Chapter 1

History of Fingerprints

Fingerprints had been considered as one of the most infallible means of

identification. It has been utilized at present into large extent, from public to private
documents, and from simple clearance to a very important document. For every person
studying the science of fingerprints and those who are practitioner in the field, it is a
must that they should have to be acquainted with this historical development. Every
scientific principle basically lies its evidentiary value and credibility to its discovery and
the facts behind its development and distinction. Think of a scenario inside a trial court,
a situation in which the defense lawyer, looking for a way to discard the credibility of the
expert witness, they sometimes resort to asking of question which are relative to the
historical basis and basic principle of the scientific evidence presented.

A. ORIGIN OF FINGERPRINTS

The Chinese are the one noted to be the first user of

fingerprints. “Hua Chi” is the name given by the Chinese in
referring to fingerprints. They used fingerprints as symbolism in
the early part of the history as a part of their “rituals”, until they
utilize it in the signing of a contract on the part of illiterate. The
thumb mark of the destitute is place on the slip of the bamboo
were the contract was written. Infants at that time were taken
fingerprints for possible identification and every mother is
familiar with the fingerprint of their newborn.

The Chinese were well acquainted with the essential

characteristics of fingerprint. The Arches and Whorls are called
by them “LO” (snail)’ Loops are “KI” (sieve or winnowing basket).
The loops are look upon as presages of good luck.
 Emperor Te’in Shi (246-210 BC) was the first Chinese
ruler who devised a seal carved from white jade. On the side of
it was the name of the owner, and on the other side the
impression of the thumb. Such seal were used in sealing
documents as a sign authenticity. Though the Chinese were well
familiar with the types of fingerprint patterns, they did not make
any system to develop a classification system.

B. SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF FINGERPRINT

1. Dr. Marcelo Malpighi (1628-1694) – A professor of
Anatomy in the University of Bologna, Italy who published a book
entitled “De Externo Tactus Organo” depicting the construction of
the layers of the skin, particularly the friction skin namely the
Epidermis and the Dermis. He originated the term “Loops and
Spiral” and because of his contribution one of the thin layer of the
friction skin was named after him, the “Malphigian Layer”.

2. Johann Christoph Andreas Mayer (J.C.A. Mayer,

1788) – He stated in his book (Anatomische Kuphertafein Nebst
Dazugehörigen). Although the arrangement of the skin ridges is
never duplicated in two persons, nevertheless, the similarities are
closer among the some individuals. (PRINCIPLE OF
INDIVIDUALITY)

3. Professor Johannes Evangelista Purkinje (1823) –

A professor in the University of Breslau, Germany who discovered
in this study of physiology, that the skin on the inner surface if the
hands bore patterns, which he later named and set rules governing
their classification and even identify nine types of patterns, but he
did not associate it with identification. He contributes an important
landmark in the history of fingerprint science. It was his book “Commentario de
Examine Physiologico Organi Visus et Systematis Cutanei” (A Commentary of the
Physiological Examination of the Organs of Vision and the Cutaneous System)
that brought about a systematic classification of varieties of fingerprint pattern.

4. Herman Welcker (1856) – He undertook an

experiment by printing his right palm to prove himself if the ridges
change and after forty-one (41) years later, he again printed his right
palm. The following year, he published these palm prints. Though
taken two scores apart, it proved that the ridge characteristics do
not change. Aside from the expected evidence of an advance in
age, the ridges of the latter print are identical with those of the other
print taken nearly half century before. (PRINCIPLE OF
PERMANENCY)

C. FINGERPRINT AS A METHOD OF IDENTIFICATION

1. Sir William James Herschell – He published a forty
one (41) pages book, “The Origin of Fingerprinting” which
described his research starting 1858 when he practiced actual
recording of the finger and palm prints of the native Indian. He was
In-Charge then of a sub-division of British and Hindu personnel at
Jungipoor on the Hoogly district. He contacted a native named
Rajyadhar Konai who become the first subject of finger printing.
Herschel decided to place the native’s entire palm on the document
as safeguard against repudiation of signatures. Thus, this Konai palm print made
fingerprint history. Herschel wrote to a superior suggesting that fingerprints be used to
prevent impersonation and further requested permission to initiate the fingerprint system
in all jails in India. However, Herschel’s request was refused but he continued using
friction ridge. Thus, Herschel, for his pioneering efforts, was the first European of the
modern period to practice fingerprint identification.
 2. Dr. Henry Faulds (1843-1930) – In Tokyo, Japan
published an article in the British Journal Nature describing the
importance of fingerprints for identification purposes. His article “In
the Furrows of the Hand” points out his observation that chance
prints left at the scene of the crime would provide for positive
identification of offenders when apprehended. His ideas are
remarkable for their anticipation of present day practices. He
recommended the use of a thin film of printer’s ink as transfer
medium, just as fingerprint ink is generally used today.
(PRINCIPLE OF INFALLIABILITY)

3. Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911) – is credited with

being the first scientist of friction skin identification as well as his
role in promoting its use. With deep interest in his study, Galton
was able to discover the three (3) families of fingerprint pattern –
Arch, Loop and Whorl. He revealed that ridge patterns remain
constant throughout the life of an individual and that the ridge
patterns are useful in devising a method of classification. His
eminence rest on the appearance of the ridge characteristics
which was named after him: the Galton details.

4. Sir Edward Richard Henry (1859-1931) – Inspired

by various predecessors in the study of fingerprint, he developed
his own system of classification while working in Scotland Yard.
His system of classification was established with the help of two
Hindu police officer namely Khan Bahadur Azizul Haque and Rai
Hem Chandra Bise and it was widely accepted by almost all
English speaking country making him as the “Father of
Fingerprint”. His system of identification finally replace the
Bertillionage system of identification in France (Anthropometry by
Alphonse Bertillion)
 5. Juan Vucetich (1891) – developed his own system
of classifying prints that was officially adopted in Argentina and
was used in mist Spanish speaking country.

6. Govard Bidloo – supported the work of Grew thru

thesis entitled “Anatomia Humanis Corposis” supported the
appearance and arrangement of ridges on a thumb.

7. Dr. Nehemiah Grew (1641-1712) – His thesis

entitled “Philosophical Transaction” was presented before the
Royal Society in London, England. He presented his observation
on the appearance of the ridges on the fingers and palms. He
described the pores and arrangement of ridges and showed a
drawing of the configuration of the same palm.
D. FINGERPRINT IN THE PHILIPPINES

Friction Ridge Identification in the Philippines

In the Philippines, fingerprinting started in 1900s through the Americans. A

certain Mr. Jones taught the science of fingerprinting in the Philippine Constabulary. It
was also then that the Criminal Records and Identification Division of Manila Police
District (now Western Police District) utilized the Bertillon system of identification. After
World War II, the Henry System of Fingerprint Classification was introduced by the US
Army.

Capt. Thomas Duggan of the New York Police Department and Flaviano C.
Guerrero, a Filipino member of the FBI helped to organize the fingerprinting in the NBI.
They gave the first examination in fingerprint in 1927, and a certain Agustin Patricio
topped in that examination.

In 1910, the Bureau of Corrections through Mr. Generoso La Torre, also adopted
fingerprint system for identification of inmates. He learned the system from Lt. George
M. Wolfe, the first director of the bureau of prisons from 1909 to 1910.
Generoso Reyes became the first Filipino fingerprint technician employed in the
Philippine Constabulary, while Isabela Bernales was the first Filipina fingerprint
technician.

The earliest case using fingerprint evidence to convict the suspect was People of
the Philippine Islands v. Marciano D. Medina (G.R. No. L-38434, December 23, 1933).

The establishment of crime laboratory system in the Philippines was created at

the end of the Second World War. On May 19, 1945 it started as a section of G-2
Division of Military Police Command, then known as the Fingerprint Record Section of
the Philippine Constabulary.

In 1946, a certain Lt. Asa N. Darby facilitated the establishment of complete

fingerprint files in the Division of Investigation and in the year that follows, it saw its
reorganization into Bureau of Investigation by virtue of the RA 157. It was finally
renamed as the National Bureau of Investigation when the law was amended by
Executive Order No. 94 issued on October 4, 1947

Plaridel College (now known as Philippine College of Criminology) is the first

recognized school in the Philippines to offer Fingerprint Identification as part of its
academic curricula in 1950.

In 1991 at the birth of Republic Act 6975, the Crime Laboratory service was
activated as a support unit of the new Philippine National Police under the Department
of Interior and Local Government (DILG). Later the PNP law (RA 6975) was amended
and the capability of crime laboratory was enhanced.

