature and remove waste by secreting water,
sodium salts, and nitrogenous waste (such as urea) onto the skin surface.
Kinds of Sweat Glands:

1. Eccrine Glands – these are found in all parts of the body and are the only sweat glands
found on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet.
2. Apocrine Glands – these are found in the pubic, mammary and anal areas.
3. Sebaceous Glands – these are located on the fore head, chest, back and abdomen
with an oily secretion called “sebum”.
Ridge Destruction:
1. Temporary – this damage results when only the outer layer (epidermis) of skin is
injured. This is most common due to an individual’s occupation e.g. brick layer or other
scratches/cuts of a temporary nature. The epidermis is on a constant state of renovation.
(Continually healing itself) and given a reasonable amount of time will repair completely
leaving no visible markings.
2. Permanent – this is an injury of more deep-seated nature resulting in damage to the
dermis layer of the skin, which will permanently disturb the ridges and generally result in
a scar. Whilst no papillary ridges will be found on scar tissue. It must be remembered
that it does not inhibit the identification process. Fingerprints are also affected by certain
diseases.
TWO COMPONENT PARTS OF THE FRICTION SKIN:

1. Ridge – are the elevated area or the hill like structures found in a fingerprint of
human being it appears as black lines in a fingerprint impression.
17
2. Furrows – are the depressed area or canal like structures found between ridges of
fingerprints. Also, it appears as white lines in a fingerprint impression.
RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS
The ridge characteristics are the little details in the ridges of fingerprint patterns which
are used in comparing and identifying fingerprints. Sir Francis Galton called them
“minutiae” but the principal one is called “Galton details”. In any event “characteristics”
are those ridge structures and elements which impart individuality to a fingerprint. The
following are the ridge characteristics:
1. Bifurcation – it is a single ridge that split into two or more branches. Furthermore,
bifurcation is where the ridge path divides forming a “Y” shape with legs having the
same length.
18
2. Enclosure – it is a single ridge that suddenly separate into two but does not remain
open, after running along side by side for a short distance, the splitting ridge meet
again to form a single ridge. Otherwise, known as “Lake”.
3. Ending Ridge – it is an abrupt end of a ridge formation which its terminal point is
located upward or downward in a fingerprint pattern. As shown in figure 33 the
ending ridge is located in a downward terminal point of a long ridge, while in figure
34 it is located upward terminal point of a long ridge.
19
4. Bridge – it is a ridge formation that connects the two ridges. It is sometime called
“Railway Tie” or “Crossover”.
5. Diverging Ridge – these are two ridges running side by side and suddenly
separating one, going one way and the other going another way. In other words,
diverging ridge is the splitting apart of two ridges after running parallel.
20
6. Converging Ridge – it is a ridge formation whose closed end is angular and serves
as point of convergence where the two ridges meet.
7. Hook or Spur – it is a very short ridge formation that jutting out from a free-flowing
ridge. This usually characterized of one to two pores shows microscopically.
21
8. Dot or Island – it is a very short section of a ridge usually round in contour, with
probably only one pore showing.
9. Appendage – it is a short ridge located and connected at the top or summit of a

recurve usually at the right angle.
22
10. Short Ridge – it is merely a variation of the ridge dot. The name short ridge is an
indefinite term in that there is no specific length at which a ridge stops being short
and becomes long. Any ridge which is made up of more than one sweat pore and is
shorter than most of the other ridges in a pattern are referred to as short ridge. In
addition with the discussion it is a ridge which is independent and remarkably short
that the other.
23
11. Fragmentary Ridge or Broken Ridge – it is a ridge that appears to be continuous

but upon close inspection proves to be broken up into segments. (Not to be confused
with a narrow ridge containing large pore opening which tend to break up the ridge).
SUBSIDIARY RIDGE – it is otherwise known as incipient ridge. These are small fine hair like
ridges located in furrows between the two main papillary ridges. The crest of a subsidiary ridge
is lower than the crest of the main papillary ridge. Differing degrees of pressure dictate their
appearance or otherwise in an impression or print so they are always ignored throughout the
classification process. These are no sweat pores on subsidiary ridges.
CREASES - Creases reveal themselves as white lines on the print appear to arise from two
separate causes, namely pathological conditions and those caused by occupational hazards.
They should be disregarded completely because crease may show in one print they may be
24
absent in the same print taken on a subsequent occasion. As they are not permanent they play
no part in the identification process.
TYPE LINES – these are the two innermost ridges that start parallel, diverge, surround or tend
to surround the pattern area. Type lines are not always two continuous ridges, if the type lines
experience an abrupt ending of the ridge, the next outside ridge shall be the continuation. The
illustration shown in figure 63 arrow of A is an abrupt ending ridge and arrow of B is a
continuous ridge formation.
PATTERN AREA – pattern area is the area surrounded by the type lines, where the core, delta,
ridges, and furrows are located. This are the concerned of fingerprint classification.
25
TWO FOCAL POINT OF FINGERPRINTS:
DELTA - the delta is defined as the first obstruction ridge at or in front of and nearest the center
of the point of divergence of the type lines. Thus, delta is obviously located at the point of
divergence of the two type lines. It is sometimes known as “outer terminus”.
26
Forms of Delta:
1. BIFURCATION
2. SHORT RIDGE
27
3. ENDING RIDGE
4. CONVERGENCE
5. DOT
28
6. RECURVING RIDGE
Rules in the Selection of Delta location:

1. The delta should not be located in the bifurcation which is not open towards the core. In
order the bifurcation to be consider as a delta it must be open towards the core.
2. When there are presence of bifurcation and another form of delta. The bifurcation is
always chosen, provided it is open towards the core.
29
3. When there are series of bifurcation opening towards the core, both of them are equally
close to the point of divergence of the two type lines, the one nearest to the core would
be chosen.
4. When there are two or more possible forms of delta other than bifurcation, the nearest to
the core would be chosen.
5. The delta may not be located in the middle of a short ridge running between the type
lines toward the core, but at the nearer end only.
30
CORE – it is otherwise known as “Inner Terminus”. It is a point on the ridge formation

usually located at the approximate center or heart of the fingerprint pattern.
Rules in the Selection of Core Location:

1. The core is placed upon or within the innermost sufficient recurve.
2. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains no ending ridge or rod rising as high as
the shoulders of the loop, the core is placed on the shoulder of the loop farther from the
delta.
3. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an uneven number of rods rising as high
as the shoulders, the core is placed upon the end of the center rod whether it touches
the looping ridge or not.
31
4. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an even number of rods as high as the
shoulders, the core is placed upon the end of the farther one of the two center rods, the
two center rods being treated as though they were connected by recurving ridge.
RIDGE COUNTING: this is the process of counting ridges that touch or cross an imaginary
line drawn between the delta and core of a loop. A white space must be always intervene
between the delta and the first ridge to be counted.
32
Rules in Ridge Counting:

1. Locate the exact points of the core and delta.
2. Draw an imaginary line from the core to the delta.
3. Count all ridges which touches or cross an imaginary line drawn between the core and
the delta.
4. Never include the core and delta in the count. Count only those ridges which intervene
or pass between the core and delta.
33
5. Incipient ridges are never counted, no matter where they appear. The general rule is that
in order to be counted, the width of a ridge must be equal to the width of the other ridges
in the pattern under consideration.
Numerical Values for Counting of Ridges:

1. A ridge island or dot is given one ridge count.
2. A short ridge is given one ridge count.
34
3. A long ridge is given one ridge count.
4. An abrupt – ending ridge is given one ridge count.
5. A bifurcation or bifurcating ridge – if the imaginary line crosses its two branches or its
bifurcating point then it is given a count of two as shown in figure 94 and 95. On the
other hand, if the imaginary line passes only on a single ridge before the bifurcating point
and its branches, then it is given only one count as shown in figure 96.
35
6. Ridge enclosures are counted as two ridges.
7. Criss – Crossing or meeting is counted as two ridges.
CHAPTER 3: FINGERPRINT
Fingerprint in its narrow sense it is an impression left by the friction ridges of a human finger. In
a wider use of the term, fingerprints are the traces of an impression from the friction ridges of
any part if a human or other primate hand. In Chinese it is called “Hua Chi” and in Japanese it is
“Tegata”.
36
THREE LARGE GROUP OF FINGERPRINT:

1. ARCHES - are those patterns in which the ridges flow from one side to the other side
without recurving. It has no delta and core. It occurs in about 5% of all fingerprints.
Elements of Arches:
1. The ridges flow without recurving.
2. It must have no delta and core (except in a type of tented arch which look like a loop but
lacking the third element of the loop); and
3. It must have no ridge count.
2. LOOP – are those pattern in which the ridges start at one side of the pattern goes toward the
upper corner of the opposite side, then recurve and start back toward the side from which they
came originally, forming a loop with a core in the center and a delta at the edge of the pattern
area. It occurs in about 60% of all fingerprints.
37
Element of Loops:
1. It must have a sufficient recurve;
2. It must have a delta and core; and
3. It must have a ridge count of at least one.
3. WHORLS – are those patterns in which the formations of the ridges are usually circular or
spiral. Whorl pattern will have two or more deltas. For a whorl pattern, all deltas and the areas
between them must be recorded. It occurs in about 35% of all fingerprints.
38
Element of Whorl:
1. It must have a core; and
2. It must have two deltas (left delta and right delta).
EIGHT SUB-GROUPS OF THE FINGERPRINT:

1. PLAIN ARCH – the plain arch is one of the two arches that belong to an arch family. The
ridges of this type enter one side to the other side without recurving, it has a slight
upward curve or wave at the center, with no angular ridge formation.
39
2. TENTED ARCH – a tented arch is that type of pattern which most of the ridges appear
like an arch and the ridge at the center shape like a tent or the ridges raise higher at the
center or one with the upward thrust having an angle of 45 degrees. This pattern
resembles like a loop but does not possess all the characteristics or essentials of a loop.
Tented arch differs from the plain arch in the since that tented arch raise higher while
plain arch rise slightly at the center.
Type of Tented Arch:

1. The type in which ridges at the center form a definite angle; i.e., 90°.
2. The type in which one or more ridges at the center form an upthrust. An upthrust is an
ending ridge of any length rising at a sufficient degree from the horizontal plane; i.e., 45°.
3. The type approaching the loop type, possessing two of the basic or essential
characteristics of the loop, but lacking the third.
40
3. RADIAL LOOP – the term radial loop is derived from the bone found or situated at the side of
the thumb finger of the hand called “Radius Bone”. This pattern is called radial loop because the
direction of the downward slant of the ridges flows towards the direction of the thumb or to the
radius bone.
4. ULNAR LOOP – Ulnar loop is termed after the bone of the forearms located at the side of the
little fingers of both hands called “Ulna Bone”. Ulnar loop differs from the radial loop as to the
direction of the downward slant of the pattern since this pattern flows toward the direction of the
little finger or to the ulna bone.
41
5. PLAIN WHORL - this is a pattern consisting of two deltas and in which at least one ridge
makes a turn to one complete circuit. An imaginary line drawn between the two deltas much
touch or cross at least one of the recurving ridges within the pattern area. The patter could be a
spiral, oval or any variant of a circle.
Elements of Plain Whorl:
1. It must have a complete circuit;
2. It must have two deltas (left delta and right delta);
3. It must have even at least one circuiting ridge is touched or
cross by an imaginary line traversing between the two deltas.
42
6. CENTRAL POCKET LOOP WHORL – this is a pattern which

possesses two deltas, with one or more ridges forming a complete
circuit which may be oval, spiral circular, or any variant of circle, or it
is a pattern consisting of two deltas, with one or more recurving
ridges with an obstruction at right angles to the inner line of flow,
between which an imaginary line would touch or cross no recurving
ridge within the inner pattern area. Based on the definition, it
presents two kinds of central pocket loop whorl patterns. One
pattern purely consists of whorl type ridges as in the case of plain
whorl and the other forms a small pattern area where an imaginary
line drawn from the inner delta toward the top center innermost
recurve, intersects and obstruction ridge at the right angle to form
a pocket.
43
Elements of Central Pocket Loop Whorl:

1. It must have at least one recurving ridge or obstruction ridge at right angle.
3. It must have no recurving ridge within the pattern area is touched or crossed by an
imaginary line drawn between the two deltas.
7. DOUBLE LOOP WHORL – double loop whorl is a pattern in which

consist of two separate loop formation with two distinct and separate
shoulders of the loop.
Elements of Double Loop Whorl:

1. It must have two separate loop formations;
2. It must have two separate and distinct sets of shoulders; and
Types of Double Loop Whorl:
44
1. Lateral Pocket Loop – Are those patterns whose core points have their exists on the
same side of one of the delta.
2. Twinned Loop – Are those patterns whose ridges

containing the core points have their exists on the
different sides or flows to the direction of two details.
Types of Core Formation not Included in the Double Loop Whorl:

1. The “S” type core.
2. The “interlocking” type.
45
3. The formation of a loop inside another loop.
8. ACCIDENTAL WHORL - This is a pattern consisting of a combination of two different types

of patterns such as a loop and a whorl, a loop and a central pocket loop whorl, or any
combination of two different loop and a whorl type patterns, but it cannot be combination of a
plain arch with any other pattern. Unlike the other whorl type patterns, an accidental whorl can
have two or more deltas.
Elements of Accidental Whorl

1. It must have combination of two different types of patterns with the exception of the plain
arch; and
2. It must have two or more delta (left delta and right delta)
RIDGE TRACING
46
This is a process of tracing the ridge that originates from the left delta flowing towards
the right delta or near that point and determining the number of intervening ridges between the
traced ridge and right delta to constitute the three subdivisions: inner, outer, and meeting, which
are represented by capital letters I, O, M
Rules in Ridge Tracing
1. Ridge tracing always starts from the delta proceeding towards the right delta or nearest
to that point (See Figure 145-147)
2. When the ridge being traced ends abruptly, drop to the next ridge below to continue the
tracing until the traced ridge runs into or comes opposite the right delta. (See Figure
148)
47
3. When the left delta is a dot ridge, the next ridge just below is taken to effect the tracing
until it reaches opposite the right delta. (See Figure 149)
4. When the ridge being traced is a bifurcation

(bifurcation ridge) always follow the lower branch
until the tracing is completed. (See Figure 150)
Symbol of Ridge Tracing Result
1. Inner Tracing
When the ridge being traced from the left delta to the right delta passes inside or in front
of the right delta and there are three (3) or more intervening ridges between the traced ridge
and the right delta, the result of the tracing is known as inner and represented by capital letter
“I”. (See Figure 151)
48
2. Outer Tracing
When the ridge being traced passes outside or below the right delta and there are three
(3) or more ridges intervening between the traced ridge and the right delta, the result of the
tracing is known as outer and represented by capital letter “O”. (See Figure 152)
3. Meeting Tracing
When the ridge being traced passes on either inside or outside of the right delta and
there are two (2) or less ridge intervening between the traced ridge and the right delta or it
actually meets the right delta the result of the tracing is known as meeting and is represented
by capital letter “M”. (See Figure 153 &154)
49
CHAPTER IV
FINGERPRINT CLASSIFICATION FORMULA
The finger classification formula used in this book handbook is the Henry and Galton,
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) system with National Bureau of Investigation (NBI)
modification.
FINGERPRINT CLASSIFICATION
Means the sorting of things into divisions or groups for easy and fast location. In
fingerprint science, it refers to the arrangement of fingerprint records into groups or sub –
groups for filling purposes. The main purpose of a classification system is to facilitate the
filling, searching and retrieval of fingerprint records.
In deriving the fingerprint classification formula, a technician or a classifier should first of
all examine the rolled impressions to see if they were placed in their respective spaces in the
chart. The first column beginning with block number 1 to block number 5 are for the right hand
fingers, starting from the thumb to the little finger respectively. Fingers from the left hand
starting from the thumb to the little finger occupy the second column from block number 6 to
block number 10. The ten rolled impressions must tally with the plain impressions on their
corresponding places on the chart. If a discrepancy if found as in the case of the interchange
of the recording of the right digits those of the left hand, immediate correction must be taken in
order not to affect the classification.
50
CLASSIFICATION LINE
This refers to a line placed on the right upper corner of the fingerprint card where the
classification formula is exhibited.
BLOCKING OUT
This is the process of writing below each pattern the corresponding symbol of the
fingerprint pattern in the spaces provided in the card conspicuously or in capital letters
purposely to facilitate the attainment of the primary classification. (See Figure 155-157)
Fingerprint Patterns Blocking Out Symbols

 Plain Arch --------------------------------------- A
 Tented Arch --------------------------------------T
 Radial Loop -------------------------------------- / Right Hand
 Radial Loop -------------------------------------- ¿ Left Hand
 Ulnar Loop ---------------------------------------- / Right Hand
 Ulnar Loop --------------------------------------- ¿ Left Hand
 Plain Whorl ---------------------------------------W
 Central Pocket Loop Whorl ----------------C
 Double Loop Whorl ---------------------------D
 Accidental Whorl ------------------------------X
51
DIVISION OF THE CLASSIFICATION FORMULA

1. Primary Classification
2. Secondary Classification
2.1. Capital Letter Group
2.2. Small Letter Group
3. Sub-secondary Classification
4. Major Classification
5. Final Classification
6. Key Classification
POSITION OF FINGERPRINT CLASSIFICATION RESULT IN THE CLASSIFICATION LINE
Key Major Primary Secondary Sub-secondary Final

Classification Classification Classification Classification Classification Classification
FPC 10 S 1 U III 8
S 1 U III 10
52
1. PRIMARY CLASSIFICATION
This is the result of the summation of all numerical values assigned to whorls (plain
whorl, central pocket, loop whorl, double loop whorl, and accidental whorl), appearing in a
fingerprint chart (ten fingerprints) which are expressed as numerators and denominations
plus the pre – established fraction of one over one (1/1).
Division of Patterns as to Numerical Values

1. Patterns with numerical values – all whorl type patterns
2. Patterns without numerical values – arches and loop types patterns
Four (4) Steps to Attain the Primary Classification
1. Pairing – the ten fingerprints from the corresponding fingers are divided into pairs,
totalling 5 pairs in all. (See Figure 158)
A. First Pair – are composed of the

right thumb and the right index
finger (block no. 1 and 2).
B. Second Pair – are composed of
the right middle finger and the
right ring finger (block no. 3 and
4).
C. Third Pair – are composed of the
right little finger and the left
thumb (block 5 and 6).
D. Fourth Pair – are composed of
the left index finger and the left
middle finger (block no. 7 and 8).
E. Fifth Pair – are composed of the
left ring finger and the left little finger (block no. 9 and 10).
2. Assigning numerical values to whorl patterns only- these numerical values

assigned to the corresponding fingers are permanent. (See Figure 159)
A. First Pair – have a numerical value of sixteen (16) for each whorl.
B. Second Pair – have a numerical value of eight (8) for each whorl.
C. Third Pair – have a numerical value of four (4) for each whorl.
D. Fourth Pair – have a numerical value of two (2) for each whorl.
E. Fifth Pair – have a numerical value of one (1) for each whorl.
53
3. Knowing the numerators and denominators in the pairs

The first pattern of every pair is the denominator while the second pattern of the
pair is the numerator. There are five numerators and five denominators in the pair in a
set of ten fingerprints. (See Figures 160)
4. Summing up the numerical values of whorls assigned to the fingers plus the pre-
established fraction of 101.
To determine the exact result of the primary classification, get the total value of
all numerators and add the fraction of 1/1 and for the total value of all denominators
also add the fraction of 1/1. The pre-established fraction of 1/1 is always added for in
the absence of a numerical value this fraction 1/1 should be exhibited in the
classification line to complete the primary formula for filling purposes. (See Figure
161)
2. SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION
2.1 Capital Letter Group
The secondary classification is symbolized by capital letter of the patterns
represented by two index fingers after the primary classification in the classification line.
54
The fingerprint pattern appearing on the right index finger is the numerator while the
fingerprint pattern from the left index finger is the denominator. (See Figure 162)
Symbols for Capital Letter Group
 Plain Arch ------------------------------------- A
 Tented Arch -----------------------------------T
 Radial Loop ------------------------------------R
 Ulnar Loop -------------------------------------U
 Plain Whorl -------------------------------------W
 Central Pocket Loop Whorl ---------------C
 Double Loop Whorl --------------------------D
 Accidental Whorl -----------------------------X
2.2 Small Letter Group

