Notes in Fingerprint Identification

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Chapter 1
History of Fingerprints
Fingerprints had been considered as one of the most
infallible means of identification. It has been utilized at present
into large extent, from public to private documents, and from
simple clearance to a very important document. For every
person studying the science of fingerprints and those who are
practitioner in this field, it is a must that they should have to be
acquainted with its historical development. Every scientific
principle basically lies its evidentiary value and credibility to its
discovery and the facts behind its development and
distinction. Think of a scenario inside a trial court, a situation
in which the defense lawyer, looking for a way to discard the
credibility of the expert witness, they sometimes resort to
asking of question which are relative to the historical basis and
basic principles of the scientific evidence presented.
To help the students, professors, technicians and other
interested persons be familiarized to the historical
development of the science of fingerprints, the author have
listed some of the most important events and personality
behind this.
A.ORIGIN OF FINGERPRINTS
The Chinese are the one noted to be the first user of

Fingerprints. “Hua Chi” is the name given by the Chinese in
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referring to fingerprints. They used fingerprints as symbolism
in the early part of the history as a part of their “rituals”, until
they utilize it in the signing of a contract on the part of illiterate.
The thumb mark of the destitute is place on the slip of bamboo
were the contract was written. Infants at that time were taken
fingerprint for possible identification and every mother is
familiar with the fingerprint of their newborn.
The Chinese were well acquainted with the essential
characteristics of fingerprint. The Arches and Whorls are
called by them “LO” (snail); Loops are “KI” (sieve or
winnowing basket). The loops are look upon as presages of
good luck.
Emperor Te’in Shi ,(246-210 BC) was the first Chinese
ruler who devised a seal carved from white jade; On one side
of it was the name of the owner, and on the other side the
impression of the thumb. Such seal were used in sealing
documents as a sign of authenticity. Though the Chinese were
well familiar with the types of fingerprint patters, they did not
make any system to develop a classification system.
B.SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF

FINGERPINT
1. Marcelo Malpighi (1628-1694)- A professor of
Anatomy in the University of Bologna, Italy who
published a book entitled “De Externo Tactus
Organo” depicting the construction of the layers of
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the human skin, particularly the friction skin
namely the Epidermis and the Dermis. He
originated the term “loops and spiral” and because
of his contribution one of the thin layer of the
friction skin was named after him, the “Malphigian
layer”.
2. J.C. Mayer (1788) He stated in his book
(Anatomiche Kuphertafeln Nebst dazu
Gehorigen)”Although the arrangement of the skin
ridges is never duplicated in two persons,
nevertheless, the similarities are closer among the
some individuals.
3. Professor Johnnes E. Purkenje (1823) A
professor in the University of Breslau, Germany,
who discovered in his study of physiology, that the
skin on the inner surface if the hands bore
patterns, which he later named and set rules
governing their classification and even identify
nine types of patterns, but he did not associate it
with identification.
4. Herman Welcker(1856)- He took the prints of his
own palms and after fourty-one years (1879) he
printed the same palms to proved that prints do
not change, except for some scratches due to old
age.
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C.FINGERPRINTS AS A METHOD OF IDENTIFICATION
1. Sir William J. Herschel (1858) – Hoogly, District
of Bengal , India, as acting official representative
of English government in Bengal, India, he
utilized fingerprints as a substitute for signature to
avoid impersonation among the natives.
Rajyadhar Konai was the first person Herschel
printed the palm. In spite of his success in this
operation his request for the adoption officially of
this system was ignored by the government.
Credit should be given to him for the
establishment of the present fingerprints system
of identification for he gave way for the first actual
tryout in establishing individuality using
fingerprint.
2. Dr. Henry Faulds (1877)- A surgeon at Tsukiji
Hospital, Tokyo Japan, He wrote the english
Journal “Nature dealing with latent prints found at
the scene of the crime”, He claimed that the
impression would provide positive identification of
offenders when apprehended. He also wrote “A
Manual of Practical Dactylography” based on skin
ridges of the fingers and toes.
3. Sir Francis Galton (1892 –1911) Credited for
being the first scientist of friction skin identification
who established the first Civil Bureau of Personal
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Identification in London, England; and discover
the three families of fingerprint patterns –Arches,
Loops and Whorls (A-L-W- Methods). Later
devised a system of classification that was
officially adopted on February 12, 1894. He also
stated that if there is possibility for two prints to be
the same it is 1:64,000,000,000.
4. Sir Edward R. Henry (1859-1931). Inspired by
various predecessors in the study of fingerprints,
he developed his own system of classification
while working in Scotland Yard. His system of
classification was established with the help of two
Hindu police officer namely Khan BahadurAzizul
Haque and Rai Hem Chandra Bose and it was
widely accepted by almost all English speaking
Country making him known as the “Father of
Fingerprint” His system of identification finally
replace the Bertillionage system of identification
in France( Anthropometry by Alphonse Bertillion)
5. Juan Vucetich (1891). Developed his own
system of classifying prints that was officially
adopted in Argentina and was used in most
Spanish Speaking Country.
D.FINGERPRINTS IN THE PHILIPPINES
1. Mr.Jones – One who first taught fingerprint in the
Philippine Constabulary in the year 1900.
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2. Bureau of Prison – Records shows that in 1918,
CARPETAS (Commitment and Conviction Records)
already used fingerprint.
3. Lt. Asa and N. Darby – Established a modern and
complete fingerprint files for Philippine
Commonwealth during the reoccupation of the
Philippines by the American Forces.
4. Generoso Reyes – First Filipino Fingerprint
Technician employed by the Phil. Constabulary
5. Isabela Bernales – First Filipina Fingerprint
Technician
6. Capt. Thomas Dugan, New York Police

Department and Flaviano Guerrero, FBI
Washington – gave the first examination in
fingerprint in 1927 and Agustin Patricio of the
Philippines Top the Examination.
7. People of the Philippine Vs. Medina – First
conviction based on fingerprint and leading judicial
decision in the Phil Jurisprudence (10 points of
Identity).
8. Plaridel Education Institution- Now known as the
Philippine College of Criminology, the first
government recognized school to teach the
Science of Fingerprint and other Police Sciences.
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E. OTHER METHODS OF IDENTIFICATION
1. Identification of Living Person:
1.1. Characteristics that may easily be changed:
a. Growth of hair, beard and mustache;
b. Clothing;
c. Frequent place of visit;
d. Grade or profession;
e. Body Ornamentation such as earrings,
necklace, rings, bracelets, watch and
others.
1.2. Characteristics that may not easily be
changed.
a. Mental memory
b. Speech
c. Gait or manner of walking (ataxic, cerebellar,
cow’s, paretic, spastic, wadding, and frog’s
gait).
d. Mannerism
e. Hands and feet
f. Complexion
g. Face
h. Eyes
i. Body built
j. Left or right handedness
k. Degree of nutrition
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2. Identification applicable to both living and dead
person.
2.1. Occupational Mark
2.2. Race
2.3. Stature
2.4. Teeth (Odontology =identification through dental
record)
2.5. Tattoo Marks
2.6. Scar marks
2.7. Birth marks
2.8. Deformities
2.9. Moles
2.10. Injuries living a permanent result
2.11. Tribal marks
2.12. Sexual Organs ( Presence of Testes and
Ovaries)
2.13. Blood Grouping (A-B-AB-O System) and
Typing (M-N-MN)
2.14. Hand writing ad signature
2.15. Anthropometry = the first scientific method

of identification which was established by
Alphonse Bertillion (Father of Personal
Identification). It is a system of identification
done through measuring various bony structure
of the human body. It was first used in England
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for almost two decades (20 years) before
fingerprint was used. Records shows that
Anthropometry was questioned due to the
famous “West Case”, a case of two persons
(Will West and William West) of the same face
and almost exactly the same height.
2.16. Fingerprint (Dactyloscopy/Datylography)
2.17. DNA (Deocxyribbonucleic Acid
Fingerprinting)
The Law of Multiplicity of Evidence = States that the

greater the number of similarities or dissimilarities the greater
the probability for the conclusion to be correct.
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Chapter 2
FINGERPRINTS AND THE FRICTION SKIN
A. Definition of Terms:
Dactyloscopy = Refers to the practical application of

fingerprints (the making of identifications by fingerprints
comparison and classification of fingerprints).
ORIGIN:
The word Dactyloscopy was derived from two Greek
words: “Dactyl” which means “finger” and “skopien” meaning
“to study” or “to examine”. Therefore , dactyloscopy literally
means the study of finger.
Dactylography = Refers to the scientific study of

fingerprints as a means of identification.
Dactylomancy = Is the study of fingerprint for purposes

of interpreting one’s personality.
Fingerprints = is an impression design by the ridges on

the inside of the last joint of the finger or thumb on any smooth
surface through the media of an ink, sweat or any reagents
capable of producing visibility.
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B. Principles of Fingerprint Identification
1. Principle of Individuality = States that there are no two

person having the same fingerprints. It is based on
statistical probability that it would be impossible for any
two persons to have similar fingerprints.
2. Principle of Permanency / Constancy = States that

once ridges are fully develop their general arrangement
remains the same throughout life.
3. Principle of Infallability = States that fingerprints is a

reliable positive means of Identification.
Other Field of study related to Dactyloscopy:
a. Poroscopy = (derived from the Greek words “poros”,

a pare, and “skopien”, to examine). It is then the study
of the sweat pores. This was explore by Edmond
Locard (Father of Poroscopy).
b. Chiroscopy = (derived from the Greek word “podo”,
the foot and “skopien”, to examine) It is the study of the
prints of the palm’s of the hand. Sir William Herschel
utilized this.
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c. Podoscopy = ( derived from the Greek word “cheir”, a
hand, and “skopien” , to examine) It is the study of the
prints of the soles of the feet.
C.THE FRICTION SKIN AND ITS COMPONENTS:
1. Definition:
Friction Skin = is an epidermal hairless skin found

on the ventral or lower surface of the hands and feet
covered with minute ridges and furrows and without
pigment or coloring matters.
= It is also called as papillary or epidermal
ridges.
= Are strips of skin on the inside of the end joints of our
fingers and thumbs by which fingerprints are made.
Fig. 1 Cross section of the Friction Skin

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Ridges
Furrows
Fig. 2 Fingerprint Impression
2. Components of the Friction Skin:

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a. Ridge Surface = Is that component of the friction
skin that actually forms the fingerprint impression.
(1) Ridges = are tiny elevation or hill like
structures found on the epidermis layer of
the skin containing sweat pores. It
appears as black lines with tiny white dots
called pores in an inked impression.
(2) Furrows = are the canal-like impression
or a depression found between the ridges
which may be compare with the low area
in a tire thread. They appear as white
lines in an inked impression.
b. Sweat Pores = Is a small opening found
anywhere across the ridge surface but is usually
found near the center. Sometimes called an “islands
which colors white in plain impression and is
considered as individual as the fingerprints.
c. Sweat Duct = Is a long-host like structure that
serves as the passage way for the sweat that exits at
its mouth, the pore.
d. Sweat Glands = Is that glands found in the
dermis layer of the skin which is responsible for the
production of the sweat (watery substance).
3. FUNDAMENTAL LAYERS OF THE FRICTION SKIN:
a. Epidermis = the outer covering of the skin
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Two main layers of the Epidermis
(1) Stratum Corneum – the outer layer
(2) Stratum Mucosum – immediately beneath the
covering layer.
Five Subdivisions of the Stratum Corneum:
1. Corneous layer
2. Transparent layer
3. Granucar layer
4. Malphigian layer
5. Generating layer
b. Dermis = the inner layer of the skin containing
blood vessels, various glands and nerves. It is
where the dermal papillae are found.
D. Ridge Formation
Ridges begin to form on the human fetus during its 3rd to
4th months of the fetus life (fifth to sixth months before
birth). They seem to appear as continuous lines with some
are short and curved, others are long and straight and few like
islands containing a single pore structure. During the process
of growth these is consists of a series of islands, each
containing a small opening or pores.
Dermal papillae = are irregular blunt pegs composed of
delicate connective tissues protruding and forming the ridges
of the skin on the fingers, palms, Toes and soles of the feet. It
does not containing coloring pigments (melanin).
E. Ridge Destruction:
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The pattern that appear on the inside first joint of the
our fingers and thumbs never undergo changes, except in the
size of the pattern during the life of an individual. However
there are some outside and even outside pressure that may
cause an effect or destroy the ridges. In certain cases such
destruction is permanent but usually it is only temporary.
When the epidermal skin are permanently damaged the
affected area of the pattern will never reappear. If it was only
temporary, the ridge grows back in exactly the same pattern
before.
Permanent destruction can be made possible the
moment that there is already damage to the portion of the
friction skin where the dermal papillae is located.
1. Manual works:
Person who used chemical like lime, cement, plasters;
electric shop workers and assembly workers usually
cause temporary destruction of the tissues.
2. Diseased Person :
Skin diseases may cause temporary destruction similar
with those persons handling lime, cements but such
destruction ceases the moment that the diseased has
been cured.
3. Warts:
Fibrous growths in the skin and are easily distinguished
in impressions by the appearance of a light spot. Usually
encircled by a black ring. Warts do not destroy the ridges
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just like creases, they are not permanent and when they
are removed the ridges assume their natural conditions
without even the appearance of a scar.
4. Ulcers
In case where ulcerous sores attack the ridges, they
are permanently destroyed; for ulcers work so deeply into
the flesh as to destroy the sweat glands, which
characterized the surface of the skin. It is true throughout
the entire body.
5. Burns:
Burns severe enough to leaves a scar will change the
appearance of the skin and totally destroy the ridges. In
fact, the destruction of the sweat glands from any cause
whatever will change the skin surface, by leaving as scar
in some form.
6. Scars :
(as a result of art) it appears as a thin white line, with
the ridges slightly puckered on both sides of the scar.
F. SOME ATTEMPTS OF DESTROYING RIDGES AND
DISGUISED:
John Dillenger, US notorious public enemy No. 1, who
tried to remove his fingerprints with acid but failed. Post-
mortem fingerprints taken after FBI agents shot him proved
that he was Dillenger.
Roberts James Pitts =gained fame as the man without
fingerprints” knowing form an inmate of a possible destruction
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of fingerprints. He contacted a doctor. He removed the skin up
to the generative layer and served thin into incisions on each
side of Pitt’s chest. Scar tissue was developed. Almost a year
later, he was picked up and police was amazed to find that he
had no fingerprints. The Texas Department of Public Safety
was able to effect identification out of the second joints of his
fingers. He is also known by the name of Roscoe Pitts.
G. Three points to remember when damaged or injury to a
papillary skin causes a permanent scar.
1. A penetration of a depth of more than one-millimeter is
necessary where the organs or process responsible for
the growth of ridge elements are damaged or
interrupted in their activities.
2. Due to the destruction of these organs and deprivation
of the power to produce new ridge elements, the
process of fission is affected.
3. Because of the extensive damage the skin are
rendered incapable to fusing.
Skin deformities sometimes prevent correct pattern
interpretation and classification but in totality do not
prevent identification. As long as the pattern is not
totally disfigured classification can still be worked out.
H. Importance of Fingerprints:
1. It is used for identifying suspects for investigation
purposes.
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2. Used to provide identity for unidentified dead
person.
3. Used for the identification of missing person.
4. Detecting a criminal identity through fingerprints
collected at the scene and determining recidivism
or habitual delinquency.
5. Used as a means of verification or confirmation of
public documents.
6. Used as records in the police departments and
other law enforcement agency for the purpose of
issuing clearance.
7. Modern technology utilizes fingerprints in opening
of volts or doors leading to confidential matters.
8. Used as a means in checking or verifying entry of
authorized personnel on certain business
establishments.
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Chapter 3
THE FINGERPRINT PATTERNS
A. THE FINGERPRINT PATTERNS AND CLASSIFICATION
1. Grouping of the fingerprint patterns:
In the study of the science of fingerprints sometimes
students were confused as to the kinds and numbers of
fingerprints patterns. In the Henry System there were
nine patterns namely:
a. Plain Arch f. lateral pocket loop
b. Tented Arch g. Twinned loop
c. Exceptional Arch h. Central Pocket loop
d. Plain Loop i. Accidental whorl
e. Plain whorl
Later the loops are modified into ulnar and radial
loops varying according to the direction of the ulna bone
or the radius bone.
With much familiarity with these frictions designs we
have to know that there are only three (3) general
groups of fingerprints pattern (A-L-W Family). Each
group or family bares the same characteristics or
resemblance. Although this pattern may be further sub-
divided. At present with the modification made by the FBI
on the Henry System there are eight (8) types of
fingerprint patterns. The following are the list of the
modified Henry Classification of Patterns:
They are as follows:
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Arch (5%) Loop (60%) Whorl 35%
Plain Arch Radial Loop Plain Whorl
Tented Arch Ulnar loop Central
Pocket loop
Double Loop Whorl
Accidental Whorl
2. the Basic Fingerprint Pattern Types:
A. Arch
1. Plain Arch = is a pattern in which the ridges flows from
one side to the other or flows towards the without
recurving, usually having a slight upward curve in the
center, making the pattern like an arch. No core and no
delta.
2. Tented Arch =is a type of pattern where majority of the

ridges form an arch. It only differs from plain arch when
one or more ridges at the center shape a tent or make a
rise giving the pattern of a “Tent”, giving an angle of 90
degrees or less, or one with an up trust having an angle of
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45 degree or more, or a pattern similar to a loop but
lacking one or two of its essential elements.
B.LOOP
Is a pattern in which one or more of the ridges enters on
either side of the impression, then turn or makes a
recurve, passing or touching an imaginary line drawn
between the delta and core, then flow toward the same
side of the impression from where the ridges entered.
TWO DIVISIONS OF A LOOP PATTERN:

The two divisions of a loop was based on the fact
that every human being has in their forearm two large
bones extending from the elbow to the wrist. One is the
radius bone or the inner bone of the forearm that runs to
the wrist on the side where the thumb is located. The
other one also running to the wrist is located or situated
on the little finger and this is the ulna bone.
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Requisites of a loop pattern:
a. It must have a delta
b. It must have a core
c. It must have a recurving ridge that passes
between the delta and core.
d. It must have a ridge count of at least one.
1. Radial Loop = is a loop in which the downward slope
or the slanting ridges run towards the direction of the
thumb.
Right Hand Left Hand

2. Ulnar loop = Is a loop in which the slanting ridges run
towards the direction of the of the little finger. In other
words to differentiate a radial from an ulnar loop in the
plain impression it is important to know from what
hands it was taken.
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Right Hand Left Hand
C.WHORL
Refers to the pattern consisting of a core and Two (2) or

more deltas.
1. Plain Whorl = is a pattern consisting of two deltas and

which at least one ridge makes a turn through one
complete circuit. An imaginary line drawn between the
two deltas must touch or cross at least one of the
recurving ridge within the pattern area. The pattern
could be a spiral, oval, circular or any variant of a circle.
Elements of Plain Whorl
a. A complete circuit
b. Two deltas
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c. At least one circuiting ridge is touched or crossed
by an imaginary line traversing between the two
deltas.
2. Central Pocket Loop Whorl = a pattern which

possess two (2) deltas, with one or more ridges forming
a complete circuit which maybe oval, spiral, circular or
any variant of a circle; or it is a pattern consisting of two
deltas, with one or more recurving ridges with an
obstruction at right angle to the inner line of flow,
between which an imaginary line would touch or cross
no recurving ridge within the inner pattern area.
Elements of Central Pocket Loop Whorl
a. At least one recurving ridge or obstruction at right
angle
b. Two deltas
c. No recurving ridge within the pattern area is
touched or cross by an imaginary line drawn
between the two deltas.
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3. Double Loop Whorl = This is a pattern consisting of

two separate and distinct loop formation, with sets of
shoulders and two deltas.
The loops do not necessarily have to be of the

same length and size.
Elements of Double Loop Whorl

a. Two separate loop formation
b. Two separate and distinct sets of shoulders
c. Two deltas
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Types of core formation which are not included in

the double loop whorl:
a. The “S” type core
b. The interlocking type core
c. The formation of a loop inside another loop.
4. Accidental Whorl = This is a pattern consisting of a

combination of two different types of pattern such as a
loop and a whorl, a loop and a central pocket loop, or
any combination of two different loop and whorl type
pattern, but it can not be a combination of a plain arch
with any other pattern. It can have two or more deltas.
Elements of Accidental Whorl:
a. Combination of two different type of pattern
with the exceptions of the plain arch
b. Two or more deltas.
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B. RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS
1. Bifurcation = Is a single ridge that divides itself in two
or more branches. It is sometimes called as fork,
making its impression.
2. Converging Ridges = Is a ridge formation

characterized by a closed angular end and serves as a
point of convergence (meeting of two ridges that were
previously running side by side).
3. Diverging Ridges = Two ridges that are flowing side

by side and suddenly separating or spreading apart.
4. Enclosure or Lake or Eyelet = a ridge that divides

into two branches and meets to form the original ridge.
5. Ending Ridge = refers to an end point of a ridge, or a

ridge with abrupt ending.
6. Islands or Dots =A ridge that resembles a dot,

fragment or a period.
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7. Type lines = These are basic boundaries of fingerprint
patterns. They are the two innermost ridge that are
running parallel or nearly parallel with each other which
diverge at a certain point tending to surround the
pattern area.
8. Pattern Area =Is that part of the fingerprint that lies

within the area surrounded by the type lines. It is
where the core, delta and other ridge characteristics
used for classification can be found.
9. Recurving or Looping Ridge = Is a kind of ridge

formation that curves back in the direction from which it
started. It looks like a hairpin.
10. Sufficient Recurve = Is a recurving ridge complete

in its shoulder and is free from any appendage.
11. Appendage =Is a short ridge found at the top or at

the summit of a recurving ridge.
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12. Rod or Bar = Is a short or long ridge found inside the

innermost recurving ridge of a loop pattern.
13. Obstruction Ridge = Is a short ridge found inside

the innermost recurving ridge that spoiled the inner
flow towards the center of the pattern.
C. Deltas and Core

The Focal Points of Fingerprint Classification Also
known as the fingerprint terminus.
1. DELTA
= Is a point on the first ridge formation located
directly at or in front of and nearest the center of the
divergence of the type lines.
= The term “delta” is an old Greek Word. The original
English meaning of the word refers to a deposit of earth at
the mouth of a river.
Six Delta Formation
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1. A bifurcating ridge
2. A dot
3. An ending ridge
4. A short ridge
5. A converging ridge
6. A point on a long ridge
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2. Rules Governing the Choice between two or more
Possible Deltas:
a. A bifurcation may not be selected as a delta if it does
not open towards the core.
A bifurcation should be the first ridge formation in front of
the divergence of the type lines and it must open toward the
pattern area.
b. When there is a choice between two or more possible

delta, the one nearest to the core be selected.
c. When there is a series of bifurcations opening

towards the core at the point of divergence of the two
type lines, the bifurcation nearest to the core is
chosen as delta.
d. The delta may not be located on the middle of the

ridge running between the type lines towards the
core, but at the nearer end only.
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e. If the ridge enters the pattern area below the

divergence of the type lines, the delta must be
located at the end nearer to the core.
When can a bifurcation be considered a type

line?
The two legs of a bifurcation will serve as a type lines
when it opens towards the core, but it should be so far outside
the pattern area that the legs of the bifurcation run parallel
some distance before they diverge.
3. CORE
In a loop pattern are formed in a variety of ways but
are always found on or within the innermost looping or
recurving ridge.
4. Rules Governing the Selection of Core
a. The core is placed upon or within the innermost
sufficient recurve.
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b. When the innermost sufficient contains an
uneven number of rods rising as high as the
shoulders, the core is placed upon the end of the
center rod whether it touches the looping ridge or
not.
c. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains

an even number of rods rising as high as the
shoulder, the core is placed upon the two center
rods being treated as though they were connected
by a recurving ridge.
D. RIDGE COUNTING AND RIDGE TRACING:

1. Ridge Counting
= Is the process of counting the ridges that touch or
cross an imaginary line drawn between the delta and core
of a loop. A wide space must always intervene between
the delta and the first ridge to be counted.
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12 counts
Rules in Ridge Counting
a. Locate the exact points of the core and delta.
b. Count all ridges which touch or cross an imaginary line
drawn between the core and the delta. (In actual
used of fingerprint card for classification, the lens is
guided by a red line shown on the disk.
c. Incipient ridges are never counted no matter where
they appear, the general rule is that in order to be
counted, the width of the ridge must be equal to the
width of the other ridges in the pattern under
consideration.
Ridges Subject to Ridge Counting:
a. A ridge island or a dot gives one ridge count
b. A short ridge is given one ridge count
c. A long ridge is given one ridge count
d. An abrupt ending ridges is given one ridge count
e. A bifurcating ridge is given two-ridge count when it
was cross in the opening or at the center of the
bifurcation.
f. Ridge enclosure is counted as two ridges.
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g. Cross crossing or meeting of two ridges is counted
as two.
2. Ridge Tracing
Is the process counting the ridges intervening
between the tracing ridge (flows from the left delta to the
right delta) and the right delta. This process is used to
determine the three (3) subdivisions of Whorls into Inner,
Outer and Meeting which is represented by capital I, M,
and O.
Rules in Ridge tracing:
a. Look for the left delta and traced the delta towards
the front of the right delta.
b. When the ridge being traced abruptly ends, drop to
the next ridge just right below the original tracing
ridge and continue the tracing until it reached the
opposite side (right delta).
c. When the left delta is a dot, same thing should be
done as in No. Procedure.
d. When the ridge being traced is a bifurcation always
follow the lower branch until tracing is completed.
e. Determine whether the tracing ridge flows inside
(above) or below (outside) the right delta.
f. Count the number of intervening ridge (ridge
between the tracing ridge and right delta).
Types of Whorl Tracing:
37
1. Inner Whorl (I) – is a whorl pattern whereby a
tracing ridge runs or goes inside or above the right
delta and there are three (3) or more intervening
ridges.
2. Outer Whorl (O) – is a whorl pattern whereby a

tracing ridge runs or gores below or outside the
right delta and there are three (3) or more
intervening ridges.
3. Meeting Whorl (M) – Is a Whorl pattern having

two (2) or less intervening ridge/s regardless of
whether the tracing ridge flows below or above the
right delta.
Chapter 4
TECHNIQUE IN TAKING FINGERPINTS
A. Fingerprint Laboratory Equipment
38
1. Ink Roller = Refers to an
instrument used for spreading the
ink into the slab.
2. Ink Slab = Refers to a piece of metal or a plane glass

with as much as ¼ thick and 6 or more inches long
where the fingerprint ink is distributed for fingerprinting.
3. Card Holder = Refers to a gadget used for clipping the

fingerprint card to avoid movement of the card during
printing.
4. Fingerprint Ink = Refers to a specially manufactured

ink for purposes of taking fingerprint. A printer’s ink is
sometimes used as a substitute.
39
5. Magnifying Glass = Refers to an instrument used for

examination of developed prints:
Two common types of magnifying lenses:
a. Linen Tester = having an opening one inch
square, with fixed focus, and which can be
folded and carried in the pocket when
necessary.
b. Bausch & Lomb Magnifier = (also known as