Today, both the Philippine National Police and the National Bureau of
Investigation maintain a fingerprint unit in their respective laboratories for crime
detection. Filipino practitioners are trained either by the United States Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI), England’s Scotland Yard, or by the Japan International Coordinating
Agency (JICA).

From China, fingerprinting technique went to Japan, then to India, Great Britain,
Canada, United States of America, and to the Philippines.

David Ashbaugh stressed that “knowledge of the historical aspect of a science is

one area frequently addressed when testifying in court”.

E. OTHER METHODS OF IDENTIFICATION

1. Identification of Living Person
i. Characteristics that may easily be changed:
a. Growth of hair, beard and mustache;
b. Clothing;
c. Frequent place of visit;
d. Grade or profession;
e. Body ornamentation such as earrings, necklace,
rings, bracelets, watch and others.

ii. Characteristics that may not easily be changed

a. Mental memory;
b. Speech;
c. Gait or manning of walking (ataxic, cerebellar,
cow’s paretic, spastic, wadding and frog’s gait);
d. Mannerism;
e. Hands and feet;
f. Complexion;
g. Face;
h. Eyes;
i. Body built;
 j. Left of right handedness;
k. Degree of nutrition.

2. Identification applicable for both living and dead person

i. Occupational mark
ii. Race
iii. Stature
iv. Teeth (Odontology – identification through dental record)
v. Tattoo marks
vi. Birth marks
vii. Scar marks
viii. Deformities
ix. Moles
x. Injuries living a permanent result
xi. Tribal marks
xii. Sexual organs (presence of Testes and Ovaries)
xiii. Blood Groupings (M-N-MN) and typing (A-B-AB-O System)
xiv. Hand writing and signature
xv. Anthropometry -- the first scientific method of identification which
was established by Alphonse Bertillion (Father of Personal
Identification). It is a system of identification done through
measuring various bony structure of the human body. It was first
used in England for almost two decades (20 years) before
fingerprint was used. In the United States of America on May 1,
1905, a young African American man named Will West was
admitted to Leavenworth Penitentiary in Kansas. His Bertillon
measurements were
taken. The records clerk
thought he looked
familiar, although West
denied having been there
 before. When the files were checked, a card was discovered with
similar measurements and bearing photographs of what looked like
the same man. The name on the card was “William West”. After
initial confusion, they brought both Will West and William West
together in the same room‐ they looked identical, although they
were said to be unrelated. This was just the case fingerprint
advocates were looking for. They quickly demonstrated that they
could infallibly distinguish one man from the other. This case
marked the beginning of the end of ‘Bertillonage’.
xvi. Fingerprint (Dactyloscopy/Dactylography);
xvii. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

The Law of Multiplicity of Evidence – States that the greater the number of
similarities or dissimilarities the greater the probability for the conclusion to be correct.
 Chapter 2
FINGERPRINTS AND THE FRICTION SKIN

A. Definition of Terms:
Dactyloscopy – Refers to the practical application of fingerprints (the making of
identifications by fingerprints comparison and classification of fingerprints).

ORIGIN:
The word Dactyloscopy was derived from two Greek words: “Dactyl” which
means finger and “skopien” meaning “to study or “to examine”. Therefore, dactyloscopy
literally means the study of finger.

Dactylography – Refers to the scientific study of fingerprints as a means of

identification.

Dactylomancy – Is the study of fingerprint for purposes of interpreting one’s

personality.

Fingerprints – Is an impression design by the ridges on the inside of the last

joint of the finger or thumb on any smooth surface through the media of an ink, sweat or
any reagents capable of producing visibility.

B. Principles of Fingerprint Identification

1. Principle of Individuality – states that there are no two person having the
same fingerprints. It is based on statistical probability that it would be
impossible for any two persons to have similar fingerprints.
2. Principle of Permanency/Constancy – States that once ridges are fully
develop their general arrangement remains the same throughout life.
3. Principle of Infallibility – States that fingerprints is reliable positive means of
identification.
4.
 Other Field of study related to Dactyloscopy:
a) Poroscopy – (derived from Greek words “poros”, a pore, and “skopien”, to
examine). It is then the study of the sweat pores. This was explore by Edmond
Locard (Father of Poroscopy).
b) Chiroscopy – (derived from the Greek word “cheir”, a hand and “skopien”, to
examine). It is the study of the prints of the palm’s of the hand. Sir William
Herschel utilized this.
c) Podoscopy – (derived from the Greek word “podo”, the foot, and “skopien” to
examine). It is the study of the prints of the soles of the feet.