This classification refers to the three types of fingerprint patterns only; namely the
plain arch, tented arch, and radial loop. Whenever any or all of these patterns appear in
any finger/s, excluding the two index fingers, its symbol in small letter is exhibited in the
classification as: “a” for plain arch, “t” for tented arch, and “r” for radial loop, before
and /or after the secondary classification by capital letters, depending on the finger or
origin. The four fingers from the right hand are the numerators while the other four
fingers from the left hand are the denominators. (See Figure 163)
55
3. SUB – SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION
This is derived through the process of ridge counting the loops or ridge tracing the
whorl type patterns appearing on the index fingers of both right and left hands. Whenever
loop patterns are shown on the above mentioned fingers, each should be ridge counted and
the result of such count in number be displayed on the right upper corner of the block where
found and later on represented by a letter symbol (I or O) in the classification line based on
the inner and outer group division table for ridge counts of loops.
Whorls are ridge traced and the result so such tracing is represented by the letter
symbol I, O, M (inner, outer, or meeting) on the table for symbols of whorls for ridge tracing.
The letter symbols are then placed on the right upper corner of the blocks where found and
later on, the same symbols are exhibited on the classification line.
Under this classification, the right index, middle and ring fingers are numerators while
the opposite fingers from the left hand are the denominators. The plain arch and tented arch
are neither ridge counted nor ridge traced. They are merely represented by a dash (-) on the
classification line.
Rules for Ridge Count of Loops and their Symbols Inner “I” and Outer “O”: (See
Figure 164 & 165)
1. A ridge count of one to nine (1-9) inclusive of each index finger is “inner” and is
symbolized by capital letter “I”, while a count of ten (10) or more ridges is “outer” symbolized
by capital letter symbol should be exhibited on the classification line only.
2. A ridge count of one to ten (1-10) inclusive of each middle finger is “inner” and is
symbolized by capital letter “I”, while a count eleven (11) or more ridges is “outer” and
symbolized by capital letter “O”. Letter symbol should be exhibited on the classification line
only.
3. A ridge count of one to thirteen (1-13) inclusive of each ring finger is “inner” and is
symbolized by capital letter “I”, while count of fourteen (14) or more ridges is “outer” and is
symbolized by capital letter “O”. Letter symbols should be exhibited on the classification line
only.
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Symbols for Whorls as a Result of Ridge Tracing

1. When the ridge being traced from the left delta to the right delta passes inside or in front
of the right delta and there are three (3) or more intervening ridges between the traced ridge
and the right delta, the result of the tracing is known as “inner” and represented by capital
letter “I”. The symbol is exhibited on the right upper corner of the block where found and on
the classification line. (See Figure 166)
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2. When the ridge being traced passes outside or below the right delta and there are three
(3) or more ridges intervening between the traced ridge and the right delta, the result of the
tracing is known as “outer” and represented by capital letter “O”. The symbol is exhibited on
the right upper corner of the block where found and on the classification line. (See Figure
167)
3. When the ridge being traced passes on either inside or outside of the right delta and
there are two (2) or less ridges intervening between the traced ridge and the right delta or it
actually meets the right delta, the result of the tracing is known as “meeting” and is
represented by capital letter “M”. The symbol is exhibited on the right upper corner of the
block where found and also on the classification line. (See Figure 168)
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Symbol for Arches to be Displayed in the Right Upper Corner of the Block and
Finally in the Classification Line: (See Figure 169)
4. MAJOR CLASSIFICATION
The major classification is quite similar in derivation to the sub – secondary classification
though it applies only thumbs. This is done by ridge counting the loops and the ridge tracing
the whorls appearing on the thumbs. The result of the ridge count of the loop is exhibited on
the right upper corner of the block where that loop is found and later on is expressed by a
letter symbol in the classification line. The whorls are ridge traced, as is done in the sub –
secondary classification and the letter symbol is represented on the right upper corner of the
block where found and is also exhibited on the classification line. The plain arch and tented
arch are neither ridge counted nor ridge traced. They are merely represented by a dash (-)
on the classification line. Two sets of table for symbols are used in loops whenever both
loop patterns are appearing in the thumbs. The place for the symbol of the major division is
on the left side of the primary in the classification line. The right thumb is the numerator
while the left thumb is the denominator.
Table 1 or A – Ridge count and Letter Symbols for Loops

1. A ridge count of one to eleven (1-11), inclusive, is “small”. It is represented by capital letter
“S”.
2. A ridge count of twelve to sixteen (12-16), inclusive, is “medium”. It is represented by
capital letter “M”.
3. A ridge count of seventeen (17) or more, inclusive, is “large”. It is represented by capital
letter “L”
NOTE: Table 1 or A should be applied in loop patterns with any combination possessed by
opposite thumb such as loop, arch, and whorls. In case of loop to loop combination
appearing on two thumbs provided the number of ridge count from left thumb is less than
seventeen (17). (See Figure 170)
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Table 2 or B – Ridge Count and Letter Symbols for Loops

1. A ridge count of one to seventeen (1-17), inclusive, is “small”. It is represented by capital
letter “S”.
2. A ridge count of eighteen to twenty two (18-22), inclusive, is “medium”. It is represented by
capital letter “M”.
3. A ridge count of twenty three (23) or more, inclusive, is “large”. It is represented by capital
letter “L”
NOTE: Table 2 or B should be applied only to the loop from the right thumb when the ridge
count of the loop from the left thumb is seventeen (17) or more. (See Figure 171)
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5. FINAL CLASSIFICATION
The final classification is the exhibition in a numerical figure of the ridge count of loops
and /or whorls form the two little fingers. The result of the ridge count is exhibited on the
right upper corner of the block where found and placed at the extreme right of the
classification line. The right count of the right little finger is the numerator while that of the
left little finger is the denominator. Arches are represented by a dash (-) on the classification
line.
Rules in Deriving the Ridge Count of Whorls

1. A plain whorl or central pocket loop whorl is treated as an ulnar loop. (See Figure 172 &
173)
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2. A double loop whorl must be ridge counted to an upright loop. (See Figure 174)
3. An accidental whorl must be ridge counted from the extreme corresponding delta to the
nearest core or least number of ridge count. (See Figure 175)
6. KEY CLASSIFICATION
The key classification is derived by ridge counting the first loop in a set of prints. The
ridge count of the first loop may come from the right thumb or any other finger except the
little finger. The ridge count is always placed at the extreme left of the classification line and
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is always represented as numerator, no matter where it is taken. Where there is no loop, the
first whorl is ridge counted being treated as an ulnae loop; and the result of the right count is
displayed on the left upper corner of the block where found. When arches appear in all the
prints (there is no loop or whorls) the symbol of the key classification is just a dash (-) on the
classification line. (See Figure 176-182)
Rules in Deriving the Ridge Count of Whorl Treated as Ulnar Loop
1. PLAIN WHORL (See Figure 177)
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2. CENTRAL POCKET LOOP WHORL (See Figure 178)
3. DOUBLE LOOP WHORL (See Figure 179)
4. ACCIDENTAL WHORL (See Figure 180)
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Rules Governing the Classification of Scarred Pattern

1. When an impression is so scarred that neither the general type of pattern nor the ridge
tracing or count can be determined with reasonable accuracy, the impression should be
given both the general type value nor the sub -classification value of the corresponding
finger of the other hand.
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2. When an impression is partially scarred, i.e., large scars about the core so that the general
type cannot be determined with reasonable accuracy, but the ridges allow reasonably
accurate sub- classifications by ridge tracing or counting, the impression should be given the
primary value of the pattern of the corresponding finger and the sub- classification value as
indicated by the ridges of partially scarred impressions.
3. When an impression is partially scarred and the general type of pattern can be determined
with reasonable accuracy, but the ridges cannot be traced or counted so as to fall within the
proper sub- classification, the impression should be given the ridge count or tracing value of
the corresponding finger of the other hand, if the corresponding finger is not of the same
general type, the scarred impression should be given the probable value and referenced to
all other possibilities.
4. When an impression is so scarred that neither the general type of pattern nor the ridge
tracing or count can be determined with reasonable accuracy, and it so happens that the
corresponding finger of the other hand is similarly scarred, both patterns are given the
arbitrary value of whorls with meeting tracing.
Rules Governing the Classification of Fingers Missing at Birth and Amputations

1. If one finger is amputated, it is given a classification identical with that of the opposite
finger, including pattern and ridge count, or tracing and referenced to every other possible
classification.
2. If two or more fingers are amputated, they are given classifications identical with the
fingers opposite, with no additional references.
3. If two amputated fingers are opposite each other, both are given the classification of
whorls with meeting tracings.
Classification Result if all the Ten Fingers are Amputated or Missing at Birth:
Major Primary Secondary Sub-secondary

Classification Classification Classification Classification
FPC M 32 W MMM
M 32 W MMM
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CHAPTER V
CRIME SCENE INVESTIGATION OF