Horse Shoe Magnifier) a magnifying glass
with a built in stand and an adjustable lens to
suit the visual sight of the examiner.
40
6. Fingerprint Powders = Refers to the powder used in
developing latent prints found in the scene of crime;
They are normally found in two: the black and the white
or gray, which is applied depending upon the
contrasting background.
7. Fingerprint Brushes = refers to an instrument used for

powdering latent prints. There are three variations of
brushes used: the fiberglass, magnetic and feather type.
8. Fingerprint lifting tapes = Refers to a tapes used for

lifting of developed latent prints which is quite harder
41
than an ordinary tapes. It has three varieties: the
frosted, rubber and transparent.
9. Latent Prints Transfer Cards =Refers to a card used in

preserving lifted latent prints which is either white or black in
background.
10. Fingerprint Cards = Refers to a piece of card used for

recording the ten fingerprints for comparison. The usual size is
8”x8”.
42
9. Flash light = Refers to a device used for searching and
focusing on developed latent prints.
10. Roller or Tape Measure= a roll type by in measuring a

crime scene sketch.
11. Pair of forceps = refers to an instrument used for

picking up objects or taking evidence which should not
be touched.
43
12. Graph Paper = used for sketching purposes such as
latent prints location, indicating measurements and
exact location of objects.
13. Evidence Identification tapes or Tag = used to

identify objects or physical evidence.
14. Scissors = refers to a simple instrument for cutting

latent print tapes and for other purposes.
44
15. Rubber Gloves = to protect the technician’s fingers
from leaving his own prints on the object or on the
scene.
16. Post-Mortem Fingerprint Equipment = Refers to a set

of equipment consisting of hypodermis syringe, spoon,
tissue builder solvent, tissue cleaner etc. used for taking
prints of dead persons.
17. Carrying Case = Refers to a box-like structure or an

attaché used for carrying necessary equipment at the
scene of the crime.
45
18. Inkless Inking Device = refers to a porelon pad,

sensitized fingerprint card purpose: not to stain the
fingers. The finger is touched to the inkless pad and
then to sensitized card and instantly a permanent
readable prints will be developed without staining the
fingers of the subject.
B. Two type of prints found in a fingerprint card:

1. Rolled Impression = is an impression made or place in
the fingerprint card taken individually by rolling the ten
fingers of the subject 180 degrees from tip to the
second joints.
2.Plain Impression = Is an impression made
simultaneously that serves as a reference impression.
46
C. Purpose of the plain impression:
1. To serve as a guide in checking the rolled impression,
whether or not the rolled impression were properly
place on their respective boxes.
2. To check on the ridge characteristics of the plain
impression, if the rolled impression is somewhat feint,
or indistinct due to the bad condition of the friction skin
either temporary or permanently deteriorated or in
case of a doubtful or questionable prints.
3. To Check the minute details of the ridge
characteristics for purposes of classification and
identification.
D. Scientific way of taking Finger Prints:
1. Prepare the Set-up for printing (e.g. the table , the ink
slab, the roller, the fingerprint card the card holder and
the ink.
2. Clean the inking slab thoroughly before spreading the
ink.
3. Place a small amount of fingerprint ink on each side of
the slab and in the center, then start spreading the ink
using the roller back and forth until the ink is evenly
distributed.
4. To check whether or not the ink was spread properly or
whether it is enough or not, try to print one of your finger
47
or put the slab near the light and if brownish reflection is
observe it means you have a good ink for used.
5. Place the fingerprint card on the card holder properly to
ensure that proper entry will be easy.
6. Check the hands of the subject: Make sure that it is
clean and dry. If it is perspiring freely, wipe them off with
a soft, clean cloth dampened with alcohol.
7. The technician should stand at the left of the subject in
taking the right hand impression and take the right side
in taking the left hand impression of the subject.
8. Subject should be instructed to stand straight but relax
and not to assist the technician in rolling his finger.
Subject should be standing not too close or too far facing
the ink slab.
9. In taking the rolled impression, technician should place
first the right thumb to be rolled towards the body of the
subject will the other finger not in use is either folded or
closed. Then inked the remaining fingers (Index, middle,
ring and little finger) and rolled it away from the body of
the subject. Make sure to roll the finger from the tip down
to the beginning of the next joint, and from one side of
the nail to the other (180 degrees).
10. The same should be done in the left hand only that
the technician will turn to the right of the subject.
11. Apply only moderate amount of pressure in printing
subjects fingers to avoid blurred prints but hold the
48
subjects hand firmly so as to prevent pulling that may
caused smeared impression.
12. To obtain the plain impression, all the fingers of the
right hand should be pressed lightly upon the inking
plate, then press simultaneously upon the lower right
hand of the card and do the same to the left hand.
E. Problems in recording Inked fingerprint
1. Temporary Deformities
Occupational problems such as acid workers,
plasters, cement mixers, assembly workers in
electrical appliance plant. In such case the
ridges are not exactly destroyed, but they
weakened the prints.
2. Permanent Disabilities
One permanent disability is a case of amputated
finger. In such case, proper notation of the exact
blocks were the amputated fingers is to be
recorded should be made. In case of a person
without fingers at birth, it should be noted
“missing fingers at birth” or “born without
fingers”. If fingers are extremely crippled, broken
or disabled proper notation should be made and
in some case, the recorder should make used of
some inking device such as spatula, the roller
and a curve card strip holder to take the prints
49
which is usually apply in taking post-mortem
fingerprint.
3. Deformities
In this situation, an infrequent problem is a case
of a person with an extra fingers. In which case,
the extra fingers should be recorded at the back
of the card with the necessary notation. In case
of two thumbs, the inner thumb should be used
for purposes of classification. In a webbed finger,
there is no problem on it, the recorder just simply
record the finger together.
Chapter 5
CLASSIFICATION OF FINGERPRINTS
A. Preliminary To Classification of prints:
1. Check whether the rolled fingerprint impression were
affixed in their proper place in the fingerprint chart
using the plain impression as the guide.
2. Blocking the fingerprint--- is the process of writing
below each pattern the corresponding symbols of the
fingerprints in the space provided for each pattern.
Symbols of fingerprint patterns:
Plain Arch - - - - - - - -A
Tented Arch - - - - - - -T
50
Radial Loop (\)for left hand- (/) for right hand

Ulnar Loop (/)for left hand- (\) for right hand
Plain Whorl - - - - - - - -W
Central Pocket Loop - - - -C
Double Loop Whorl - - - - -D
Accidental Whorl- - - - - -X
Example of Blocking
Plain Ulnar loop Radial Double Central

Whorl loop loop Pocket
whorl loop
whorl
W \ / W W
Plain Accidental Tented Plain Double

Arch Whorl Arch whorl Loop
A X T W W
51
B. The Fingerprint Classification Formula:
The fingerprint Classification Formula is composed of the
following Division:
1. Primary Division – represented by numerical value
2. Secondary Division – consisting of Capital and small
letters.
3. Sub Secondary Division – is the product of ridge
counting and ridge tracing resulting to I, M, O System.
4. Major Division – just the same as the sub secondary
only differ in the ridge counting which resulting to S, M,
L system but Whorl tracing remains the same. the I, M,
O. System
5. Final Division – represented by number value as a
result of ridge counting both whorl and loop of the little
finger.
6. Key Division – represented by numerical value
resulting from the first ridge counted loop.
THE CLASSIFICATION FORMULA

I. Primary Division
Is the sum of all the numerical value assigned to
whorl appearing in the fingerprint card expressed as
numerator and denominator plus (=) the pre-established
fraction of 1/1 to complete the primary division. It is that
division of the fingerprint classification that is always
represented by a numerical value.
52
Steps to be followed:
a. Look for the whorl patterns only.
b. Paring of the ten (10) finger print impression
into five (5) groups that is:
Pair 1 Right thumb and right index
(FINGER 1 AND 2)
Pair 2 Right middle and right ring
(FINGER 3 AND 4)
Pair 3 Right little and left thumb
(FINGER 5 AND 6)
Pair 4 Left index and left middle
(FINGER 7 AND 8)
Pair 5 Left ring and left little
(FINGER 9 AND 10)
c. Assigning of Numerical Value:
(1) Patterns with numerical value = All Whorls
such as plain, central double and accidental
whorl)
(2) Patterns without numerical value = The
loops (radial and Ulnar ) and the Arch (plain
and tented arch).
Pair 1 = 16 Pair 4 = 2
Pair 2 = 8 Pair 5 = 1
Pair 3 = 4
53
d. Determining the numerators and the
denominators
(1) Numerators are fingers with even numbers
such as 2, 4, 6, 8, 10.
(2) Denominators are fingers with odd numbers
such as 1, 3, 5, 7, 9.
e. Sum all the numerators and denominators
numerical value plus the pre-established
fraction of 1/1 to complete the primary
division.
54
Illustration of the preparation for the Primary Division
Finger 2 Finger 4
(16) (8)
Right Right Right Little
Thumb Right Middle Right
Index Ring Finger 5 (4)
Finger1 Finger 3
(16) (8)
Finger 6 Finger 8 Finger 10 (1)

(4) (2)
Left Left Left Little
Left Index Left Ring
Thumb Middle
Finger 7
(2) Finger 9
(1)
55
Example :
Finger 2 Finger 4
(16) (8)
Plain Radial Central
Whorl Ulnar loop loop Double Pocket
loop loop
Finger1 Finger 3 whorl whorl
(16) (8)
Finger 5
(4)
W \ / W W
Finger 6 Finger 8 Finger
(4) (2) 10 (1)
Accidental Plain
Plain Whorl Tented whorl Double
Arch Arch Loop
Finger 7
(2) Finger 9
(1)
A X T W W
Primary
P= 1+ 0 + 8 + 0 + 0 + 1 = 10
1+ 16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 1 24
56
Exercise# 1. Block the fingerprint and get the Primary

Division.
Finger 2 Finger 4
(16) (8)
Double Plain Central
Loop Radial whorl Double Pocket
Whorl Loop loop loop
Finger 3 whorl whorl
Finger1 (8)
(16) Finger 5
(4)

(4) (2) 10 (1)
Accidental Plain
Redial Whorl Tented whorl Double
loop Arch Loop
Finger 7
(2) Finger 9
(1)
P=
57
II. The Secondary Division:

This division is obtain by writing (copying) the
Capital letter symbols (taken from the index fingers)
and the small letters (from the thumb, middle, ring
and little fingers) The letters includes the following:
Capital Letters = All letters appearing at the
index finger with the right index as the numerator and
left index as the denominator. (A,T,U,R,W,C,D,X).
Small letters (rat) = Only letters r (radial), a
(plain arch) and t (tented arch are include.
58
Illustration of Secondary Division
Finger 2 Finger 4
U (16) R (8)
Ulnar Radial Tented
Loop Double Loop Plain Arch
Loop Arch
Finger1 Whorl Finger 3 Finger 5
(16) (8) (4)
\ D / A T
(4) (2) 10 (1)
R Plain Plain
Radial Whorl Central Arch Plain
Loop Pocket Whorl
Finger 7 Loop
(2) Whorl Finger 9
(1)
\ W W A W
Primary Division Secondary Division
P= 1 + 16 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 1 = 20 S = Drat
1 0 + 0 +0+2+0 3 rWa
59
Exercise # 2. Block the Fingerprint Box, Get the Primary

and Secondary.
Finger 2 Finger 4
(16) (8)
Plain Ulnar
Arch Loop Double
Accidental Plain Loop
Whorl whorl whorl
Finger1 Finger 3
(16) (8) Finger 5
(4)

(4) (2) 10 (1)
Ulnar Plain
Loop Arch
Plain Radial Tented
Whorl Finger 7 Loop Arch
(2) Finger 9
(1)
60
III. Sub Secondary Division
Sub-Secondary Divisions is derived by ridge

counting a loop and ridge tracing a whorl appearing
at the Index, Middle and Ring fingers only. It is
represented by only letters using the I-M-O System
for the Whorl and the I – 0 System for the Loop.
It only shows that arches (plain and tented arch)
are not included in the ridge counting and tracing but
it is represented by a symbol dash (-).
Whorl Patterns: Plain, Central, Double or