C. THE FRICTION SKIN AND ITS COMPONENT:

1. Definition:
Friction Skin – is an epidermal hairless skin found on the ventral or lower
surface of the hands and feet covered with minute ridges and furrows and
without pigment or coloring matters.
-- It is also called as papillary or epidermal ridges.
-- Are strips of skin on the inside of the end joints of our
fingers and thumbs by which fingerprints are made.

Furrows Ridges
2. Components of the Friction Skin:
a. Ridge Surface – Is that component of the friction skin that actually forms
the fingerprint impression.
i. Ridges – are tiny elevation or hill like structures found on the
epidermis layer of the skin containing sweat pores. It appears as
black lines with tiny white dots called pores in an inked impression.
ii. Furrows – are the canal-like impression or a depression found
between the ridges which may be compare with the low area in a
tire thread. They appear as white lines in an inked impression.

b. Sweat Pores – is a small opening found anywhere across the ridge

surface but is usually found near the center. Sometimes called an islands
which colors white in plain impression and is considered as individual as
the fingerprints.
c. Sweat Duct – is a long-host like structure that serves as the passage way
for the sweat that exists at its mouth, the pore.
d. Sweat Glands – is that glands found in the dermis layer of the skin which
is responsible for the production of the sweat (watery substance).

3. FUNDAMENTAL LAYER OF THE FRISTION SKIN:

a. Epidermis – the outer covering of the skin.
Two main layers of the Epidermis
1. Stratum Corneum – the outer layer
2. Stratum Mucosum – immediately beneath the covering layer.
Five Subdivisions of the Stratum Corneum:
i. Corneus layer
ii. Transparent layer
iii. Granicar layer
iv. Malphigian layer
v. Generating layer
 b. Dermis – the inner layer of the skin containing blood vessels, various
glands and nerves. It is where the dermal papillae are found.

D. RIDGE FORMATION
Ridges begin to form on the human fetus during its 3rd to 4th months of the
fetus life (fifth to sixth months before birth). They seem to appear as continuous
lines with some are short and curved, other are long and straight and few like islands
containing a single pore structure. During the process of growth these is consists of a
series of islands each containing a small opening of pores.

Dermal papillae – are irregular blunt pegs composed of delicate connective

tissues and protruding and forming the ridges of the skin on the fingers, palms, toes and
soles of the feet. It does not containing coloring pigments (melanin).

E. RIDGE DESTRUCTION:
The pattern that appear on the inside first joint of our fingers and thumbs never
undergo changes, except in the size of the pattern during the life of an individual.
However there are some outside and even outside pressure that may cause an effect or
destroy ridges. In certain cases such destruction is permanent but usually it is only
temporary. When the epidermis skin are permanently damaged the affected area of the
pattern will never repair. If it was only temporary, the ridge grows back in exactly the
same pattern before.
Permanent destruction can be made possible the moment that there is already
damage to the portion of the friction skin where the dermal papillae is located.
1. Manual works:
Person who used chemical like lime, cement, plasters, electric shop
workers and assembly workers usually cause temporary destruction of the
tissues.
 2. Diseased Person:
Skin diseases may cause temporary destruction similar with those
persons handling lime, cements but such destruction ceases the moment
that the diseased has been cured.
3. Warts:
Fibrous growths in the skin and are easily distinguished in impressions by
the appearance of a light spot. Usually encircled by a black ring. Warts do
not destroy the ridges just like creases, they are not permanent and when
they are removed the ridges assume their natural conditions without even
the appearance of a scar.
4. Ulcers:
In case where ulcerous sores attack the ridges, they are permanently
destroyed; for ulcers work so deeply into the flesh as to destroy the sweat
glands, which characterized the surface of the skin. It is true throughout
the entire body.
5. Burns:
Burns serve enough to leave a scar will change the appearance of the
skin and totally destroy the ridges. In fact, the destruction of the sweat
glands from any cause whatever will change the skin surface, by leaving
as scar some form.
6. Scars:
(as a result of art) it appears as a thin white line, with the ridges slightly
puckered on both side of the scar.