FINGERPRINT
Crime scene investigation can be described as the application of what has become known
as “Locard’s Exchange Principle”. Edmond Locard was established the first forensic crime
laboratory in France in 1910, at the same time an advocate of scientific methods and logic in
criminal investigation and identification. Locards’s Exchange Principle, states, “with contact
between two items, there will be an exchange” or when a person comes into contact with an
object or another person, a transfer of physical evidence like fingerprints occurs; all we have
to do is recognize and find it. The perpetrator can then be associated with the crime scene,
evidence or victim creating a crime scene triangle. (See Figure 183)
BASIC FINGERPRINT EQUIPMENT FOR CRIME SCENE INVESTIGATION
1. Rubber Gloves – Assist to preserve the original condition of the crime, avoid investigators
from leaving their own imprint to the scene, and also safeguard them from chemical or
biological hazards involved when working at a scene of the crime. (See Figure 184 & 185)
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2. Fingerprint Brush – This device is used to pick up the fingerprint powder and apply in the
suspected surface of the object where the latent print is found. (See Figure 186 & 187)
3. Fingerprint Powder – Are fine powders used in dusting for fingerprints by crime scene
investigators and others in law enforcement. The process of dusting for fingerprints involves
various methods intended to get the particles of the powder to adhere to residue left by
friction ridge skin on the fingers, palms, or feet. (See Figure 188 & 189)
4. Fingerprint Lifting Tapes – This items is designed primarily to remove the developed
latent print from the surface of the object to the fingerprint lifting cards for preservation
purposes. (See Figure 190 & 191)
5. Scissors – It is designed and required for the purposes of cutting the fingerprint lifting
tapes after developing of latent print. (See Figure 192 & 193)
6. Fingerprint Crime Scene Search Data – This is utilized for the preservation of developed
lifted latent print and other data should be written on it as a support for court presentation.
(See Figure 194)
7. Flash light – This is used for searching latent print and other chance impression in a
suspected surface of the object at the crime scene. The procedures of flash light it must be
in an oblique or side light position in order to detect the latent print and to start developing
with fingerprint powder and fingerprint brush as well. (See Figure 195 & 196)
8. Roller or Tape Measure – This is designed to measure the distances of every articles of
evidence particularly the location of fingerprint in the crime scene and should be noted in the
sketch as a supplement for photographs. (See Figure 197 & 198)
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9. Evidence Identification Tape or Tags – This is used on order to identify objects or

physical evidence inside its storage box. (See Figure 199)
LATENT PRINTS
Are those markings usually rather indistinct, left on any object by oily matters, colored
substances or perspiration exuded from the finger tips, palms of the hand or soles of the feet
that may have touched the item. Finger, palm and foot prints usually found at the crime
scene are known as chance impressions or latent prints.
What causes the markings?

1. Ridges on the friction skin. (See Figure 200)
2. Sweat or perspiration. (See Figure 201)

Composition of the sweat:
 98.5% to 99.5% is water
 0.5% to 1.5% solid matter = 1/3 salt, 2/3 urea, volatile fatty acids, albumin
acids, etc.
Note: The composition of sweat is not constant, it is influenced by climate, nutrition or
food that the subjects eat, impurities on the skin surface, and physical
condition of the subject.
3. Colored substances. (See Figure 202)
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Types of Latent Print

1. Invisible Latent Prints – Are those latent prints whose markings are caused by the
sweat that left on the surface whenever our fingers touched on the object. The
illustration shown in figure 203 is an example of developed invisible latent print
with fingerprint powder.
2. Visible Latent Print – Are latent prints whose markings are caused by colored
substances such as paint, blood, grease, oil, duct etc. that left on the surface
whenever our fingers smeared with substances and touched on the object. Also
known are patent prints. The illustration shown in figure 204 is an example of
patent print made of blood.
3. Semi- Visible Latent Prints – Are latent prints impressed on soft object like wax or
candle whenever our fingers touched on these objects. These latent prints are
also known as plastic or mold prints; they have three dimensions (3D) the length,
width and depth. The illustration shown in figure 205 is an example of plastic print
in a surface of clay.
Things to be considered in searching latent print:

1. Precaution is important, do not remove the object from the original position or touch
by your bare fingers anything that requires fingerprint examination.
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2. Search of latent prints should be conducted in a systematic way and intelligent

manner
3. Amount and quality of powder to be used. The purpose is to developed latent prints
that can be classified, analysed and identified.
4. Documentation. Object/tools/weapon/s should be photographed prior for developing of
latent print including those with visible latent prints and must be provided with Sketch
to illustrate relationships between articles of evidence not easily depicted by
photography. Developed and lifted latent prints must be mounted on a Fingerprint
Crime Scene Search Data Form provided with sketch and acknowledgement
signatures of two witnesses plus the signature of the Fingerprint Technician to
validate the lifted print/s. Documentation is used to provide an accurate
representation of the scene.
METHODS OF DEVELOPING LATENT PRINTS

A. BRUSHING METHODS (BLACK / ALUMINUM / MAGNETIC POWDER)
Figure 206
Application:
 Non-porous object like glass, metal, plastic and painted or varnished wood.
Equipment and Materials:
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 Commercially prepared fingerprint powder: black, specialized powders and

Magna powder.
 Brushes; camel hair (assorted sizes), Zephyr (fiberglass bristles), Feather, and
Magna wands (used with magnetic powders).
 Fingerprint lifting tape and tape dispenser: clear, frosted and polyethylene.
Procedure:
1. Choose the powder that provides the most contrast. Powder shall provide the
most contrast when compared to the background surface. Black, white,
silver/gray, bi-chromatic, fluorescent, and magnetic powders are all available for
use. Additionally, depending upon the materials of the item (metal, plastic, etc.),
the magnetic properties of the powder shall be considered. Magnetic powder
may be used on non-metal items.
2. Dip brush into the powder containing vessel. Ensure that the tips of the bristles
make contact with the powder surface.
3. For non-magnetic powder, tap away excess powder from brush.
4. Lightly brush the powder over the surface of the item of evidence using only the
tips of the brush. Carefully brush the entire surface of the item until ridge details
becomes visible. Some latent impressions are light in color and will not appear
dark after powder is applied. Low levels of moisture in the latent print may
account for this. An effective way to develop these types of impressions is to
introduce moisture to the latent print. This may be accomplished by breathing
moist air onto the area containing the latent print. Allow the moisture to dry and
reapply the powder (it is not necessary to allow the moisture to dry when using
magnetic powders).
5. Once the latent impression has become visible, gently brush away any excess
powder adhering to the impressions. Impression shall then be preserved using
photography, lifting techniques or electronic preservation methods.
6. Photography: It is important to photograph any developed impression prior to
lifting attempts. This will assist the Forensic Scientist at a later tome if the
impression is damaged or destroyed by further processing. A variety of camera
equipment is available to record the impressions. Use a scale in all photographs.
7. Lifting: The impression may be lifted by applying the adhesive side of a
commercially available lifting tape to the surface containing the latent print. The
tape used must be large enough that one (1) piece covers the entire area to be
lifted. A folded over flap of tape shall be used for a hand-hold.
7.1. Tape shall be removed from the roll in one motion in order to prevent
streaks.
7.2. Apply tape evenly in order to prevent wrinkles and / or air bubbles. Firmly
hold the folded-over end of the tape, slowly press the free end onto the surface to
be lifted and smooth the length of tape over the surface.
7.3. Tape shall then be removed in one, smooth, continuous motion.
7.4. Place the tape on a sheet of white paper (or lift card which is of contrasting
color) in the same manner as the tape was applied to the surface. When several
prints are developed (side by side or grouped closely together), lift all on one (1)
piece of tape. Wider tapes shall be used for multiple prints (or place two (2) or
more strips of tape over the impression and lift together).
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7.5. Label each lift with the appropriate case numbers, item number, date,
Forensic Scientist initials, location the lift(s) originated and any other cross
reference information necessary.
7.6. Electronically preserved impressions: Latent impressions may also be
electronically recorded with a computerized system such as the Image
Processing System (See Section Image Processing Procedure). This process is
to be used with faint or difficult impressions on certain surfaces. This practice
often will allow the Forensic Scientist to record impressions that may have been
unrecoverable prior to the implementation of this technology.
B. FUMING METHOD (CYANOACRYLATE SOLUTION)

Figure 207
Figure 208
Application:
 Plastics (wrapper, bag, box, bottle, case, etc.)
 Leathers (wallet, bag, etc.)
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 Metal (firearms, knife, pipe, cutter, tin can, etc.)

 Wood (plain wood)

 Fuming Box
 Saucer Plate
 Super Glue
 Water
Procedure:
1. Drop small amount of superglue (Mighty Bond) into the saucer or plate.
2. Put the saucer or plate with superglue at the bottom (inside) of the fuming box, a
sealed container or developing glass cabinet.
3. Hang all the evidence / items inside the fuming box for latent print processing
(developing). Close it firmly and properly.
4. Wait at least 20 -30 minutes to have complete developed latent impressions on then
object evidence being processed in the fuming box.
5. Photograph individually the developed fingerprints immediately, for comparative
examination with the standard prints.
Further Enhancement for the Super Glued Fingerprints

After a fingerprint has been fumed with cyanoacrylate or super glue, there are a
couple of different methods to make the print more visible. The print can be dusted with
a variety of different dusting powders such as black, white and fluorescent powders.
These powders will be used depending on the color background that print is on. You
want to achieve the most contrast of the print with the background. Fluorescent dyes
can also be used which can be visualized using an alternate light source, which is alight
delivering device that has numerous filters with different wavelengths of light.
C. NINHYDRIN SOLUTION
Figure 209
Figure 210
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Methods of Ninhydrin Application

1. Dipping Method – Place the working solution into a tray that is deep enough to
completely submerge the item. Submerge the item for five (5) to ten (10)
seconds.
2. Brushing Method – Dip the brush into the working solution and brush directly onto
the item.
3. Spraying Method – Spray the item with the working solution to completely saturate
the item.
Types of Ninhydrin Solution

1. Ninhydrin Acetone Solution
Application:
 Absorbent materials (like paper, tissue paper, paper bills, envelope, carton box,
etc.)
 Note: It is not applicable to letters and questionable documents. (Threat letter,
suicide note, legal documents) fax paper, black color paper, wet paper etc.