Accidental whorls will be ridge traced and the result
will either be Inner (I), Outer (O) or a Meeting (M).
Loop Patterns: Radial and Ulnar will be ridge
counted and the answer will be dependent on what
finger they appear.
Index finger 1-9 = I

10 or More =0
Middle Finger 1-10 = I

11 or more = 0
Ring finger 1-13 = I

14 or more = 0
61
Illustration of Sub-Secondary Division.
Fingerprint Classification (FPC) = 20 Cra II–

21 aU OMI
Right
Hand
I _
I
Plain R= 9 Double Loop
Whorl Whorl
W C / A W
Left
Hand
M
O I
Plain U = 10 U= 8 Plain whorl
Arch
A / W / W
p
P = 1 + 16 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 1 = 20 S = Cra
1 16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 0 21 aU
62
Sub- Secondary (SS) = I I -

OMI
63
Exercise # 3. Block the Fingerprint Box, compute for the
Primary division, Get the Secondary and Sub-Secondary
Divisions.
FPC = _________________
P= S=
SS =
64
Major Division
Is similar in process as the sub secondary division though
it is applies to the thumbs only and ridge counting has been
modified.
1. Whorl Patterns = Ridge tracing = I,O,M.
2. Loop Patterns = Ridge Counting = S,M,L.
3. Arch Patterns = Dash (-)
Tables for Loop patterns:
Table A Table B
1-11 = S 1-17 =S
12-16 = M 18-22 =M
17 or more =L 23 or more =L
Table A is used both on the left thumb and right thumb if

they are both loops and the ridge count of the left thumb does
not reached or exceed 17. If the left thumb reached 17 or
more, it is classified, as Exceptional, and the Table B will
now be used only for the right thumb.
65
Illustration for Major division.
FPC = _______________________
P= S=
SS = M=
66
Exercise # 4. Get the Primary, Secondary, Sub-secondary
and Major division of the following fingerprints.
FPC _______________________
P= S=
SS = M=
67
IV. Final Division

Is the division in the classification formula that is
derived from the two (2) little fingers. The results of
the ridge counting of a loop or Whorl will be exhibited
at the extreme right corner of the classification line.
Take note that whorl will be ridge counted not to be
ridge trace.
1. Loops = to be ridge counted in its
conventional way.
2. Whorls
a. Plain whorl and Central pocket loop =
will be treated as ULNAR loop for
purposes of ridge counting.
b. Double loop whorl = will be ridge
counted as to its top loop.
c. Accidental Whorl = Will be ridge counted
in all but the least ridge counts will be
used.
V. Key
This division is derived by getting the ridge count of

the first loop formation appearing in the ten fingers
except the two little fingers, and the result will be
exhibited at the left most top corner of the
classification line. Take note that it is only one and it
68
should be a numerator not a denominator. In case of
absence of loop, the first whorl will be ridge counted
following the rules of ridge counting a whorl under
final division.
Illustration for the Final and Key Division:
FPC _______________________
C. Classification of Amputated Finger/s:
1. In case of missing one or more finger on the same

hand, the pattern of the corresponding digit of the
other hand will be taken.
2. When one or more fingers of both hands are missing,
the said same fingers will be arbitrarily be interpreted
as Plain Whorl with meeting as tracing.
69
3. When all fingers of both hands are missing, they are
all to be considered as Meeting Plain Whorl.
Exercises # 5 and # 6
Get the complete formula of the following fingerprints from
the primary to the key division.
FPC ____________________________
70
FPC
____________________________
71
Chapter 6
Filing of Classified Fingerprint
Filing of classified fingerprint is very essential in a
Fingerprint Identification Section. This serves as reference
every time that the identity of a criminal is under question.
With the advent of the modern system of fingerprint
identification called AFIS (Automated Fingerprint Identification
System), classification and filing of classified cards become
very important for data banking is the fundamental reference
of this state of the art system of identification. This chapter
provides for a simple discussion on how to file classified
fingerprints.
Steps to be followed in filing classified fingerprint:
1. Arranged the classified fingerprint based on
the Primary denominator to be followed by
Primary numerator.
The Primary division is the main part of the
classification for it is the basis in determining the file
under which the print is placed or filed. The filing begins
with the primary denominator, which only means that the
first classified card to appear in the filing cabinet is the
one with primary division of 1/1 followed by 2/1 until it
reached the last classification which is 32/32. Listed
below is the complete arrangement of the primary
division:
72
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 32
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 . . . .. . . . . . .32
With primary division, 1,024 classified fingerprints can

easily be filed.
2. After the primary division arranged the
classified card following the Secondary
denominator and Secondary numerator.
a. Arranged them first based on the capital letter
representation appearing on the denominator and
numerator with the following sequence.
A, T, R, U, W, C, D, X.
A T R U W C D X A T R U W C D X
A A A A A A A A T T T T T T T T
R R R R R R R R U U U U U U U U
73
A T R U W C D X A T R U W C D
X
W W W W W W WW C C C C C C C C
D D D D D D D D X X X X X X X X
Small letter sequence will be as follows:
A tAra aA2at tA2tr
aA tArt aA2ar tAtra
tA tA2r aAata tAtrt
rA rA2a aAa2t tAt2r
Aa rAat aAatr tAr2a
At rAar aAara tArat
a Ar rAta aAart tArar
a Aa rA2t aAa2r tArta
a At rAtr aAt2a tAr2t
t Ar rara aAtat tArtr
t Aa rArt aAtar tA2ra
t At tA2t aA2ta tA2rt
t Ar A3a aA3t tA3r
t Aa A2at aA2tr rA3a
r At A2ar aAtra rA2at
r Ar Aata aAtrt rA2ar
A 2a Aa2t aAt2r rAaata
A at Aatr aAr2a rAa2t
A ar Aara aArat rAatr
74
A tr Aart aArar rAara
A 2t Aa2r aArta rAart
A tr At2a aAr2t rAa2r
A ra Atat aArtr rAt2a
A rt Atar aA2ta rAtat
a 2r A2ta aA2rt rAtar
aA2a A3t aA3r ra2ta
aAat A2tr tA3a rA3t
aAar Atra TA2at rA2tr
aAta Atrt tA2ar rAtra
aA2t At2r tAata rAtrt
aAtr Ar2a tAa2t rAt2r
aAra Arat tAatr rar2a
aArt Arar tAaara rArat
aA2r Arta tAart rArar
tA2a Ar2t tAa2r rArta
tAat Artr tAt2a rar2t
tAar A2ra tAtat rArtr
tAta A2rt tAtar rA2ra
tA2t A3r tA2ta rA2rt
tAtr AA2a tA3t rA3r
3. After the secondary Denominator and Secondary

denominator, the next thing to arrange is the sub-
secondary Denominator and Sub-secondary numerator.
75
All loops sets of prints using the Index, Middle and
Ring fingers of both hands, (64 Combinations).
III IIO IOI IOO OII OIO OOI OOO
III III III III III III III III

IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO

IOI IOI IOI IOI IOI IOI IOI IOI

IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO

OII OII OII OII OII OII OII OII

OIO OIO OIO OIO OIO OIO OIO OIO

OOI OOI OOI OOI OOI OOI OOI OOI

OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO
76
III IIM IIO IMI IMM IMO IOI IOM IOO MII MIM MIO MMI MMM
III III III III III III III III III III III III III III
MMO MOI MOM MOO OII OIM OIO OMI OMM OMO OOI OOM OOO
III III III III III III III III III III III III III
IIM IIM IIO IMI IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM
IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM
IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO
IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO
IMI IMI IMI IMI IMI IMI IMI IMI IMI IMI IMI IMI IMI IMI
IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO
IMM IMM IMM IMM IMM IMM IMM IMM IMM IMM IMM IMM IMM IMM
IMM IMM IMM IMM IMM IMM IMM IMM IMM IMM IMM IMM IMM
IMO IMO IMO IMO IMO IMO IMO IMO IMO IMO IMO IMO IMO IMO
IMO IMO IMO IMO IMO IMO IMO IMO IMO IMO IMO IMO IMO
IOI IOI IOI IOI IOI IOI IOI IOI IOI IOI IOI IOI IOI IOI
IOI IOI IOI IOI IOI IOI IOI IOI IOI IOI IOI IOI IOI
IOM IOM IOM IOM IOM IOM IOM IOM IOM IOM IOM IOM IOM IOM
IOM IOM IOM IOM IOM IOM IOM IOM IOM IOM IOM IOM IOM
77
IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO
IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO
MII MII MII MII MII MII MII MII MII MII MII MII MII MII
MII MII MII MII MII MII MII MII MII MII MII MII MII
MIM MIM MIM MIM MIM MIM MIM MIM MIM MIM MIM MIM MIM MIM
MIM MIM MIM MIM MIM MIM MIM MIM MIM MIM MIM MIM MIM
MIO MIO MIO MIO MIO MIO MIO MIO MIO MIO MIO MIO MIO MIO
MIO MIO MIO MIO MIO MIO MIO MIO MIO MIO MIO MIO MIO
MMI MMI MMI MMI MMI MMI MMI MMI MMI MMI MMI MMI MMI MMI
MMI MMI MMI MMI MMI MMI MMI MMI MMI MMI MMI MMI MMI
MMM MMM MMM MMM MMM MMM MMM MMM MMM MMM MMM MMM MMM MMM
MMM MMM MMM MMM MMM MMM MMM MMM MMM MMM MMM MMM MMM
MMO MMO MMO MMO MMO MMO MMO MMO MMO MMO MMO MMO MMO MMO
MMO MMO MMO MMO MMO MMO MMO MMO MMO MMO MMO MMO MMO
MOI MOI MOI MOI MOI MOI MOI MOI MOI MOI MOI MOI MOI MOI
MMO MOI MOM MOO OOI OIM OIO OMI OMM OMO OOI OOM OOO
MOI MOI MOI MOI MOI MOI MOI MOI MOI MOI MOI MOI MOI
MOM MOM MOM MOM MOM MOM MOM MOM MOM MOM MOM MOM MOM MOM
MOM MOM MOM MOM MOM MOM MOM MOM MOM MOM MOM MOM MOM
MOO MOO MOO MOO MOO MOO MOO MOO MOO MOO MOO MOO MOO MOO
78
MOO MOO MOO MOO MOO MOO MOO MOO MOO MOO MOO MOO MOO
OII OII OII OII OII OII OII OII OII OII OII OII OII OII
OII OII OII OII OII OII OII OII OII OII OII OII OII
OIM OIM OIM OIM OIM OIM OIM OIM OIM OIM OIM OIM OIM OIM
1 MMO MOI MOM MOO OII OIM OIO OMI OMM OMO OOI OOM OOO
OIM OIM OIM OIM OIM OIM OIM OIM OIM OIM OIM OIM OIM
OIO OIO OIO OIO OIO OIO OIO IOI OIO OIO OIO OIO OIO OIO
OIO OIO OIO OIO OIO OIO IOI OIO OIO OIO OIO OIO OIO
OMI OMI OMI OMI OMI OMI OMI OMI OMI OMI OMI OMI OMI OMI
MMO MOI MOM MOO OII OIM IOI OMI OMM OMO OOI OOM OOO
OMI OMI OMI OMI OMI OMI OMI OMI OMI OMI OMI OMI OMI
OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM
OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM
OMO OMO OMO OMO OMO OMO OMO OMO OMO OMO OMO OMO OMO OMO
OMO OMO OMO OMO OMO OMO OMO OMO OMO OMO OMO OMO OMO
OOI OOI OOI OOI OOI OOI OOI OOI OOI OOI OOI OOI OOI OOI
OOI OOI OOI OOI OOI OOI OOI OOI OOI OOI OOI OOI OOI
OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM
OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM OMM
OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO
OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO
79
Chapter 7
LATENT PRINTS IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
Fingerprints has been considered as one of the most