F. SOME ATTEMPTS OF DESTROTING RIDGES AND DISGUISED:

John Dillinger, US Notorious public enemy No.

1, who tried remove his fingerprint with acid but
failed. Post mortem fingerprints taken after FBI
agents shot him proved that the was Dillenger.
 Robert James Pitts – gained fame as the man without fingerprints knowing form
an inmates of possible destruction of fingerprints. He contacted a doctor. He
removed the skin up to the generating layer and served thin into incisions on
each Pitt’s chest. Scar tissue was developed. Almost a year later, he was picked
up and police was amazed to find that he had no fingerprints. The Texas
Department of Public Safety was able to effect identification out of the second
joints of his fingers. He is also known by the name of Roscoe Pitts.

G. Three points to remember when damaged or injury to a papillary skin

causes by a permanent scar.
1. A penetration of a depth of more than one-millimeter a ncessary where the
organs or process responsible for the growth of ridge elements are damaged or
interrupted in their activities.
2. Due to the destruction of these organs and deprivation of the power to produce
new ridge elements, the process of fission is affected.
3. Because of the extensive damage the skin are rendered incapable to fusing.

Skin deformities sometimes prevent correct pattern interpretation and

classification but in totality do not prevent identification. As long as the pattern is not
totally disfigured can still be worked out.

H. Importance of Fingerprints:
1. It is used for identifying suspects for investigation purposes.
2. Used to provide identity for unidentified dead person.
3. Used for the identification of missing person.
4. Detecting a criminal identity through fingerprints collected at the scene and
determining recidivism or habitual delinquency.
5. Used as a means of verification or confirmation of public documents.
6. Used as records in the police departments and other law enforcement agency for
the purpose of issuing clearance.
7. Modern technology utilizes fingerprints in opening of volts or doors leading to
confidential matters.
8. Used as means in checking or verifying entry of authorized personnel on certain
business establishments.
 Chapter 3
THE FINGERPRINT PATTERNS

A. THE FINGERPRINT PATTERNS AND CLASSIFICATION

1. Grouping of the Fingerprint Patterns:
In the study of the science of fingerprints sometimes students were confused
as to the kinds and numbers of fingerprints patterns. In the Henry System
there were nine patterns namely:
a. Plain Arch f. Lateral Pocket Loop
b. Tented Arch g. Twinned Loop
c. Exceptional Arch h. Central Pockect Loop
d. Plain Loop i. Accidental Whorl
e. Plain Whorl

Later loops are modified into ulnar and radial loops varying according to the
direction of the ulna bone or the radius bone.
With much familiarity with these frictions designs we have to know that there are
only three (3) general groups of fingerprints pattern (A-L-W Family). Each group or
family bares the same characteristics or resemblance. Although this pattern may be
further sub-divided. At present with the midification made by the FBI on the Henry
System threre are eight (8) types of fingerprint patterns.The following are the list of
the modified Henry Classification of Patterns.
They are as follows:
Arch (5%) Loop (60%) Whorl (35%)
Plain Arch Radial Loop Plain Whorl
Tented Arch Ulnar Loop Central Pocket Loop
Double Loop Whorl
Accidental Whorl
 2. The Basic Fingerprint Pattern Types:

A. ARCH
1. Plain Arch – is a pattern in which the ridges flows from one side to the other or
flows towards the without recurving, usually having a slight upward curve in the
center, making the pattern like an arch. No core and no delta.
2. Tented Arch – is a type of pattern where majority of the ridges form an arch. It
only differs from plain arch when one or more ridges at the center shape a tent or
make a rise giving pattern of a “Tent”, giving an angle of 90 degrees or less, or
one with an up trust having an angle of 45 degrees or more, or a pattern similar
to a loop but lacing one or more of its essential elements.
B. LOOP
Is a pattern in which one or more of the ridges enters on either side of the
impression, then turn or makes a recurve, passing or touching an imaginary line
drawn between the delta and the core, then flow toward the same side of the
impression from where the ridges entered.