 Ninhydrin powder
 Acetone
 Paint brush
 Steam Iron
 Laboratory coat and gloves
 Face shield visor and/ or safety goggles
 Magnetic stirrer, magnetic follower and magnetic retriever
 Glass beakers
 Graduated cylinders
 Dark, shatter-proof container
 Forceps
 Fume hood
 Glass tray, paint brush or aerosol sprayer (for application)
 Camera /scanner
 Dust or mist respirator (for application outside of fume hood)
Procedure:
1. Prepare 1gm of Ninhydrin powder
2. Mix it with 200ml of Acetone.
3. Apply this prepared chemical by using brush, by spraying over the entire surface of the
evidence, or by immersing the whole evidence into the prepared solution.
4. Dry the absorbent material for a while and apply the steam iron until the latent print
would be developing well.
2. Ninhydrin Benzene Solution

Application:
 Notebook pages or paper with writings using writing instruments like ball pen, sign pen,
markers and all the like.
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 Ninhydrin powder
 Ethanol
 Benzene
 Paint brush
 Glass beakers
 Dark, shatter-proof container
 Forceps
 Fume hood
 Paint brush (for application)
 Camera /scanner
 Dust or mist respirator (for application outside of fume hood)
Procedure:
1. Prepare 1gm of Ninhydrin powder.
2. Dissolve with 20ml of Ethanol.
3. Add 180 ml of Benzene.
4. Apply this prepared chemical by using brush, by spraying over the entire surface of the
evidence, or by immersing the whole evidence into the prepared solution.
5. Dry the absorbent material for a while and apply the steam iron until the latent print would be
developing well.
D. SOAKING METHOD (VICTORIA PURE BLUE)

Figure 211
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Application:
 Packaging tape
 Paper tape
 Cello tape
 Masking tape
 Electrical tape
 Leaves, fruit peeling, etc.

 Victoria Pure Blue Powder
 Water
 Tray
 Glass beakers
 Forceps
 Camera/Scanner
Procedure:
1. Prepare 1gm of Victoria Pure Blue powder.
2. Mix it with one (1) liter of water.
3. Then process the evidence/items by immersing the whole part of the specimen into the
prepared solution. If latent prints were developed, immediately wash or rinse with water.
This solution is only applicable to adhesive tapes (eg. Paper tape, packaging tape,etc.)
E. SPRAYING METHOD (EMULGEN BLACK)
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Figure 212
Application:
 Plastic bags/ wrapping materials

 Adhesive tapes,
 Tin can,
 Glass, etc.
 Emulgen 130k Powder

 Ironoxide
 Water
 Tray
 Aerosol sprayer
 Glass beakers
 Forceps
 Camera/Scanner
Procedure:
1. Prepare 0.3gm of Emulgen 130k powder.
2. Mix it with 3gms of Ironoxide.
3. Dissolve in 100ml of water.
78
4. Apply the prepared chemical using sprayer, or immerse the whole part of the specimen into
the prepared solution. If latent prints were developed, immediately rinse with water. This
solution is applicable to adhesive tapes, glass, plastic bag, tin can and others.
CHAPTER VI
GUIDELINES IN TAKING STANDARD

FINGERPRINTS
STANDARD FINGERPRINTS
This is the fingerprint specimen whose source is known, which usually taken from the suspect
of the crime or a fingerprint available in police file when someone is having transactions.
Its primary purpose is for comparison in the questioned fingerprint or unknown print
through minutiae as the basis of examination.
Types of Standard Fingerprints
1. Collected Standard – Refers to those fingerprint collected by law enforcement agencies
from a previously arrested law violators or those prints collected by police when one
applies for police clearances.
2. Requested Standard – Refers to those prints taken by the police from the possible
suspects of the crime investigated.
LEGALITY OF TAKING FINGERPRINT FORM THE SUSPECT

If the suspect is under legal arrest, he can be forced or obliged to be fingerprinted, as
the authority cited and vested in the opinion No. 204 series of 1939 made by the Former
Department of Justice Secretary Jose Abad Santos. A person under arrest who refuses to
be fingerprinted may be prosecuted by disobedience to the agent of the person in authority
defined in, and penalized by Article 151 of the Revised Penal Code (RPC).
FINGERPRINTING – It is the process of recording fingerprint through the use of fingerprint ink
or capturing fingerprint images using electronic device. (See Figure 213 & 214)
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MATERIALS IN TAKING STANDARD FINGERPRINTS

1. Fingerprint Roller – It is one of the inking devices required for spreading the ink on the
glass slab. It’s ideal size usually 6” long, 2” inches diameter (See Figure 215 &216)
2. Fingerprint Ink – This is especially manufactured ink for purposes of taking fingerprints
(See Figure 217 & 218)
3. Card Holder – This type of gadget is utilized for clipping the fingerprint card to avoid
movement of the card during printing. (See Figure 219 & 220)
4. Glass Slab or Inking Plate – It is a piece of glass or metal designed for placing a dab of
ink spreading by ink roller evenly and inking the fingers of the suspect individually then
recorder in the fingerprint card. It’s ideal seize usually 1/2 cm x 6 x 14. (See Figure 2210 &
222)
5. Cleaning materials: alcohol, cloth and lotion. (See Figure 223)
FINGERPRINTING PROCESS (FINGERPRINT RECORDING)

1. The recommended height for recording legible fingerprints is approximately 39 inches from
the floor. This allows the forearm of an average adult to be parallel with floor. This is the
recommended position to record fingerprint.
2. Soap and water are preferred; however, rubbing alcohol may be substituted.
3. If hands are moist, wipe each finger with rubbing alcohol. If hands are dry or flaky use a
small amount of hand lotion and wipe off any residue.
4. If capturing fingerprints electronically, ensure the live scan fingerprint device is properly
calibrated and the platen is free of dust, dirt and any residue fingerprint images.
5. The individual’s hands should be cleaned prior to printing.
6. Instruct the individual to look away from the fingerprint device, not to assist in the fingerprint
process, and to relax. Grasp the individual’s right hand at the base of the thumb with your
right hand. Cup your hand over the individual’s finger, tucking under those fingers not being
printed. Guide the finger being printed with your left hand.
7. If using the ink and paper method, roll the finger on the inking plate or pad so the entire
fingerprint pattern are is evenly covered with ink. The ink should be cover from one edge of
the nail to the other and from the crease of the first joint to the tip of the finger. Using the
correct amount of ink is vital.
8. When taking the rolled impression, the side of the finger bulb is placed upon the card or
platen. The finger is then rolled to the other side until if faces the opposite direction. Care
should be exercised so the bulb of each finger, from tip to below the first joint, is rolled
evenly. Generally, the weight of the finger is the maximum pressure needed to clearly record
a fingerprint. In order to take advantage of the natural movement of the forearm, the hand
should be rotated from the more difficult position to the easiest position. This requires the
thumbs be rolled towards and the fingers away from the center of the individual’s body. Roll
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each finger from nail to nail in the appropriate space, taking care to lift each finger up after
rolling to avoid smudging.
9. When using the ink and paper method and a rolled impression is not acceptable, you may
use an adhesive retab to cover the fingerprint in its space. (Only two ratabs can be applied
to each fingerprint block.) for live scan, the image should be deleted and retaken.
10. For a Type – 4, plain impressions are typically printed last. The technician simultaneously
presses the individual’s four fingers of the right hand, keeping the fingers together on the
surface of the card or live scan device at a 45 – degree angle to capture all four fingers in
the allotted space. Repeat this process for the left hand and then print both thumbs. Type –
14 capture protocols requires the technician to simultaneously press the individual’s four
fingers on the surface of the live scan device at a 90 degree vertical angle. Care should be
taken to capture all fingers in the allotted space. Repeat this process for the left hand and
print both thumbs simultaneously (4-4-2 method). Capturing all fingers and thumbs in a
vertical position improves finger segmentation software accuracy.
11. Complete all required textual information. It is important to enter the appropriate date in al
fields when known.
SPECIAL CIRCUMSTANCES
1. Deformed or Missing Fingers
If the finger is deformed, every attempt should be made to record the fingerprint
in both the rolled and plain impression blocks. A post mortem kit, which is more commonly
known as a spoon, can be utilized to assist in recording these images. If unable to record
the image, simply place a notation in the fingerprint block (e.g. deformed, webbed) or
electronically apply the Unable to Print (UP) code in data field 2.084.
Missing fingers are fingers physically present but cannot be recorded at the time
of capture due to injury. Each missing finger should be designated via a notation in the
fingerprint block (e.g. bandaged, injured, crippled, paralyzed) or electronically apply the UP
code in data field 2.084.
2. Fully Amputated Fingers
An amputated finger occurs when the finger’s first joint is no longer physically
present. Amputated fingers should be designated via a notation in the fingerprint block (e.g.
amputated, missing at birth, severed) or electronically apply the amputated (XX) code in
data field 2.084.
3. Tip Amputated Fingers
If a portion of the first joint is present, record the available fingerprint pattern area
in both the rolled and plain impression blocks.
4. Extra Fingers
When fingerprinting an individual with an extra finger, record only the thumb and
next four fingers. Do not record the extra finger as either a rolled or plain impression.
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5. Scarred Fingers
Record scarred fingers in both the rolled and plain impressions without a
notation.
6. Worn Fingerprints
An individual, by the nature of their work or age, may have very thin or worn
ridges in the pattern area. Apply light pressure and use very little ink to record these types of
fingerprint impressions. A technique known as “milking the finger” can be used to raise the
fingerprint ridges prior to printing. This technique involves applying pressure or rubbing the
fingers in a downward motion from palm to fingertip.
TYPES OF FINGERPRINT IMPRESSIONS
1. Rolled Impression – These are the ten individually taken fingerprint images rolled from nail
to nail. The two thumbs will be rolled towards the subject’s body while the remaining fingers
will be rolled away or outside from the subject’s body. The recording of the rolled impression
is in proper sequence to start with right thumb in block no.1, right index finger in block no. 2,
right middle finger in block no. 3, right ring finger in block no. 4, right little finger in block no.
5, left thumb in block no. 6, left index finger in block no. 7, left middle finger in block no. 8,
left ring finger in block no. 9, and left little finger in block no. 10. (See Figure 224)
2. Plain Impression – These are taken simultaneously without rolling of the fingers. Also,
known as slap or flat impression. The individual’s right and left four fingers should be captured
or recorded first, followed by the two-thumbs (4-4-2 method). The plain impression is used to
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verify the sequence and accuracy of the rolled impression if the ten fingers it really occupied in
their respective blocks before to start classification. (See Figure 225)
INVESTIGATOR’S GUIDE IN TAKING STANDARD FINGERPRINTS
1. Use only fingerprint card from PNPCL accredited supplier.
Reason for Rejection – submission of non-prescribe fingerprint card. E.g. Bond paper, Oslo
paper etc.
2. Use only fingerprint ink.
Reason for rejection- use of stamp pad ink.
3. Filling –out the PNPCL fingerprint card.
Reason for rejection – incomplete entries.
The following information must be properly filled-out and completed; entries must be
type written or printed, use black or blue ink only.
Note: In case the subject is illiterate, the Investigator On-Case or any of the subject’s relative
should fill-out the information as required in the fingerprint card.
1. Last Name, First Name, Middle Name
 All boxes (last name, first name and middle name) must be completely filled-out except
for Chinese, Japanese and other nationalities who have no middle name.
 Qualifier should be placed at the right side of the first name.
83
2. Nickname
 Other name/s of the subject.
3. Date of Birth
 Must be in the order and character stated hereunder.
Example: MM DD YYYY
01 31 1992
 If the date of birth of the subject is not known to him/her or could not recall it, the
Investigator On-Case may refer to the nearest kin, if could not, the investigator should
estimate the age of the subject, e.g. Between 18 to 25 years old, which should be
noted in the box provided for the date of birth.
4. Sex
 Should be indicated by either “F” (female) or “M” (male).
5. Address
 Should indicate the Region, Province, City or Municipality and Barangay.
6. Citizenship
 Filipino, Chinese, Taiwanese, Japanese, etc.
7. Occupation
 Businessman, Company employee, etc.
8. Place of Birth
 Should be indicated the Region, Province and City or Municipality of the Police Station.
9. Built
 Should be indicated by either “L” (large), “M” (medium) or “S” (small).
10. Blood Type
 Should either be “A”, “B”, “AB”, or “O”.
11. Region, Province, City
 Should indicate the Region, Province and City or Municipality of the Police Station.
12. APPREHENSION DATA:
 Should indicate the Case No. and the Arrest No.
13. District, Barangay/ Zone, Police Station No.
 Should indicate the, Region. District, Barangay, Zone and Police Station No. of the
arresting office.
14. Charge or Offense
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 Should indicate whether theft, robbery, rape and /or murder etc., must be in full word
/s, no abbreviation.
15. Photo
 Should be with 2”x2” or 2”x11/2” size picture.
16. Business Address/ Company/ School
 Should indicate the Region, Province, City or Municipality and Barangay.
17. Place of Arrest
 Should indicate the specific place where the person was arrested to include the
Region, Province, City or Municipality and Barangay.
18. Signature of Person Fingerprinted
 Handwritten signature should appear in black or blue ink.
19. Date of Arrest
 Must be in the order and character stated hereunder.
Example: MM DD YYYY
01 31 2012
20. Name &Signature of Official Taking Fingerprint
 Must appear the handwritten signature over the printed name with rank in black or blue
ink.
21. Arresting Officer/s
 The complete name of the arresting officer with the rank should appear.
22. Court/ Final Disposition
 Should indicate the status of the case, e.g. filed in court, RTC Br 12, QC; on bail;
convicted, etc.
23. Identifying Marks
 Scars, marks (tattoo) and amputation if any.
Figure 226
Figure 227
FINGER AND PALM IMPRESSIONS