important or valuable types of a physical evidence in the
field of forensic science. There were various forms in
which fingerprints appear at the scene of the crime, some
in a form of a visible print, some are impression prints and
still others in a form of a latent print. The word “latent”
was derived from a Latin word, which means “something
indistinct” or “something hidden”. At present the word
latent prints is the one use in generally referring to all
forms of a fingerprints that are found at the scene of
crime.
Latent prints have been defined as the markings of
oily matter or perspiration from the skin glands left upon
any surface which the hands and fingers may have
touched. (B.C. Dridges, 214, Practical Fingerprinting,
Funk & Wagnalls Co.) These are in most cases
perceptible by the naked eye, although in some extent
they are highly “latent”, being so indistinct or invisible,
thus, a need for developing or disclosure process will be
needed.
80
It has been said that once own hand is his great
enemy that is very well true especially in a case of a
criminal. The hand, being one of the most important aid to
the sense of touch, person’s who went to certain place
would definitely have his hand and fingers frequently
encounter objects or anything surrounding him. This
produce a number of marking that would be of evidential
value to serve as either to condemn or to vindicate an
accused person. Thus, all efforts should be made by any
fingerprint technicians or persons concerned to be able to
protect the immediate scene of a crime, identify and trace
as many prints as possible and be able to developed and
preserve them properly.
In the Philippines, it is not common that a fingerprint
technician or any other forensic technician is the one who
immediately reach the scene of incident but more often a
witness to the crime and later informing the police
investigator of such occurrence. This scenario often
invites an opportunity for possible contamination or even
total destruction of the latent prints, for so many
witnesses are unaware of the proper approach when
confronted by such situation. Failure or success of any
fingerprint technician does not solely rely on his credibility
but so with other malefactor to the incidence. There were
numerous cases at which negligence is the greatest
enemy of any forensic specialist in the case. Negligence
81
on the part of the one who discover the crime, negligence
on the part of the investigator or even to his own
negligence. This only indicates that extreme measures
should be made to ensure protection of the crime scene
and search and developing of prints should be made by
qualified individual for any error in its process in most
cases cannot be complemented by any other means.
A. Types of Latent Prints
Different authors made their different set of
identifying the kinds of latent prints. Most of them
derived three kinds of a latent print according to their
degree of visibility some qualify it according to their
very nature. The author rather make its classification
simpler by having it categories into two. Namely:
1. Visible Prints
Are meant to those prints which can easily
be recognized or noticeable even to an amateur
technician. Visible prints can be divided into two
forms: (a) Those made by contamination with
colored substance such as Blood, paint, dust
and dirt, etc.; and, (b) Molded Prints, those that
are made visible due to contact of the subject
hands and fingers to some soft object that can
assume the patterns of the finger once
compressed by it such as, those molded in soap,
clay, etc.
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2. Invisible Prints
Generally refers to those prints that are made
due to the sweat present in the fingers and thumb
of a person that is transferred to any object that
he holds. This is one of the common types
observed in a scene of a crime.
Aside from this two general categories of
prints, miscellaneous types of prints can be made
based on their appearance such as Smudge
prints and Fragmentary prints. Smudge prints are
those prints that are indistinct due to sliding
motion of the fingers at the time they are
impressed. Fragmentary prints are those prints
that show only a portion of the pattern or of the
friction skins.
B. Search for Latent Prints
Search for possible prints should be made in a
more systematic and intellectual means. Any
person in-charge of this duty should be
concentrated in determining all possible
occurrences of prints. There has been no
specific rule governing its search for, procedures
always depends on the nature of the crime
scene to be investigated. Although it is common
that for one to be able to search for latent prints
83
the point of entry and point of exits is always to
be considered.
C. Developing of Latent Prints
One of the Challenging parts in the work of any
fingerprint technician in the field is the successful
developing and lifting of latent prints. Great efforts
should be made by any technician to be able to
develop a good impression that would be of very
great value in identifying the possible perpetrator to
the crime. A single mistake in the developing would
almost exactly means to total failure. Developing of
prints cannot be made in a trial and error case. Once
prints are destroyed all other means may not be of
used for possible restoration. Methods of developing
latent prints and success in its development may also
be attributed to the condition of the latent prints. It is
said that stability of latent prints is highly influence by
three (3) factors: (1) Climatic Condition is one great
factor that affects the stability of the prints at the
scene of the crime. Since most cases show that
latent prints are in a form of perspiration, strong
temperature can easily contribute to the liberation of
the sweat, thus making it difficult if not impossible to
developed the prints. ; (2) Subject Factor is another
thing to be considered for people have various
degree of acidity. The more perspiring the subject is
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the more sweat will be left and consequently the
longer it will last. And; (3) Nature of the Surface,
glass and other smooth surface makes latent prints
easily attracted to other elements thus, there is
always a possibility of destruction. But, such surface
is an ideal for developing and lifting of prints. Papers
and other absorbent surface makes latent prints last
longer than if they are in other surface.
TRADITIONAL METHODS OF DEVELOPING

LATENT PRINTS
1. Dusting method
This is considered as the simplest and most
common method or procedure being utilized in
developing of latent prints. This process greatly
depends on the mechanical adherence of the used
powder to the moisture left on the surface where prints
are observed. The powder and brush method has
been used as early as nineteenth century. This
process remains at used because of its simplicity
although it has some disadvantages. Any technician
must be skillful in applying his brush to any prints for it
has a destructive effect to the ridge formation. There
are various forms of powder being used at present
although in practice as observe in NBI and PNP Crime
85
Laboratory, black powder is the most used because of
being ideal in photographing. In general, fingerprint
powder can be categories into four (4) namely:
regular, Luminescent, metallic and thermoplastic.
a. Regular powders includes Black
powder, Manganese dioxide powder, Lampblack
powder, white powder etc. among these powder
black is the one commonly used for dusting
because of its good contrast in photographing.
Black powder is basically composed of Black
ferric dioxide (50%), Rosin (25%) and Lampblack
(25%).
b. Luminescent (Fluorescent and
Phosphorescent) Powder. This powders
refers to those substances that is capable of
fluoresce upon exposure to ultra-violet light,
laser and other light sources. They most ideal
for use in cases that the surface where latent
prints are found is a multi-colored one. This
powder is seldom used in the scene of a
crime although, with the advent of laser
method, this luminescent powder becomes of
great value in discovering and developing
latent prints using laser method. An example
of this powder are Acridine yellow and
orange, coumarin 6, crystal violet etc.
86
c. Metallic Powder. This powder are used when
a magnetic applicator is the one at used by a
fingerprint technician. This powder comes in a
form of a fine ferromagnetic powder and was
found effective for used in leather, plastic,
walls and human skin. Basic compounds that
make up the powder are iron oxide and iron
powder.
d. Thermoplastic Powder. It involves the used of
photocopier toners or dry inks which fused to
the surface when exposure to heat.
Ways of developing latent prints using
dusting technique:
1. Take hold of the handle of the brush and tap
it several times at the side of your pals, so
that it will be even and it would removed any
stray bits of foreign matter that maybe
present.
2. Put a small amount of powder unto a clean
sheet of paper and pick it up using only the
tip of the brush.
3. Tap lightly the brush so that excess powder
will be expel, then draw the brush very lightly
to the latent prints allowing only the tip to
touch the prints.
87
4. When the powder adheres to the prints
giving a light appearance of the pattern,
fallow the general pattern of the ridges as
much as possible.
5. When enough powder has adhered to the
latent prints, shake the brush to remove
excess powder and then brush excess of the
materials on the prints using the tip of the
brush.
6. On paper, used enough powder and then
tilted back and forth the paper making the
powder slide across the suspected area of
the paper until prints is develop.
2. Chemical Fuming
A very in demand type of fuming chemical that
has been used over a century is the Iodine, it
involves a process of sublimation and absorption.
The Iodine crystal is capable of turning to gas without
passing the liquid state thus, if it is subjected to heat
the process of sublimation becomes faster and such
will liberates a violet iodine vapor which will be
absorb by the fingerprint secretion residues
producing a Yellowish brown prints. The very
common method by which iodine is apply is with the
used of a fuming cabinet, although some method can
also be made such as, Iodine fuming gun method,
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Iodine dusting method and Iodine solution method.
Other chemical fuming includes Cyanoacrylate,
fluorescent chemical fuming, camphor, pine tar etc
can also be utilized for this purpose.
Iodine Solution Method
The technique was particularly effective in
revealing freshly deposited latent fingerprints.
Method exists for fixing iodine-developed
fingerprints. These include starch spray, silver
plate transfer, tetrabase solution, and
benzoflavone reagent. The following is a
commonly used formula.
1. Dissolve 1 g a-naphthoplavone in 50ml acetic
acid.
2. Add 300ml 1, 1, 2-trichlorotrifluoroethane to
the above solution. A clear, yellow iodine
fixing solution is produced.
3. Store the solution in a brown glass bottle. It
will be stable indefinitely.
Cyanoacrylate Fuming
Cyanoacrylate Fuming has been
successfully used for the development of latent
prints on surfaces as diverse as plastics,
electrical tape, garbage bags, Styrofoam,
Carbon Paper, aluminum foil, finished and
unfinished wood, rubber, copper and other
89
materials, cellophane, rubber bands, and
smooth rocks. The cyanoacrylate fuming
procedure and several modifications of it that
accelerate the development of latent prints.
Iodine Fuming Cabinet Method
1. Suspend specimens or articles to be
trated in the upper portion of fuming cabinet.
2. Place approximately 1g iodine crystals in
a clean evaporating dish in the cabinet.
3. Close the fuming cabinet.
4. Heat the iodine crystals slowly and gently to
about 50 degree Celsius with a heating block
or other appropriate heat source apparatus.
5. Observe the development of latent prints and
the background, remove the remaining iodine
crystals from the cabinet.
6. Remove the specimens from the Cabinet.
7. Photograph the developed fingerprint as
soon as possible or, alternatively, fix the
developed print with fixing chemicals.
Iodine Dusting Method
Iodine crystals are ground into a fine powder
and dusted onto the surface containing latent
fingerprints with a fingerprint brush in the same
manner as the used with regular fingerprint
powder.
90
The iodine fumes are absorbed y the
fingerprint secretion residues to give yellowish
brown latent prints.
Iodine Fuming Gun Method
An iodine fuming gun can be made from
either a glass or hard plastic tube. Fresh
calcium chloride crystals should be used as a
drying agent.
1. Plastic 0.5g iodine crystals into the fuming
gun.
2. To fume a surface containing latent prints,
the nozzle of the fuming gun is moved slowly
over the surface at close range,
approximately 0.5 in away.
3. Blow air into the mouthpiece of the fuming
gun (the end containing the calcium chloride
crystals) through a connecting tube.
4. Avoid inhaling any iodine fumes or allowing
any contract of the vapors with skin. Iodine
crystals and vapors are toxic and corrosive.
5. Concentrate the fumes in areas where latent
prints begin to appear.
6. Photograph the developed fingerprints as
soon as possible or alternatively, fix the
developed fingerprints with Iodine fixing
chemicals.
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The basic materials used in magnetic
powder are iron oxide and iron powder dust
along with other coloration compounds. In
addition, fine lead powder has been used for
latent print detection with X-ray
electronography and autlectronography.
Cadnium, Zinc, and gold/zinc metals have
also been used in vacuum metal deposition
techniques for latent print detection.
Thermoplastic Fingerprint Powders
This technique involves powders such
as photocopier toners or dry inks. Later
fingerprints developed with such materials
become fused to the surface upon exposure
to heat.
4. Ninhydrin Method
This method has been considered as
one of the best method being used in
developing latent prints in paper, not just
because of its capability to developed
latent prints even for a long time but also
to the various means by which it can be
applied with less probability of damaging
the document. Ninhydrin solution are
prepared using various solvents such as
acetone, ethanol, ethyl ether etc. and it is
92
applied to the paper either by swabbing,
spraying or dipping
93
CHAPTER 7
IDENTIFICATION OF LATENT PRINTS
Many experienced latent print examiners may scoff at any

attempts to thoroughly examine the thought processes
involved in the evaluation an identification of latent prints.
They may believe that such processes are merely common
sense observation of physical phenomena, i.e., friction ridge
characteristics. ”Common sense, however, is based on the
common experience, supported and elaborated by the logic
we apply to the explanation of that experience.” Forensic
scientists who fail to understand the scientific methodology
involved in their work will quite often fare badly under rigorous
cross-examination when defending their findings in a court of
law.
A. DEMOSTRATIVE MODELS
What little information that is available in the
identification literature regarding the processes of
evaluation and identification usually covers only the
numbers of points required for identification or the
methods of demonstration identification in legal
proceedings. The methods of courtroom presentation
of fingerprint evidence may provide a clue as to the
rationale of some examiners when making
identification in as much as these presentations may
94
be viewed as models of methodology of these
examiners in arriving at their conclusion.
B. OSBORN GRID METHOD