TWO DIVISIONS OF A LOOP PATTERN:

The two divisions of a loop are based on the fact that every human being has in
their forearm two large bones extending from the elbow to the wrist. One is the
radius bone or the inner bone of the forearm that runs to wrist on the side where the
thumb located. The other one also running to the wrist is located or situated on the
little finger and this is the ulna bone.
Essentials of a loop pattern:
a) It must have a delta;
b) It must have a core;
c) It must have a recurving ridge that passes between the delta and core;
d) It must have a ridge count of at least one.

1. RADIAL LOOP – is a loop in which the downward slope or the slanting ridges
run towards the direction of the thumb.

Right Hand Left Hand

2. ULNAR LOOP – is a loop in which the slanting ridges run towards the direction
of the little finger.

Right Hand Left Hand

NOTE: In other words, to differentiate a radial from an ulnar loop in the plain
impression it is important to know from what hands it was taken

C. WHORL
Refers to the pattern consisting of a core and two (2) or more deltas.

CORE

D.

LEFT DELTA RIGHT DELTA

1. PLAIN WHORL – is a pattern consisting of two (2) deltas and which at least
one ridge makes a turn through one complete circuit. An imaginary line drawn
between he two deltas must touch or cross at least one of the recurving ridge
within the pattern. The pattern could be spiral, oval, circular or any variant of a
circle.
Element of Plain Whorl:
a. A complete circuit;
b. Two deltas;
c. At least one circuiting ridge is touched or crossed by an imaginary line
traversing between the two deltas.
2. CENTRAL POCKET LOOP WHORL – a pattern which possess two (2)
deltas, with one or more ridges forming a complete circuit which maybe oval,
spiral, circular or any variant of a circle, or it is a pattern consisting of two
deltas, with one or more recurving ridges with an obstruction at right angle to
the inner line flow, between which an imaginary line would touch or cross no
recurving ridge within inner pattern areas.
Elements of Central Pocket Loop Whorl:
a. At least one recurving ridge or obstruction at right angle
b. Two deltas
c. No recurving ridge within the pattern area is touched or cross by an
imaginary line drawn between the two deltas.
3. DOUBLE LOOP WHORL – is a pattern consisting of two separate and
distinct loop formation, with sets of shoulders and two deltas
The loops do not necessarily have to be of the same length and size.
Elements of Double Loop Whorl:
a. Two separate loop formation;
b. Two separate and distinct sets of shoulders;
c. Two deltas.
4. ACCIDENTAL WHORL – this is a pattern consisting of a combination of two
different types of pattern such as a loop and a whorl, a loop and a central
pocket loop, or any combination of two different loop and whorl type of
pattern, but it cannot be a combination of a plain arch with any other pattern.
It can have two or more deltas.
Elements of Accidental Whorl:
a. Combination of two different types of patters with the exceptions of the
plain arch.
b. Two or more deltas.
B. RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS
1. Bifurcation – is a single ridge that divides itself into two or more branches. It
is sometimes called as fork, making its impression.

2. Converging ridge – is a ridge formation characteristic by a closed angular

end and serves as a point of convergence (meeting of two ridges that were
previously running side by side).

3. Diverging ridges – two ridges that are flowing side by side and suddenly
separating or spreading apart.

4. Enclosure or Lake or Eyelet – a ridge that divides into two branches and
meets to form the original ridge.
5. Ending ridge – refers to an end point of a ridge, or a ridge with abrupt ending

Ending Ridge

6. Islands or Dots – a ridge that resemblances a dot, fragment or a period.

Dot or Island

7. Type Lines – These are basic boundaries of fingerprint patterns. They are
the two innermost ridge that are running parallel or nearly parallel with each
other which diverge at a certain point tending to surround the pattern area.

8. Pattern Area – Is that part of the fingerprint that lies the area surrounded by
the type lines. It is where the core, delta and other ridge characteristics used
for classification can be found.
9. Recurving or Looping Ridge – is a kind of ridge formation that curves back
in the direction from which it started. It looks like a hairpin.

10. Sufficient Recurve – is a recurving ridge complete in the shoulder and is free
from any appendage.

11. Appendage – is a short ridge found at the top or at the summit of a recurving
ridge.

12. Rod or Bar – is a short or long ridge found inside the innermost recurving
ridge of a loop patter.

13. Obstruction Ridge – is a short ridge found inside the innermost recurving
ridge that spoiled the inner flow towards the center of the pattern.