1. Fingerprint should be properly rolled and in the proper sequence.
2. Fingerprint should be at the center of each designated rolled and plain print boxes
not touching or going beyond the individual box boundary lines.
85
3. Each rolled fingerprint must be clear and can be classified/ identified.

4. Each rolled fingerprint must clearly show the pattern area, the core (the center)
down to the delta/s, except the arches.
5. Box or boxes with split thumbprint, webbed fingerprint and /or extra fingerprint
should be cited or noted in the remarks provided at the other side of the fingerprint
card.
6. Box or boxes with no rolled fingerprint must appear a notation as “amputated”, “with
fresh wound” and / or “with bandage”.
7. Box with notation “left four fingers taken simultaneously” should be with the left four
fingerprints clearly showing their correct individual height differences. (This
formation aids the examiner in checking the proper sequence of the left hand rolled
fingerprints)
8. Boxes with notation “right four fingers taken simultaneously" should be with the left
four fingerprints clearly showing their correct individual height differences. (This
formation aids the examiner in checking the proper sequence of the left hand rolled
fingerprints)
9. Boxes with notation “left thumb” and right thumb” should show the left thumb finger
and right thumb finger plain impressions, respectively.
10. Left and right palm prints should be impressed in a position following the arrow sign
up (fingers pointing at the heading part of the card during recording) on the space
provided for the two palms on the other side of the card.
IMPORTANT POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN TAKING STANDARD PRINTS

1. Cleanliness of equipment (ink slab, ink roller, card holder
2. The right kind and correct amount of ink.
3. Proper distribution of ink on the glass slab or inking plate.
4. The distance of the subject from the inking plate or the fingerprint card.
5. The advice of the operator to the subject is to relax and never to aid in the operation
6. The pressure exerted must be slight and even, and the rolling should be continuous
movement including the lifting.
7. The nail of the fingers should be at right angle to the glass slab
8. The inking and printing must always reach below the first joint of the finger.
9. The thumb should be rolled towards the subject’s body while all other fingers away
from the subject’s body.
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10. While rolling the fingers, the subject’s hand should be held/controlled properly to
prevent twisting and slipping of the fingers.
11. Add small amount of ink if necessary and distribute properly the ink using the roller
by rolling over the ink on the inking plate.
12. Place the subject’s palm on the inking plate then press, use the ink roller to
completely cover the entire palm with the ink. Do the same with the other palm.
13. To record the palms, at the other side of the card carefully position the palm
following the arrow sign up (fingers pointing at the heading part of the card) as
provided in the space for the palms, then press the palm unto card using firm, even
pressure with the fingers slightly spread. Again do the same with the other palm.
14. Record the side of the palm by positioning the palm 45 degrees slanting towards the
subject’s body, then press.
15. Proper alignment.
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTER DURING TAKING OF STANDARD FINGERPRINT

1. When the subject is illiterate:
SOLUTION: The Investigator On-Case or any of the subject’s nearest kin should fill-
out the information as required in the fingerprint card and place a notation that the
subject is illiterate on the box provided for the signature of the person fingerprinted
or on the Remarks.
2. When the subject’s birth date is not known or could not be recalled:
SOLUTION: The Investigator On-Case may refer to the subject’s nearest kin, if not,
the investigator should estimate the age if the subject, e.g. between 18 years to 25
years old, which should be noted in the box provided for the date of birth.
3. When the subject’s refuses to give information and / or to sign:
SOLUTION: After taking the standard prints of the subject, the Investigator On-
Case may fill-out the card utilizing those compiled information about the subject and
shall place a notation that the subject refuses to give information and0or to sign.
4. When the subject’s finger have fresh cut wounds or bandage which will
prevent the recording:
SOLUTION: Note in the corresponding space on the card. eg., Fresh cut bandaged
finger etc, and when would has healed, re-take another set of standard fingerprint.
5. When the hands are perspiring excessively:
87
SOLUTION: Wipe the finger with cloth immediately before inking. If the perspiration
cannot be controlled, wipe the fingers with alcohol.
6. When the fingers are very dry like the fingers of brick layers and
carpenters:
SOLUTION: Rub the finger with oil, cream or lotion.
7. When the fingers are very fine like the ridges of the fingers of the children:
SOLUTION: Use a very little amount of ink or spread a very thin coating of ink on
the glass slab.
8. When one or more of the fingers are lacking or missing:
SOLUTION: Record the present fingers and place a notation on the corresponding
space on the card e.g. Missing at the birth, and amputated at the first joint.
9. When the finger are bent, broken or crippled:
SOLUTION: The tools (e.g. special ink roller or spatula and a curves strip holder)
that are used for obtaining prints from deceased individuals can be used to record
the friction ridge details.
10. When the subject has more than ten fingers that appear anywhere or
between any of the fingers:
SOLUTION: Record the thumbs and the next four fingers, then for the extra
finger/s, record only the fully developed on extra fingerprint card with a notation as
to where it appears.
11. In case of a split thumb, a thumb having two, nails or when the subject
has two or more fingers, webbed or grown together, making it impossible to
roll such fingers in its side.
SOLUTION: Print the usual manner just like any normal thumb and make a notation
at the back of the card on the box for the identifying marks or space for the
Remarks.
12. The print is not properly rolled (there is slip or slide), very long or very
short, has too much ink or short of ink, or a plane instead of a rolled.
SOLUTION: Cover the wrong print using the correction paper, but first have the
correct print impressed on the correction paper. Use correction paper up to 2x
only.
88
CHAPTER VII
LABORATORY EXAMINATION OF
FINGERPRINT
MACROPHOTOGRAPHY
Known as photomicrography or macrography, is the extreme close-up photography,
usually of very small subject, in which the size of the subject in the photography is greater
than life size, though macrophotography technically refers to the art of making large
photography.
Photographic Equipment for Macrophotography of Fingerprints

The following are some of the photographic equipments designed to enlarged the
fingerprint both the standard and questioned specimen as a basis of making fingerprint
comparison charts and dactyloscopy report for court presentation as expert witness. (See
Figure 228-234) .
FINGERPRINT COMPARISON
Fingerprint comparison is one of the best-know forensic techniques employed in
criminology and crime scene investigation. The skin surface on the inside of the fingers and
the palm is covered by tiny ridges that form a unique pattern for every person – even identical
twins have different fingerprints and these patterns remain unchanged throughout a person’s
life. Sweat glands in the finger secrete fluid containing water, salts such as sodium chloride,
lipids and amino acids that leave a deposit in the pattern of the ridges on surface touched by
a finger. While the water evaporates fairly quickly under most circumstances, the other
components can persist for long periods, leaving a pattern that, if it can be recovered and
analysed, will uniquely identified the person. Fingerprints found at the crime scene can be
matched against those from a suspect or on a database; however, before fingerprint
comparison can take place the prints must be recovered and rendered fit for analysis.
89
Fingerprint comparison matches prints on patterns and minutiae. Patterns describes the
main structures of the ridges and are categorized into three main fingerprints types: arches,
loops and whorls. Each of which can be divided into sub-categories. Minutiae are small
irregularities within the main pattern and fall into four categories; dots which are small,
isolated fragments of ridges; bifurcations, where a ridge splits into two; enclosure or lake,
where a ridge splits then joins again; and an ending ridge, where a ridge terminates.
Fingerprints held electronically. In the latter case, the fingerprint comparison process is
largely automated using programs that employ print matching algorithms.
Four Important Elements an Examiner should Keep in Mind in Comparing Two