The Osborn Grid Method consists of
photographing the latent and inked prints and making
photographic enlargements of each. A non-standard
grid of equally size squares is superimposed on each
enlargement with the squares of each grid occupying
identical positions on each print. Both prints are
examined, square for square, and the points of
identity in each are noted.
C. SEYMOUR TRACE METHOD
In the Seymour Trace Method, the latent and
inked prints are both copied on tracing paper. The
two tracings are then compared by superimposing
one over the other and viewing them with black
lighting.
D. PHOTOGRAPHIC STRIP METHOD
The photographic strip method also involves the
use of photographic enlargements. The positioning
and alignment of both prints in the enlargements
must be in close arrangement as possible. The
enlargement of the latent print is then cut in lateral
strips and placed over the enlargement of the inked
95
print. The two enlargements must be fastened
together in perfect conjunction. The identity is then
demonstrated by removing the strips of the latent
enlargement one at a time, exposing the inked print
below.
E. POLYGON METHOD
The Polygon Method also called “PINCUSHION”
method, of demonstrating identity also requires
photographic enlargements of the latent and inked
prints; both must be made at the same scale. Small
pinpoint holes are punched in each enlargement at
the corresponding ridge characteristics. The
enlargements are then reversed and straight lines
are dawn connecting the points punched. The
geometric configuration of each print is then
compared to demonstrate the identity.
F. OVERLAY METHOD
The Overlay method is often suggested by
inexperienced examiners to demonstrate identity or
non-identity of the compared prints. One approach is
to place a transparent overlay over an enlargement
of the latent print and mark the ridge characteristics
with a suitable writing instrument. The same overlay
then placed over an enlargement of the inked print,
which must be to the same scale as the latent print,
96
and the corresponding ridge characteristics are
noted.
A variation in this method is to make transparent
photographic enlargements of the latent and inked
prints in two different colors: for example, the ridge
details of the latent maybe yellow and those of the
inked print, and matching ridges will appear green
while non matching ridges will appear either yellow or
blue. Of course, other colors have been used.
G. OSTERBURG GRID METHOD
The Osterburg method is, in part, similar to the
Osborn Grid method. a transparent grid is
superimposed over the latent and inked prints, but
whereas the Osborn Grid has no specific
measurements, the grids lines of the Osterburg grid
are 1mm intervals. The Ostreburg however goes
beyond simply matching the characteristics in
corresponding grid cells. Each type of characteristics
is weighed according to a purported order of
frequency, and weighs are also assigned to cells
without a characteristic. Determination of identity is
made by the total value of the weighed
characteristics found in a given area. No agency has
officially in latent print comparison is entirely
theoretical at his time.
H. MICROSCOPIC TRIANGULATION METHOD
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The Microscopic Triangulation Method is
basically a combination of the grid and polygon
methods of comparison. A microscope is used to
view the latent and inked prints at magnifications
between 10x and 25x. a reference grid of hairlines in
the microscopic field is used during the preliminary
stage of the examination to scan the prints for
similarities and dissimilarities. To establish identity,
imaginary vertical and horizontal axes are drawn
between arbitrarily selected ridge characteristics; the
other characteristics are then plotted with respect to
their relationship to the axes. This method has been
soundly discredited and has no practical use in latent
print identification.
I. CONVENTIONAL METHOD
The conventional method is the oldest and
surest method of demonstrating the identity of the
latent prints. Identification is based on the ridge
characteristics and their unit relationship to one
another. Unit relationship, in this context, is not the
spatial positioning of the characteristics as indicated
by all other demonstrative models. It is the
relationship between the characteristics and all the
other ridges in the print. The models that rely on
spatial positioning do not take into consideration the
influence of distortion in the print; it takes
98
considerable experience to fully comprehend this
influence.
J. EXPERIENCE AND SKILL
Self-instruction in identification procedures and
methodology without adequate guidance from a
qualified instructor could prove disastrous. None of
the methods of demonstrating identity attempt to
define each separate task involved in the evaluation
and comparison of the latent prints. Above all, they
do not explain the logical decisions that are required
throughout the entire identification process.
Consideration of the demonstrative methods

alone gives the false impression that establishing
identity is merely the observation of the spatial
positioning of ridge characteristics and therefore, that
latent prints identification is a simple procedure
requiring little experience.
Clear and distinct prints can be demonstrated so
easily that untrained people will fail to understand the
reason why consideration experience is needed to
identify other latent prints. Such person usually
regard anomalies in a latent print as dissimilarities
and fail to understand the natural effects of distortion
and other adverse influences. To understand the role
of the experience in the latent print identification, it is
99
necessary to understand the relationship between
experience and the tasks and problem solving
techniques employed in the evaluation and
comparison of latent prints. A task may be defined as
a process or procedure required in accomplishing a
measurable objective. A problem solving technique is
the application of certain principles and/or
methodologies to the fulfillment of a task.
Problem solving, perceptual motor skills involve
responses to real objects in the spatial world;
therefore skilled performance is usually connected
with perceptual skills, cognition, fixation and
automation. Cognitive processes involve the
conceptualization, understanding and recognition of
the problem encountered. The fixation stage is the
longest and most difficult stage. During this stage,
the problem is fully analyzed and solution is sought.
The automation stage is characterized by rapid,
automatic performance of the problem solving skills
with a minimum error.
Problem solving ability, performance, or skill in
latent print identification may be viewed with respect
to the individual’s position in the spectrum expertise.
An individual enters the profession as a layperson
and progresses to novice, expert, professional and
ultimately, scholar by virtue of education, research
100
and experience. Experience is a requirement for
advancement throughout the spectrum. Experience is
the foundation of the superior problem solving ability
in all professions; in latent print identification, it is the
home of sharpening all essential skills.
As individual progress from one level to another
along the spectrum of expertise, they also progress
up the phylogenic scale of problem solving
development. Experience is a vital factor in problem-
solving ability because the greater the individual’s
experience, the greater the likelihood that the same
set of circumstances has been previously
encountered, and the previous solution can be
applied to the problem at hand.
Superior problem solving ability may, however,
present a false impression to lay people and novices.
They may observe only the rapidity of the problem
solving processes. To such people, the evaluation
and comparison tasks may appear to have been to
easily performed and without complete analysis of
the empirical data. Such false impressions usually
give rise to the term “ART” in describing the
identification processes, a term that readily identifies
its source as lacking an understanding of the
scientific methodologies and logical reasoning
processes required in this forensic science discipline.
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K. PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE
Latent print evaluation and comparison is
primarily a visual information-processing system. It is
visual discrimination based on geometrical data and
pattern recognition and application of cognitive
analysis. Experience provides a long-term data
reference bank for correlation with current data in the
latent print under examination. To understand the
role of experience to latent print identification, it is
necessary to understand the relationship between
experience and the tasks and problem-solving
techniques employed throughout the processes of
establishing identity.
The processes of identification may be
separated into separate and distinct tasks, which, in
application, an examiner would perform so
automatically that their existence is almost
undetectable. Each separate task throughout the
identification process requires decisions that must be
made regarding the empirical data observed and
correlation of this data with previously observed
empirical data and with experience to comprehend its
significance.
Deductive reasoning is used for making
decisions throughout the identification process, as it
is essential to the methodology of all scientific
102
disciplines. In instances where the decision-making
process involves retrieval of data from experience
(long term memory storage), the reasoning is still
deductive if the decision is based on past observation
of empirical data. Reliance on experience is valid
because data can be verified.
Deductive reasoning is the processing of deriving the
logical consequences of propositions. The
propositions may be on current observations
(empirical data from prints being examined) and on
experiences (long-term memory storage regarding
past observation). Many people are often unaware of
the rules of inference that they employ in making
deductions and derive their conclusions from
premises simply by recognizing intuitively the
connection between the familiarities of the data
observed.
Logic, in general, is the science of right thinking;
it prescribes the rules and procedures by which the
conclusions can be demonstrated to valid or invalid.
A very brief description of deductive reasoning is
necessary to comprehend its role in latent print
identification. In deduction, two propositions, which
between them have common term, are so related
that from their combination of a judgment, the
conclusion necessarily follows. The arrangement of
103
the two propositions, termed the major and minor
premises, followed by the conclusion into full logical
form constitute a mathematical formula termed
syllogism. Valid reasoning from true premises must
lead to a true conclusion.
The premises used throughout the decision-
making processes involved in the tasks of the
evaluation and comparison processes are true if they
are based on visual data and experience regarding
the analysis of the similar data, both of which are
verifiable facts.
L. IDENTIFICATION METHOD
In figure 2.4, is presented a problem solving
protocol and flowchart for the evaluation and
comparison required in the examination of the latent
print. To limit the description, the area for
examination has been restricted to those ridge
characteristics depicted on figure 2.5(b). In figure 2.5
(a) is depicted the fingerprint from which the area of
ridges was selected. Figure 2.5 (c) is an illustration
of how the area being examined would appear if only
the spatial positions of the ridge characteristics were
to be considered. Figure 2.5 (d) is a conceptual
enhancement of figure 2.5(c). These last two
illustrations are included to show the limitations of
104
any protocols that take into consideration only the
spatial positions of the ridge characteristics.
Several decisions that are based mostly on
experience must be made before comparing a latent
print with an inked impression: Was the impression
made by the friction ridge skin? Is there color
reversal in the image of the latent print? What area of
the friction skin made the impression? Is it possible to
determine the pattern type or ridge flow? Are there
sufficient ridge characteristics present for comparison
with an inked print?
The initial identification of the latent print is made
by comparing it with the inked print using 4x or 5x
magnifiers. After determining the general pattern
area of a latent print, a reference point is selected by
the examiner to being the search for matching
characteristics in the inked print. The reference point
may be one of the focal point of the pattern, core or
delta, or several ridge characteristics that are near
each other. After locating similar characteristics in the
inked print, the examiner again observes the latent
print for additional ridge characteristics that are near
those previously selected and that match. This
process is repeated until the examiner is satisfied
that there is a sufficient agreement between the two
prints to form a combination as to identify.
105
In addition to locating points of similarity and
establishing their unit relationship, the examiner must
also search both points for ridge characteristics that
may appear in one impression but not on the other: in
other words, dissimilarities between two prints. If the
examiner as the result of natural phenomena can
explain the “apparent” dissimilarity, it is not
dissimilarity insofar as identity is concerned. If
however, no explanation can be found for the
dissimilarity, the examiner cannot conclude a positive
identification. This rule is often referred to in
identification literature as the “One Dissimilarity
Doctrine”.
Color reversal of latent prints is not an
uncommon occurrence and it is a possibility that an
examiner must always consider. Color reversal
occurs when the color of the ridges is the opposite of
that expected. For example, a black powder is
applied to a surface but the ridges appear white
against a black background. Color reversal may also
occur when excessive pressure is applied, pushing
the latent print residue between the ridges for final
deposit on the receiving surface.
If pore details are present in the print, color
reversal is apparent by the presence of the pores in
what at first appear to be the furrows of the print. In
106
some instances, the ridge characteristics may be
present but the ridge count between some of the
characteristics may be off by one ridge. Generally,
when there has been a color reversal of the ridges,
characteristics such as an enclosure may appear as
a short ridge. However, this is not always the case
and it is possible to have a latent print in which the
ridge events are the same regardless of how the
colors of the ridges are viewed. In instances as the
latter, any arguments regarding the color of the
ridges would be superfluous and would distract from
the real issue of identity.
Distortions may be found in a fingerprint as a
result of pressure applied to finger or because of the
curvature of the receiving surface. Failure to
understand the effects of distortion and the
techniques for resolving such problems has been a
handicap to many inexperienced examiners. Figure
2.6 is an example of the pressure distortion in known
fingerprints from the same finger. Note that in the
core of the print on the right that same ridge is part of
recurving ridge. The examiner can readily understand
and conclude that the “apparent” dissimilarity has
been caused by pressure distortion by establishing
the proper relationship of the ridges in the core to the
107
other ridge characteristics in the print and by tracing
the ridges involved with a pointer.
Figure 2.1 Osborn Grid Method

A B C D E F G H
1
2
3
4
5
6
Figure 2.2 Polygon Method
Area of Latent Inside the Inked Polygon

Area of Latent Outside the Inked
Polygon
Figure 2.3 Osterburg Grid Method

108
109
Figure 2.4 Problem solving protocol and flowchart for the
examination of a latent print.
FLOWCHART PROTOCOL
START
I1
I1-Examine Latent Print.
D STOP
1 D1-Is it a friction skin
impression?
D
2
D2-Is there image reversal?

D (If lift, what type of lifting
3
material is used?)
D
4
D3-Is there a color reversal of

the ridge details?
D
5
(if YES, is the reversal total or

D6 partial?)
D4-What area of friction skin

made the latent print?
110
D5-Determine pattern type or

ridge flow.
D5
D No
6
C1 D6-Are there sufficient ridge
characteristics present for
comparison?
STOP
C1-Conclusion as to
D insufficiency of latent print.
7
D7-Select two or three ridge

characteristics as reference
points.
I2
I2-Examined inked print.
No
D STOP
8
No
D I2-1
9
No
STOP
111
D8-Is the area of friction skin
represented in the latent also
in the inked print
D9-Does the inked print have

sufficient clarity for
comparison?
I2-1-Seek another card from
fingerprint file for comparison.
No
D7
D10-Locate reference points

D10- selected in D7.
1
If NO, return to D7 and
C2
select new reference points.
STOP D10-1-If unable to locate
reference points after repeated
tries,DECISION to eliminate or
not.
C2-Conclusion as to mom-
identity.
I3
I3
I3-Examine latent print.
112
D11-Select two or three

D1
1 additional points in close
relationship to points selection
in D7 and found in D10.
I4
No
D1
2
D7
D12-Locate additional points
selected in D11.
No If NO, return to D11 and
select new additional points.
D12-
1
D12-1-Are new points selected
present in inked print?
No
D7
D7-If unable to locate new
points after repeatable tries,
return to D7 and start again.
No
D12-
2
C2
113
D12-2-If NO repeated tries,
DECISION to eliminate or not.
C2-Conclusion as to non-
identity.
I5
D13-Selected two or three