Fingerprints
1. Prints must be of the same type of patterns.
2. The quality of friction ridges must conform in both prints.
3. The number of charted ridge characteristics must correspond in both latent and inked
prints.
4. Location, direction and distances of friction ridges must be in agreement in both latent and
inked prints.
Simple Steps Involved in Preparing Fingerprint Enlargements for Court Use

1. There is no law requiring enlargements of fingerprint charts. Each examiner or any agency
may have any size for their own use. The latent and inked records should be enlarged with
the same degree of magnification. Enlargement may be 8x10 or even 12x14 inches.
Enlargement smaller than these are too small to show ridge characteristics for the court to
see. There should be a space at the margin of at least two or more inches around each print
to number the points of comparison.
2. Mark off the latent print first. A latent print is usually fragmentary and the ridges are
obscured. To chart the record print first would result in repetition of work, for you might
number some clear details shown which are not found in the latent impression.
3. The charted ridge characteristics in the latent print must bear the same number with those
characteristics in the record print.
4. Mark off and number only those characteristics that appear in both latent and record prints.
5. When marking the ridge characteristics, be sure that you are using enlarged photographs
of the natural size prints for a better view. Do not attempt mark off the ridges details on the
natural size prints. This will muddle your work because the ridge formations are so small.
90
6. Be sure that when placing the projection lines which point out the ridge characteristics
none those lines cross each other. It is normal that they will cross or touch the friction ridges,
but each ink line must not cross another ink.
7. Be careful not to place the projection lines in red ink so heavily that they will obscure the
ridges characteristic only but not over it.
8. There is no set of rules to follow in charting out the ridge characteristics for comparison,
but it is general practice among examiners to start with the core is it is shown in the latent
print. Mark the core as number 1. Then continue by placing the number consecutively on the
remaining characteristics running out to the edge of the pattern, should all extended over the
edge of the print about the same distance so that they show an even appearance around the
enlarged exhibits.
9. Do not tamper or make any unnecessary marks on the enlargement exhibits. Never, under
any circumstances, do any anything also to the negatives of the evidence. The law of
evidence requires that all evidence must be in its original condition as circumstances will
permit.
After marking off the characteristics on the latent and record prints and after numbering
them the same on both enlarged exhibits make a list of the numbers and names of all the
ridge characteristics. Mount these two exhibits side by side on a piece of white cardboard
with the latent print on the left and the record print on the right. Provide a space between the
exhibits wide enough to mount the list of numbered ridge characteristics. Print the names of
the characteristics as neatly as possible in arrange order. After doing this, you can see that
your evidence is in one whole piece. You have now your master print.
When you got to court, bring with you all the negatives involved in the case. Sometimes
you will be told by the opposing counsel that you retouched or tampered with the evidence.
You can politely show or produce the negatives to prove that nothing was done to them.
In addition to the photographic exhibits and the negatives, you should also have with you
the complete notes you made at crime scene, the crime scene sketch which you made at the
time of your investigation, a full view photograph of the object or surface on which you found
the latent print with the impression still intact( if it was a portable articles) or the lifted latent
print, and the set of inked prints of the defendant which you used for comparison.
SAMPLE OF FINGERPRINT COMPARISON CHART

(FIGURE 235)
SAMPLE OF DACTYLOSCOPY REPORT
91
(FIGURE 236)
CHAPTER VIII
FINGERPRINT EXHIBIT IN COURT
EXPERT WITNESS
According to legal dictionary the free dictionary com., expert witness are person who are
qualifies, either by actual experience or by careful study, to form definite opinions with
respect to a division of science, a branch of art, or a department of trade. The law deems
persons having no such experience or training to be incapable of forming accurate opinions
or drawing correct conclusions. Thus, if scientific, technical, or other specialized knowledge
will assist the trier of fact to understand the evidence or to determine a fact in issue, a
witness qualified as an expert by knowledge, skill, experience, training, or education , may
testify in the form of an opinion.
In addition, the Wikipedia define expert witness is a witness, who by virtue of education,
training, skill or experience is believed to have expertise and specialized knowledge in a
particular subject beyond that of the average person, sufficient that others may officially and
legally rely upon the witness’s specialized (scientific, technical or other) opinions about an
evidence or fact issue within the scope of his expertise, referred to as the expert opinions, as
an assistances to the fact-finder. Expert witnesses may also deliver expert evidence about
facts from the domain of their expertise. At times, their testimony may be rebutted with a
learned treatise, sometimes to the detriment of their reputations.
FINGERPRINT EXPERT
A fingerprint expert is a person who through experience, training, and education has a
complete knowledge and skill in the science of fingerprints and if called upon by the courts to
testify, can externalize that knowledge and skill in a forceful, yet convincing and intelligent
manner.
92
GUIDE TO PROPER DEMEANOR IN THE COURT THE EXPERT WITNESS ON THE

STAND
1. Walk to the witness stand with even steps.
2. When taking the oath, hold your arm up high with fingers straight and look at the officer
administering the oath.
3. When the officer finishes the oath, “So help me God,” You say “I do” in a loud voice so that
all in the courtroom can hear. Do not wear flashly clothes.
4. When you take the witness stand, do so with confidence and dignity. Think before you
speak.
5. When you begin to speak loudly enough to be heard at the back of the courtroom.
6. Speak slowly and clearly. Use simple terms and phrases. Do not use high sounding or
technical words and expressions that the judge and the court personnel cannot understand.
7. Listen closely to the questions you are asked. Don’t be in a hurry. Take your time; be
careful and sure of what you say.
8. Be fair and frank. Do not be too anxious to please or too eager to fight.
9. Do not speak as though you have a personal grudge against the defendant and would try
to convict hum.
10. Keep your temper. Don’t let anyone irritate you into arguments over trivial points or even
important ones. Be firm, but flexible.
11. If a question is asked and you are not sure of the answer or you can’t remember, say
loudly and clearly. “I do not know.”
12. Be Courteous to your own counsel; do the same to the opposition counsel. Do not give a
long- winded answer, but do answer the questions fully and simply. Sometimes a judge
may interpose a question. If he does, you have to face hem when you make a reply.
13. Don’t get caught by the opposition’s counsel’s trick like this: Did you ever discuss this
case with anyone? Do not be taken in by this trick. Of course you did, and if asked, you can
beat him at his game answering, “Yes sir, I discussed the case with… name of the Attorney
who called you”
14. Do not volunteer too much information when you answer a question. Be brief, Just
answer the question and stop.
15. Never refer to the defendant as a “guilty party” or the “criminal.” In our jurisprudence, the
accused is innocent until he is proven guilty and the only person who can say he is guilty is
the judge.
93
16. Avoid mannerism of speech. Do not be in the habit of prefacing your replies with
redundant phrases like “I can truthfully say… May cast doubts on your testimony”
17. Never permit the opposition counsel to make you angry. This is a trick and when angered
you become confused and may say the wrong thing.
18. When the opposing counsel tries to get you to answer a question by a mere “Yes” or “No”
and you think this might affect your testimony before you have a chance to complete your
answer, turn to the Judge and say, “Your honour, May I please explain my answer?
19. Do not use the words – “I think” or “I guess.” You are in Court to state facts. When one of
the lawyers calls “objection” or if the Court interrupts, stop your testimony immediately and
wait until the Court gives its ruling.
20. Do not chew gum, It affects your demeanour.
21. Do not try to converse with anybody, witnesses, or parties to the controversy during the
recess. Converse only with the attorney who retrains you to testify.
22. Do not memorize your testimony. On the other hand, keep your testimony flowing
smoothly without break in your remarks.
23. Avoid nodding your head to indicate a “yes” or “no”
24. When addressing the Court, use “Your honour” and when addressing the Attorneys, use
their names.
25. Always tell the truth.
26. At the conclusion of your testimony, ask if you may be excused; then leave the court
immediately.
QUALIFYING IN COURT AS AN EXPERT WITNESS
A witness who is to give testimony concerning fingerprint in court must not only understand
how to take prints, classify, file, search a file, find latent impressions, developed latent
impressions, photographed latent impressions, and prepare fingerprint evidence for trials, but
he must also be familiar with the history, literature. And legal precedence of his profession.
He should be able to state truthfully the length of time he has been engaged as a fingerprint
expert and the appropriate number of fingerprint records which he has taken, classified, and
filed. If he is also able to say he has in the past testified in court as a fingerprint expert, he
should experience little difficulty in obtaining the court’s recognition of his as an expert
witness.
94
Ordinarily, the opinion of a witness is not admissible in court, but opinion evidence is
admitted on questions, which the court is not competent to decide without assistance
because of its difficulty. This is the field of the skilled witness and expert testimony. However,
expert witness cannot, any more than ordinary witness, invade the province of the court by
giving opinions matters which the courts are competent to decide for themselves.
Obviously, the qualifications demanded of an expert witness are higher than those of a lay
witness. The expert witness must show training and practical experience in the field in which
he sets himself up as an authority.
It is true that here is always a first appearance in court as an expert for each fingerprint
specialist; if we said that only those who have testified before in courts expert should appear
as such we would exhaust the supply of experts when the present expert all died. However,
even though each must have an initial appearance, he should not go into court as an expert
witness unless he has enough years of experience in the handling of thousands of prints
(baked up of thorough theoretical knowledge of the field) to obtain the confidence of the
court. There is no certain number of years of experience, no definite number of fingerprints
taken and field, which can be given as minimum. Some men may be excellent fingerprint
experts for all other purposes and fail in court because of their nervousness, poor personality,
or other human weakness.
DIRECT EXAMINATION BY THE PROSECUTOR

Direct examination is the first questioning of a witness during a trial or deposition (testimony
out of court), as distinguished from cross-examination by opposing attorneys and re-direct
examination when the witness is again questioned by the original attorney. During the course
of a direct examination generally asks specific questions that provide the foundation of the
case.
The actual questions used in examining the qualifications of expert witness will vary with
each trial, but the following questions and are typical ones based on the examination of trial
records. After the expert witness has been given the oath, the prosecutor asks the following
questions:
1. What is your name?
2. Mr Witness, what is your occupation?
3. What is your principal duty?
4. How long you have been a fingerprint examiner?
5. What occupation did you follow before becoming fingerprint examiner?
95
6. When was your appointment as Fingerprint Technician?