D1
3 additional points in close
relationship to points selected
in D11 and D12.
I6
I6
I6- Examined inked print.
D1
4
114
D14-Locate additional points
selected in D13.
If NO, return to D13 and
select new additional points.
D14-1-Are new points selected

present in the inked print?
No
D1
3
D1 D11-If unable to locate after

D14-
1
1
repeated tries return to D11.
No
D14-
2 D14-2-Are all points located
No after return to D11 and repeat
of procedure?
D7
D7-If unable to locate after
No
repeated tries, return to D7.
D14-
3
C2 D14-3-If NO, after repeated

tries, DECISION to eliminate
STOP
or not.
115
identity.
I7 I7-Search latent and inked

prints for unexplained
dissimilarities.
D15-If unexplained
D1
6 dissimilarities present,
DECISION to eliminate or
D1
5 repeat protocol.
C2
identity.
D16-Have sufficient number of

points been found in
agreement for an
C3 identification?
STOP C3-Conclusion as to positive
STOP
identification.
CHAPTER 8
POSTMORTEM FINGERPRINT
As long as sufficient friction ridge detail remains, it is

possible to identify individuals. Decomposition and certain
116
other conditions such as burning ultimately destroy all skin.
Yet we have only recall the preserved, many centuries old
body of the Grauballe Man found in Danish peat bog in 1952
to realize the feasibility of fingerprinting the dead. In fact it has
become one of the primary methods of identification for
victims of natural and human disasters including casualties of
conventional warfare.
Technicians have by necessity invented special tools to
assist them in attempting to record the impression of the
cadavers. The most essential instruments hold strips of the
paper upon which prints are made. Since fingers of even the
recently dead are not pliable once rigor mortis has set in, the
fingers must be inked directly with a roller, provided the friction
skin is not damaged. After a finger is inked, a special
postmortem spoon or shoehorn instrument is employed to
accommodate the so-called fingerprint strips that are rolled
over the inked finger to make a print.
Friction skin severely damaged by decomposition or by
exposure to water, sun, fire or explosion must be cleaned and
restored before an attempt can be made to secure fingerprints
from it. Hands so damaged should be immersed in running
water or gently washed with soap, 90% alcohol, benzene or
xylene. For the procedures, the technician should of course
wear rubber gloves.
A. Epidermal Gloves
117
In some cases of advanced decomposition, the epidermis
detaches itself from the dermis. Obviously, such hands and
fingers must be carefully handled. After they are cleaned,
fingerprinting sometimes be performed in the way used live
subjects by fitting the putrefied epidermis onto technicians
own fingers ( wearing rubber gloves, of course ) much like a
finger glove. If the epidermis is too soft and unmanageable,
the skin can be hardened somewhat by being submerged for
twenty-four hours in a solution made of 12 parts of 40%
formaldehyde, 68 parts of alcohol, and 20 parts of glacial
acetic acid. Soaking skin in this solution can preserved it
indefinitely, but causes it to swell somewhat.
B. Dermal Surface Impression
If the epidermis is totally absent or unusable for the
purpose of identification, friction ridge designs may still be
noted on the dermis. Although most inking processes of the
dermal patterns are doomed to failure, it is often possible to
obtained legible ridge pattern by directly photographing the
finger or by X-ray techniques. The well known expert Filino
Padron suggest that the technician prepare the fingers for X-
ray procedure by mixing 20 parts of carbonate of lead and 100
parts of melted paraffin in a glass container and applying it
evenly on each finger, after which radiographs are made. As
an alternative, it has been suggested that lanolin and
carbonate bismuth can be used to prepare dead fingers and
palms for X-raying.
118
One method for obtaining dermal impressions include
making a cast of the skin, which means that it must first be
submerged for a new hours in glacial acetic acid, to be
swelled, then rinsed in running water. After such cast has
been obtained, graphite is sprinkled over the print until the
powder sets in the depression. The excess in then wiped off
with a cloth moistened with silence.
C. Macerated Fingers
Partially rotten and saponified to the extent that the end
joints have hardened and wrinkled after excessive submersion
in water, macerated fingers can be restored for identification
by being softened in a solution of four parts of concentrated
ammonium hydroxide and one part of glycerin. The amputated
fingers should remain in the solution for from thirty-six to forty-
eight hours. When the desired degree of softness is obtained,
the fingers should be washed in warm water and then dried by
being dipped in acetone.
D. Mummified Fingers
Usually hard and shrunken mummified fingers can be
restored and the skin made pliable by being soaked in a 1-3%
solution of potassium hydroxide. After they have swelled to
normal positions, they dried, inked, and fingerprinted in the
conventional manner. During submersion in the caustic
potash, which may be as long as thirty-six disintegrating from
over exposure.
119
Accordingly, the technical literature abounds with
description of various postmortem techniques. Essentially,
however, all experts agree that the three basic steps in
dealing with the cadavers in cleaning the skin tissue, restoring
the tissue and fingerprint the ridge patterns. It might be added
that the photographing ridge patterns should be attempted at
various stages while preparing the skin tissue of the dead for
printing. Since photography is a harmless means of recording
ridge detail, it sometimes preserves identifiable images of the
friction skin that because of subsequent improper handling is
rendered useless for fingerprinting.
E. Tools For Postmortem Fingerprint
Postmortem Finger Straighteners
Made to fit a variety of finger sizes; these steel tools are
specifically designed to straighten the clenched fingers of the
deceased.
Postmortem Card Strips
Made from 110-pound index card stock, postmortem
record strips can be caused postmortem record card strip
holders.
Folding Postmortem card Holder
Folding postmortem record strip holder was designed in
conjunction with professionals working in the field.
Postmortem Card Holder
120
Postmortem record strip is designed to hold our F-
5200/F-5210 postmortem card strips specifically made for
smudge-free fingerprinting of the deceased.
Postmortem Inking Tool

Our pore Lon postmortem inking tool uses a miniature-inking
pad that provides expedient and uniform postmortem
fingerprint taking.
Ink Roller
When using the World’s Best Fingerprint Slab Ink, you’ll want
the best ink roller available today. Available in three sizes,
these rollers are custom designed for maximum operator
comfort and control.
Latex Gloves
These durable, natural, ambidextrous latex gloves are
available in powdered and powdered-free in three different
thicknesses for added degrees of protection.
Postmortem Spoon
Chromed Length: 14 cm.
121
Instant Fingerprint Pad
For postmortem fingerprint taking. The pad is round (diameter
5 cm). The casing is made of plastic.
Tissue Builder
To take the fingerprints of wrinkle (e.g., with a mummified
body or one that has been immersed in water for sometime).
Tissue builder can be used to expand the finger to the normal
volume. Tissue builder is injected under the skin above the
first joint of the finger(s) to be printed. String tied around the
first joint will keep the solution in the proper area. Tissue
builder solvent is used as cleaning solvent and as diluents.
Latex Set
Consists of one glass bottle with 150 ml latex, 1 glass bottle
with 150 ml coagulant, 2 jars for use when casting, a pair of
rubber gloves. It is often not a simple task to take postmortem
fingerprints from skin surfaces damaged by burns, burial, or
decomposition. In this cases, the latex set can be good
alternative for the more traditional methods. With the fluid
latex, an accurate cast of the skin can be made, even when
little skin or dermis is still present. Several methods can be
used to make prints of the latex cast.
HISTORY OF AFIS REVOLUTION
A. First AFIS Levy (1987-1990)
In 1986, the voters of King County approved funding of an
Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS). King
county residents agreed to levy 2.5 cents per $ 1,000
122
valuation on taxable property located within boundaries of
King County. The focus of this Levy was the purchase and
maintenance of the AFIS computer equipment. It was
determined that the King County Sheriff’s office (KCSO) would
house the central site computer equipment. The KCSO AFIS
Unit was responsible for searching crime scene latent prints
and entering all Ten Print cards received from unincorporated
King County and all of the suburban jurisdiction into the AFIS
database at the central site. The Seattle Police (SPD) AFIS
Unit was responsible for the City of Seattle latent and Ten
Print work, which they would enter into the county AFIS
central site database through a remote AFIS site located at
the Seattle Police Department.
The primary goal of the first levy was to give all police
departments within King County a tool to identify perpetration
of serious crimes by matching fingerprints retrieve from crime
scene to known print stored in the AFIS database.
The system was implanted in April of 1988. In the three
remaining years of the levy, KCSO and SPD staff matched
1,208 crime scene latent “hits” would have been made without
AFIS.
Actual Case Story
The City of Auburn had been having a rash of commercial
burglaries. Over commercials burglaries and 9 months later,
one latent from one commercial burglary was submitted to the
KCSO Latent Unit. The latent print was searched against the
123
newly implemented Regional AFIS database, and a match
was made to the juvenile fingerprint card. Auburn police
officers were notified of the identification. The juvenile was
placed under surveillance and that very evening committed a
commercial burglary. After being caught in the act, the youth
confessed that he has committed many others. Officers drove
to the locations where the over 100 previous commercial
burglaries had been committed, 75 of the cases were cleared
and of the remaining unclear cases, the youth couldn’t
remember if he had burgled the other establishment or not
because there had been so many.
During this levy, it was readily apparent that AFIS was
tremendous crime-fighting tool. Problems also became
apparent. The first levy assumed that computerization would
save staff time. However, the addition of the inked fingerprint
cards from suburban jurisdiction increased the KCSO Ten
Print Unit’s workload 144 percent. No additional staff were
funded to deal with this significant backlog. Additionally, it
was found that on average, only 60 percent of the King County
Department of Adult Detention inmates were being
fingerprinted when they were booked into the facility.
Because many of these fingerprints were of poor quality, they
were degrading the AFIS database.
B. Second AFIS Levy (1991 – 1995)
124
The focus of the second AFIS levy, therefore, became
staffing.
The goals of the second levy were to:
1. Fingerprint all inmates in the King County Jail;
2. Determined the identity of all inmates with seven hours of
booking to insure that inmates would not be released with
outstanding warrants;
3. Search all Ten Prints received from the suburban
jurisdiction the same day received;
4. Maintain a 30-days turnaround from receipt of crime scene
latents to AFIS search and reporting of the results; and
5. Increase training of police officers in processing latent
prints.
The second AFIS levy was approved by King County
voters in the fall of 1990. the rate was lowered from 2.5 to 2
cents per $1,000 of assessed valuation of taxable property
within the boarders of King County. This lower rate was the
result of a remaining balance of $3,000,000 from the first levy
and the completion of computer equipment purchases in the
first levy so that no significant new equipment was required in
the second levy.
During this period, the KCSO AFIS Section created a jail
Identification Unit. While the physical location of the Jail ID
Unit is in the King County Jail’s Intake and Release Area, the
staffs report to the KCSO AFIS Section. This unit is staffed 24
hours per day, seven days per week. The quality of
125
fingerprints received from this unit has increased the quality of
the County AFIS database dramatically.
The KCSO and SPD Ten Print Units were expanded to
meet the new workloads, reduce backlogs, and to meet the
program objective of identifying all inmates within seven hours
of booking. During the first half of this levy period, the KCSO
Ten Print Unit was able to eliminate a backlog of 20,000
fingerprint card.
The County AFIS Latent Unit’s staffing was increased in
phases from five to eight latent print examiners during 1992
and 1993. After the new examiners came on board, a nine-
month backlog of AFIS-quality latent cases was deceased. A
more acceptable turnaround time of 30 days to complete an
AFIS-quality case to court readiness was finally attained.
However, the last four months of 1994, the Latent Unit
experienced a 58 percent increase in crime call-outs and a 78
percent increase in the number of hours spent in court. This
trend continued into 1995. These significant increased in
demand for staff time, coupled with temporary evidence
processing lab site that is five miles to fluctuate between 30
and 40 days during 1995.
Actual Case Study

The AFIS Jail Identification Unit became a 24-hours, 7-day a
week operation in March of 1992. In May of the year, a
126
technician began to fingerprint an inmate. There was a look
of shock on the inmate’s face as he uttered the words, “Since
when did you guys start fingerprinting everybody?” the
technician answered, “Since March of this year.” The inmate
went on to tell the technician that he had been in the King
County Jail 110 times before, each time giving a different
name, and had never been fingerprinted. He then told the
technician his real name. Since 1992 there has been a steady
decrease in the number of people found to be lying about their
identity. Technicians and officers have been told by inmates
that you just can’t get away with lying about your name in the
King County Jail, because “they” will just find out anyway.
C. Third AFIS Levy (1996 – 2000)

As with the first levy, the success of the second levy
masked significant gaps and problems in provision of AFIS
services. The Technical Committee charge with making
recommendation for the 1996 - 2000 levy looked behind the
statistics and identified many concerns, including.
Need to Capture Additional Prints: Many juvenile
offenders booked into the Juvenile Detention Center were not
fingerprinted. Similarly, persons convicted of diving under the
influence of alcohol or controlled substances were not printed
if they were booked directly into the North Rehabilitation
Center in Kent, additional staff would be needed to fingerprint
127
persons book into the facility on a 24 hours a day, seven days
a week.
Crime Scene Prints: There remained significant barriers

to police agencies using AFIS services for identifying potential
suspects from crime scene fingerprints. Lengthy processing
times from crime scene prints discouraged police from taking
prints from crime scenes and submitting them to AFIS.
Despite the training that occurred during the previous levy,
many officers still had not been trained, so many prints
submitted were not of AFIS quality.
Investment in Technology: The computer initially
purchased for AFIS was expected to become obsolete near
the end of the levy period, and it was expected that the
replacement of the computer and operating system would be
needed during the latter years of the levy period. In addition,
the committee recommended purchase of Live Scan
Technology for remote electronic taking and searching of
fingerprints. This Live Scan Technology, coupled with “store
and forward” capability anticipated in the AFIS 21 upgrade
was expected to allow for reduction of duplication that
occurred within several aspects of the AFIS services.
Funding Levels: The Technical Committee found that the
AFIS system was under funded even at the existing staffing
levels, requiring subsidy by both King County and Seattle.
128
Access and Service for Suburban Police Agencies: The
committee determined that a concentrated effort should be
made to increase access and services for Suburban police
agencies through increased training, establishment of a
technology “grants” fund, reimbursement for suburban jail print
taking, and establishment of a Regional AFIS Advisory
Committee.
The County Council ultimately placed before the voters a
proposal to fund King County Regional AFIS at a rate of 6.65
cents $1,000 Assessed Valuation. The AFIS package
included funding to address all of the above issued in the
following table.
D. Proposal for a Fourth Levy
In January 2000, the Regional AFIS Advisory Committee
formed the AFIS 2000 Subcommittee to analyze the status of
King County Regional AFIS and develop options for the AFIS
Advisory committee’s consideration. The AFIS 2000
Subcommittee had representation from King County, Seattle
Suburban Cities and Bellevue. The Subcommittee met weekly
from January 6 through April 17. The AFIS 2000
Subcommittee Staff during that period. In addition, Committee
staff briefed the Regional Law, Safety and Justice Committee
on Jan. 27, the King County Police Chief’s Association on
January 12 and April 13, the general membership of the
Suburban Cities Association on January 12, and held a
workshop for Suburban Cities elected Officials on March 21.
129
The Subcommittee established a Status Quo cost of
services, that is the continuation of services at the levels
funded for 2000. Staff analyzed workload expected from
implementation of potential new technology, normal increases
in service demand as well as staffing and technology required
to close gaps in service.
The Subcommittee explored options for the levy period
ranging from a five-year levy to a permanent levy. The
Subcommittee sought advice from the King County Assessor
regarding what changes should be assumed for calculation of
revenues from lid lift property tax levies from those in effect in
1995. The King County Assessor and the King County
economist were consulted to set assumptions for assessed
valuation, new construction, and rate calculations.
The AFIS Advisory Committee believes that the most
viable option would be another five-year levy, subject to
restrictions on annual rates of growth as required by initiative
695. Although the courts have yet determine what exact effect
on property tax measures are required by the initiative, the
Committee recommends an approach in line with initiative 695
be followed. Using this approach, the rate would be set at an
initial level, which would be expected to drop gradually during
the course of the levy period. The amount of the drop in rate
would be determined by the previous year’s yield and the
amount of new construction added the previous year to the
total Assessed Valuation.
130
E. The Current State of AFIS
During the past five years King County Regional AFIS has
provided increased support for Seattle, King County Sheriff’s,
and suburban police jurisdiction through increased
identification of individuals who lie about their identities in an
effort to escape service of outstanding warrants and by
increased matching of latent crime scene prints with suspects.
Financially the Regional AFIS system is strong, due to
prudent management of is resources and higher than
expected revenues generated by a consistently strong
economy. Actual revenues for 1996 to 2000 levy period are
expected to be $1,875,438 greater than projected. Actual
expenditures are expected to be $24,536 less than projected,
despite significant unforeseen costs related to Year 2000
systems issues. The AFIS fund is anticipated to close 2000
with approximately $2.4 million fund balance.
EXPERT WITNESS
Witness, their qualifications. All persons who, having organs
of sense, can perceive, and perceiving, can make known their
perception to others, may be witnesses. Neither parties nor
other persons interested in the outcome of a case shall be
excluded; nor any person on account of his opinion on matters
of religious belief. (Sec. 16 Rule 130 of Criminal Evidence)
General Rule. As a rule, a witness must confine his
testimony to matter within his actual knowledge, he cannot be
131
asked questions calling for his opinion or conclusions upon
acts which are for the court to make. (Sec. 42 Rule 120)
The exception to the opinion are:
1. Expert Evidence
2. Impression and conclusions of a witness derived from
facts and conditions, like the testimony of a witness
as to the physical, mental, moral, or emotional
condition of a person.
3. Identity or handwriting of a person when the witness
has knowledge of the person or handwriting.
4. Opinion of a subscribing witness to a writing regarding
the mental condition of the signer, when the validity
of the writing is in dispute.
5. Opinion of an intimate acquaintance regarding the
mental sanity of a person, the reason for the
opinion being given.
Expert Evidence. The opinion of a witness regarding a
question of science, art or trade when he is skilled therein,
may be received in evidence.
Two things must concur to justify the admission of the
testimony of the expert witnesses:
2. That the subject under examination must be one
where the court needs the aid of knowledge or
experience which can not be obtain from ordinary
witnesses; and
132
3. That the witness called as an expert must possess the
knowledge, skill, experience need to inform the
Court in the particular consideration.
Expert witness must be first qualified before questions are
pronounced to him about the subject in issue. Qualifying the
witness is not necessary if the adverse party admits the
qualifications of the expert witness before the witness is
questioned. The factors qualifying a person as an expert
witness are:
1. Training and education
2. Particular first hand familiarity or standards on which
his opinions are based.
EXPERT FINGERPRINT WITNESS
An expert is generally defined as any person who is
skilled in a specific science, trade, or occupation. Because of
this particular knowledge, the expert is qualified to analyze or
compare a stated set of facts and render an opinion based
upon those facts. This opinion is permitted because of the
expert’s special knowledge, which the layperson generally
does not possess.
A Fingerprint expert is a person who through experience,
training, and education has a complete knowledge and skill in
the science of fingerprints, and if called upon by the courts to
testify, can externalize that knowledge and skill in a forceful,
yet convincing and intelligent manner.
QUALIFICATIONS OF THE FINGERPRINT EXPERT
133
The fingerprint expert may acquire this experience in a
variety of ways. For the most part, however, expertise comes
from experience gained through on-the-job training or by
working as an apprentice for an experienced, recognized
expert. The expert has also participated in formal classroom
training in fingerprint classification and development latent
fingerprint techniques.
Three Kinds of fingerprint Technicians
1. Those who search for and develop latent fingerprints;
2. Those who interpret, classify, and file inked
fingerprints;
3. Those who compare latent and ink prints to establish
identity.
Knowledge of the Fingerprint Expert
It is imperative that the expert be knowledgeable in all
phases of the fingerprint science, history, classification, latent
procedures, and scientific publications.
Evidence Examination
The ultimate conclusion, which is possible in any
evidence examination, is the appearance of the expert in a
court of law for the purpose of presenting testimony relative to
any phase of the examination. This testimony may result from
a negative as well as a positive examination.
Case Preparation
It is important to preserve an unbroken chain of evidence.
In order to do so, fingerprint evidence discovered at a crime
134
scene must be carefully preserved from the time of discovery
until the time of trial, and possession of the evidence must be
accounted for.
Whenever the evidence is handed over to another
individual, it is important to note carefully when and to whom it
was given. Preferably, as few people as possible should
handle the evidence during that period. While not actually
being used for examination purposes, the evidence should be
locked in the evidence or in a vault with restricted access.
Preparing Court Exhibits
1. Prepare enlarged photographs
2. The fingerprint technician who qualified as an expert
will explain how he reached his conclusions.
3. Exhibit/demonstration
Pretrial Conference with Defense Attorney

If the defense attorney requests a pretrial conference, the
expert may, if approved by the prosecuting attorney or judge
hearing the case, grant the conference. If granted, this pretrial
conference with defense attorney should always be conducted
in the presence of the prosecuting attorney or the prosecutor’s
representative. Notes taken should be recoded by an
impartial person, not a representative for the defense. The
expert should request a copy of the notes immediately to
verify their authenticity.
On the Witness Stand
135
The effectiveness of an expert’s testimony depends in
large measure on the total impression created by his
appearance, demeanor, and facility of expression. While he
should know all of the details of the case and be adequately
prepared to answer all relevant questions, the will weight his
testimony not only by his answers, but also by all the factors
that influence human beings observing a man on the witness
stand. For that reason, the following suggestions may aid in
presenting the expert’s testimony in the most favorable light:
2. Dress should be conservative and neat.
3. Answer to questions should be given frankly, honestly
and truthfully, without evasion.
4. If an objection is raised to a questions the witness
should refrain from answering the question and wait
until the judge has overruled it to answer.
5. Answer given should be responsive to the questions.
6. A witness should be clam in answering the questions.
7. Be careful in answering the questions specially when
answerable by “yes” or “no”.
8. The witness should used plain language.
Courtroom Methodology (Direct Examination)
2. Swearing In.
3. Assuming the Witness Stand
4. Courtroom Communication
5. Response to the Jury
Courtroom Methodology (Cross-Examination)
136
1. Vulnerable Areas of Fingerprint Testimony
2. Transcripts of Prior Testimony
3. Tactics of defense Attorney
4. Completion of Testimony
Above all, the witness should remember that his duty
is not to determine the guilt of the innocence of a defendant.
His only purpose is to testify to the results of his expert
examination of items of scientific evidence, and to render an
opinion based upon his study.
137
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Foreign Books
Dr. Henry C. Lee and R.E. Gaensslen. ADVANCES IN
FINGERPRINT TECHNOLOGY, CRC Press.
B.C. Bridges. PRACTICAL ENGINEERING, Funk and
Wagnalls Company.
B. Local Books
Prof. Proceso Tubid. DACTYLOSCOPY: Science of

Fingerprint Classification
and Identification, Rex Printing Company.
Prof. Bonifacio Marcelo, FINGERPRINTS: An Infallable
Science of Identification,
Cruz and Son Book Store.
138
Annex A
Identify each Fingerprint According to their respective
types of pattern.
139
140
141
The Subsecondary Combination

All loop sets of prints using the Index, Middle, and Ring
fingers of both hands, (64 Combinations).
III 1IO IOI IOO OII OIO OOI OOO

III III III III III III III III

IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO IIO

IOI IOI IOI IOI IOI IOI IOI IOI

IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO

OII OII OII OII OII OII OII OII

OIO OIO OIO OIO OIO OIO OIO OIO

OOI OOI OOI OOI OOI OOI OOI OOI

OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO
142
Chart Showing Sequence For Filing IMO
Seven hundred twenty nine (729) possible Subsecondary

combinations for Whorl type patterns in the index, Middle, and
Ring fingers of both hands.
III III III III III III III III III III III III III III
III III III III III III III III III III III III III
III IIM IIO IMI IMI IMO IOI IOM IOO MII MIM MIO MMI MMM
IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM
IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM IIM

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Notes in Fingerprint Identification

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1

The Chinese are the one noted to be the first user of

B.SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF

6. Capt. Thomas Dugan, New York Police

2.15. Anthropometry = the first scientific method

The Law of Multiplicity of Evidence = States that the

Dactyloscopy = Refers to the practical application of

Dactylography = Refers to the scientific study of

Dactylomancy = Is the study of fingerprint for purposes

Fingerprints = is an impression design by the ridges on

B. Principles of Fingerprint Identification

1. Principle of Individuality = States that there are no two

2. Principle of Permanency / Constancy = States that

3. Principle of Infallability = States that fingerprints is a

Other Field of study related to Dactyloscopy:

a. Poroscopy = (derived from the Greek words “poros”,

C.THE FRICTION SKIN AND ITS COMPONENTS:

Friction Skin = is an epidermal hairless skin found

Fig. 1 Cross section of the Friction Skin

Fig. 2 Fingerprint Impression

2. Components of the Friction Skin:

2. Tented Arch =is a type of pattern where majority of the

TWO DIVISIONS OF A LOOP PATTERN:

Right Hand Left Hand

Right Hand Left Hand

Refers to the pattern consisting of a core and Two (2) or

1. Plain Whorl = is a pattern consisting of two deltas and

2. Central Pocket Loop Whorl = a pattern which

3. Double Loop Whorl = This is a pattern consisting of

The loops do not necessarily have to be of the

Elements of Double Loop Whorl

Types of core formation which are not included in

4. Accidental Whorl = This is a pattern consisting of a

2. Converging Ridges = Is a ridge formation

3. Diverging Ridges = Two ridges that are flowing side

4. Enclosure or Lake or Eyelet = a ridge that divides

5. Ending Ridge = refers to an end point of a ridge, or a

6. Islands or Dots =A ridge that resembles a dot,

8. Pattern Area =Is that part of the fingerprint that lies

9. Recurving or Looping Ridge = Is a kind of ridge

10. Sufficient Recurve = Is a recurving ridge complete

11. Appendage =Is a short ridge found at the top or at

12. Rod or Bar = Is a short or long ridge found inside the

13. Obstruction Ridge = Is a short ridge found inside

C. Deltas and Core

b. When there is a choice between two or more possible

c. When there is a series of bifurcations opening

d. The delta may not be located on the middle of the

e. If the ridge enters the pattern area below the

When can a bifurcation be considered a type

c. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains

D. RIDGE COUNTING AND RIDGE TRACING:

2. Outer Whorl (O) – is a whorl pattern whereby a

3. Meeting Whorl (M) – Is a Whorl pattern having

2. Ink Slab = Refers to a piece of metal or a plane glass

3. Card Holder = Refers to a gadget used for clipping the

4. Fingerprint Ink = Refers to a specially manufactured

5. Magnifying Glass = Refers to an instrument used for

b. Bausch & Lomb Magnifier = (also known as

7. Fingerprint Brushes = refers to an instrument used for

8. Fingerprint lifting tapes = Refers to a tapes used for

9. Latent Prints Transfer Cards =Refers to a card used in