7. During the time that you were a Fingerprint Technician what were your duties?
8. How many years in all have you been engaged in fingerprint work?
9. Have you ever received instructions in fingerprint science?
10. Where did you receive this instruction?
11. When did you take the instruction?
12. What were the hours of instruction?
13. What is latent fingerprint?
14. Why are they called latent fingerprint?
15. In fingerprint, what do you mean by developed?
16. How is this accomplished?
17. Have you ever developed latent prints?
18. Can you compare a latent print after it was developed with the inked prints from a person
and tell whether or not the latent print was left by that person?
CROSS-EXAMINATION BY THE DEFENSSE ATTORNEY

Cross-examination is the opportunity for the attorney (or an unrepresented party) to ask
questions in court of a witness who has testified in a trial on behalf of the opposing party. The
questions on cross-examination are limited to the subjects covered in the direct examination
of the witness, but importantly, the attorney may ask leading questions, in which he/she is
allowed to suggest answers or put words in the witness’ mouth. After a witness is directly
examined, the opposing side conducts a cross-examination, the purpose of which is to
impeach or test the validity of the testimony. The following are the possible questions being
asked by the defense counsel to the expert witness:
1. How many fingerprint records are in your files?
2. How are they filed?
3. Have you found fingerprints from different people to have the same classification?
4. Then why did you say that you never found any two fingerprints alike?
5. What is classification of fingerprints?
6. In your experience, have you ever made a mistake identifying fingerprints?
7. Have you examined the fingerprints of all people in the world?
Defense Attorney: I shall not object to the qualification of this witness.
96
CHAPTER IX
AUTOMATED FINGERPRINT IDENTIFICATION

SYSTEM (AFIS)
AFIS is a type of biometric system that uses digital imaging to capture a fingerprint, which
then can then be compared to a database of fingerprint records to help determine the identity
of an individual.
AFIS is a biometrics system commonly used in law enforcement where sets of prints
recovered in the crime scene were compared against the database of known and unknown
prints.
PURPOSE OF EQUIPMENT
 AFIS is the answer to the labour-intensive and time consuming process of classifying,
searching, and matching fingerprint used for identification.
 AFIS is primarily use by law enforcement agencies for criminal identification. The
most important of which include identifying a person suspected of committing a crime
or linking a suspect to other unsolved crimes. It also helps to identify victim of natural
and manmade disasters.
 No matter how competent the evidence technician is at performing his job, the
gathering of physical evidence at a crime scene will be futile unless such evidence
can be properly processed and analysed. Since fingerprints are by far the most
frequently retrieved physical evidence, making the system of analysing such prints
effective will contribute the most toward greater success in identifying criminal
offenders through the use of physical evidence. (Petersilia, 1975, p12)
FUNCTIONS OF LAW ENFORCEMENT –AFIS
97
1. Search a set of known fingerprint (ten prints) against the records of an existing ten prints
database (ten prints) inquiry (TI);
2. Search a latent print from a crime scene against a ten prints data base (Latent Inquiry
(LI));
3. Search a latent print from a crime scene against the record of existing unsolved crime
database (Latent to Latent Inquiry (LLI)); and
4. Search a new ten prints against the record of existing unsolved crimes database (Ten
print to Latent Inquiry (TLI)).
ILLUSTRATIVE FUNCTIONS IF AFIS

(Figure 238)
FINGERPRINT IDENTIFICATION
There are two types of fingerprint identification: Tenprint Identification used to confirm
the identity and criminal histories of arrested suspects, and Latent Print Identification using
latent print from the scene of a crime to identifying a suspect. The PNP Crime Laboratory
(PNP CL) uses an Automated Fingerprint Identification System to process these operations.
The illustrative procedures of fingerprint identification are as follows.
(Figure 239)
FINGERPRINT IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM

(Figure 240)
REGISTERED IN PNP-AFIS DATABASE AS OF APRIL 15, 2013
2004-2023 TOTAL
Tenprint 677,215
Latent Print 14,582
AUTOMATED FINGERPRINT IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM –HITS

A “hit” is a term used if the findings of an AFIS examiner or operator matched the search
print and the file print in the database.
98
NUMBER OF PNP-AFIS HIT AS OF APRIL 15, 2013
2004-2013 TOTAL
Hit cases 273 cases
PHILLIPPINE NATIONAL POLICE – AFIS SIGNIFICANT HITS

a. Post mortem Identification
February 2009 – Human body parts particularly left right arm of a suspect
malefactor and believe to be a victim of summary execution was found Maligaya
Park, Fairview, Quezon City
Immediately thereafter, the result was completed in less than an hour that yielded
to the positive identification of the owner of the fingerprint.
Figure 242
b. Identification of suspect (Series of Crimes)
Figure 243
c. Identification Other identity and Criminal History
Figure 244
References/Sources.
Books:
1. Depayso, V.P. (2018) - The Basics of Fingerprint Palmprint and Footprint.Wiseman’s Books
Trading
2. GGrundy, B.J. (2018). The Law Enforcement and Forensic Examiner’s Introduction to Linux:
A Comprehensive Beginner’s Guide to Linux as a Digital Forensic Platform. LinuxLEO.com
3. Ewald, T. (2017). Writing in the technical fields: a practical guide. (2nd Edition) Oxford University Press
4. Ayusip, A.L., et al. (2019) Handbook in Personal Identification Techniques. Wiseman’s Books Trading,
Inc.
5. Cueno, DB.C., et al. (2019) Forensic Science: Personal Identification Techniques. Wiseman’s Books
Trading, Inc.
6. Villaluz, J.C. (2018). Basic Fingerprinting. (1st ed.) Rex Book Store
7. Domingo, CG., et al. (2021) Forensic Reviewer (1st ed.) Wiseman Books Trading
99

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A Learning Manual Exclusive to the Criminology Students of NEMSU CANTILAN | Personal Identification|

Chapter 1: Overview of Dactyloscopy

THOMAS BEWICK (1753-1828) – He was an

JOHANN CHRISTOPH ANDREAS MAYER (1747-1801) – He

anatomical, he made no mention of the individuals being

designed for men who had reached full physical maturity

Volkmann as director of the anatomical institute at Halle.

Upon learning that a thief was arrested by the

fingerprints. He wrote about the technique inadvertently

Dactyloscopy). He traveled to India and China and attended

JOHN DILLINGER (1903- 1934) – He was an American gangster in

ALLIED SCIENCES of DACTYLOSCOPY:

2. Macrodactyl – it is a rare condition in which an infant’s finger or toes are abnormally

3. Syndactyly – it is a condition of having two or more digits of fingers united or joined

4. Brachydactyly – it is a medical term which literally means “shortness and smallness of

TWO LAYERS OF THE SKIN

Kinds of Sweat Glands:

TWO COMPONENT PARTS OF THE FRICTION SKIN:

9. Appendage – it is a short ridge located and connected at the top or summit of a

11. Fragmentary Ridge or Broken Ridge – it is a ridge that appears to be continuous

TWO FOCAL POINT OF FINGERPRINTS:

Rules in the Selection of Delta location:

CORE – it is otherwise known as “Inner Terminus”. It is a point on the ridge formation

Rules in the Selection of Core Location:

Rules in Ridge Counting:

2. Draw an imaginary line from the core to the delta.

Numerical Values for Counting of Ridges:

2. A short ridge is given one ridge count.

3. A long ridge is given one ridge count.

4. An abrupt – ending ridge is given one ridge count.

6. Ridge enclosures are counted as two ridges.

7. Criss – Crossing or meeting is counted as two ridges.

THREE LARGE GROUP OF FINGERPRINT:

EIGHT SUB-GROUPS OF THE FINGERPRINT:

Type of Tented Arch:

6. CENTRAL POCKET LOOP WHORL – this is a pattern which

Elements of Central Pocket Loop Whorl:

7. DOUBLE LOOP WHORL – double loop whorl is a pattern in which

Elements of Double Loop Whorl:

Types of Double Loop Whorl:

2. Twinned Loop – Are those patterns whose ridges

Types of Core Formation not Included in the Double Loop Whorl:

2. The “interlocking” type.

3. The formation of a loop inside another loop.

8. ACCIDENTAL WHORL - This is a pattern consisting of a combination of two different types

Elements of Accidental Whorl

4. When the ridge being traced is a bifurcation

Symbol of Ridge Tracing Result

FINGERPRINT CLASSIFICATION FORMULA

Fingerprint Patterns Blocking Out Symbols

DIVISION OF THE CLASSIFICATION FORMULA

POSITION OF FINGERPRINT CLASSIFICATION RESULT IN THE CLASSIFICATION LINE

Key Major Primary Secondary Sub-secondary Final

Division of Patterns as to Numerical Values

A. First Pair – are composed of the

2. Assigning numerical values to whorl patterns only- these numerical values

3. Knowing the numerators and denominators in the pairs

2.2 Small Letter Group

3. SUB – SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION

Symbols for Whorls as a Result of Ridge Tracing

Table 1 or A – Ridge count and Letter Symbols for Loops

Table 2 or B – Ridge Count and Letter Symbols for Loops

Rules in Deriving the Ridge Count of Whorls

Rules in Deriving the Ridge Count of Whorl Treated as Ulnar Loop