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• Fiber fundamentals
• Basic propagation equation
• Impact of fiber losses
• Impact of fiber dispersion
• Polarization-mode dispersion
JJ
• Polarization-dependent losses II
J
I
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Optical Fibers
• Most suitable as communication channel because of dielectric
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waveguiding (act like an optical wire).
• Total internal reflection at the core-cladding interface.
• Single-mode propagation for core size < 10 µm.
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II
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Fiber Dispersion (continued)
• Pulse broadening is governed by group-velocity dispersion.
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• Consider delay in arrival time over a bandwidth ∆ω:
dT d L dβ1
∆T = ∆ω = ∆ω = L ∆ω = Lβ2∆ω.
dω dω vg dω
∂ A β2 ∂ 2A
i − = 0.
∂z 2 ∂t 2
• Compare it with the paraxial equation governing diffraction:
∂ A ∂ 2A
2ik + = 0.
∂ z ∂ x2
• Slit-diffraction problem identical to pulse propagation problem.
• The only difference is that β2 can be positive or negative. JJ
• Many results from diffraction theory can be used for pulses. II
J
• A Gaussian pulse should spread but remain Gaussian in shape. I
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Fiber Losses
Pout
Definition: α(dB/km) = − 10
L log10 Pin ≈ 4.343α.
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Conventional Fiber
Dispersion
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Dry Fiber II
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Impact of Fiber Losses
• Fiber losses reduce signal power inside the fiber.
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• They also reduce the strength of nonlinear effects.
• Using A(z,t) = B(z,t) exp(−αz/2) in the NLS equation,
we obtain
∂ B iβ2 ∂ 2B
+ 2
= iγe−αz|B|2B.
∂z 2 ∂t
• Optical power |A(z,t)|2 decreases as e−αz because of fiber losses.
• Decrease in the signal power makes nonlinear effects weaker, as
expected intuitively.
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• Loss is quantified in terms of the average power defined as II
1
Z T /2 J
Pav(z) = lim |A(z,t)|2 dt = Pav(0)e−αz. I
T →∞ T −T /2
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Loss Compensation
• Fiber losses must be compensated for distances >100 km.
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• A repeater can be used for this purpose.
• A repeater is a receiver–transmitter pair: Receiver output
is directly fed into an optical transmitter.
• Optical bit stream first converted into electric domain.
• It is then regenerated with the help of an optical transmitter.
• This technique becomes quite cumbersome and expensive for
WDM systems as it requires demultiplexing of individual chan-
nels at each repeater. JJ
II
• Alternative Solution: Use optical amplifiers. J
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Optical Amplifiers
• Several kinds of optical amplifiers were developed in the 1980s to
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solve the loss problem.
• Examples include: semiconductor optical amplifiers, Raman am-
plifiers, and erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs).
• They amplify multiple WDM channels simultaneously and
thus are much more cost-effective.
• All modern WDM systems employ optical amplifiers.
• Amplifier can be cascaded and thus enable one to transmit over
distances as long as 10,000 km. JJ
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• We can divide amplifiers into two categories known as lumped
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and distributed amplifiers. I
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Lumped and Distributed Amplifiers
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1.0
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0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance (km)
• Pulse spectrum:
1/2
2πT02 ω 2T02
Ã(0, ω) = A0 exp − . JJ
1 + iC 2(1 + iC)
II
√ J
• Spectral width: ∆ω0 = 1 +C2/T0.
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Pulse Broadening
• Optical field at a distance z is found to be:
" 116/210
2
#
A0 (1 + iC1)t i −1 ξ
A(ξ ,t) = p exp − + tan .
bf 2T02b2f 2 1 +Cξ
Chirp Parameter
3
2
−4 2
2
0 C = −2
−8
1
0 −12
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Distance, z/LD Distance, z/LD
(a) (b)
" 2 2#1/2
T1 Cβ2z β2z JJ
= 1+ + .
T0 T02 T02 II
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• Broadening depends on the sign of β2C. I
p
• Unchirped pulse broadens by a factor 1 + (z/LD)2. Back
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Effect of Chirp
• When β2C > 0, chirped pulse broadens more because dispersion-
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induced chirp adds to the input chirp.
• If β2C < 0, dispersion-induced chirp is of opposite kind.
• From C1(ξ ) = C + s(1 +C2)ξ , C1 becomes zero at a distance
ξ = |C|/(1 +C2), and pulse becomes unchirped.
• Pulse width becomes minimum at that distance:
p
min
T1 = T0/ 1 +C2.
• 96% of pulse energy remains within the bit slot if 4σ < TB = 1/B.
• Using 4Bσ ≤ 1, and σ σ0, BL|D|σλ ≤ 14 .
• Set β2 = 0 when λ = λZD to obtain
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σ 2 = σ02 + 12 (β3Lσω2 )2 ≡ σ02 + 12 (SLσλ2 )2. II
J
√ I
• Dispersion limit: BL|S|σλ2 ≤ 1/ 8.
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Dispersion Limitations
Case of Small Source Spectral Width: Vω 1
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• When β3 = 0 and C = 0,
σ 2 = σ02 + (β2L/2σ0)2.
... β22 l2
... ...
LA
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h(∆τ)2i ≡ ∆τRMS
2
= 2(∆β1)2lc2[exp(−z/lc) + z/lc − 1].
JJ
II
• lc is the length over which two polarization components remain J
correlated. I
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PMD Parameter
• RMS Value of DGD depends on distance z as
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2
∆τRMS (z) = 2(∆β1)2lc2[exp(−z/lc) + z/lc − 1].
∂ A iβ2 ∂ 2A 2 1
+ = iγ|A| A + [g0(z) − α]A.
∂z 2 ∂t 2 2
p
• Eliminate gain–loss terms using A(z,t) = P0 p(z)U(z,t).
• p(z) takes into account changes in average power of signal along
the fiber link; it is defined such that p(nLA) = 1.
• U(z,t) satisfies the NLS equation
∂U iβ2 ∂ 2U JJ
+ 2
= iγP0 p(z)|U|2U.
∂z 2 ∂t II
J
• Last term leads to Self-Phase Modulation (SPM). I
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Nonlinear Phase Shift
• In the limit β2 = 0, ∂U
∂z = ip(z) 2
LNL |U| U.
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• Nonlinear length is defined as LNL = 1/(γP0).
• It provides a length scale over which nonlinear effects become
relevant.
• As an example, if γ = 2 W−1/km, LNL = 100 km for P0 = 5 mW.
• Using U = V exp(iφNL), we obtain
∂V ∂ φNL p(z) 2
= 0, = V .
∂z ∂z LNL
• General solution: U(L,t) = U(0,t) exp[iφNL(L,t)]. JJ
II
• Nonlinear Phase Shift: φNL(L,t) = |U(0,t)|2(Leff/LNL). J
RL R LA I
• Effective fiber length Leff = 0 p(z) dz = NA 0 p(z) dz. Back
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Self-Phase Modulation
• Nonlinear term in the NLS equation leads to an intensity-dependent
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phase shift.
• This phenomenon is referred to as SPM because the signal modu-
lates its own phase.
• It was first observed in a 1978 experiment.
• Nonlinear phase shift φNL = |U(0,t)|2(Leff/LNL).
• Maximum phase shift φmax = Leff/LNL = γP0Leff.
• Leff is smaller than L because of fiber losses.
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• In the case of lumped amplification, p(z) = exp(−αz).
II
• Effective link length Leff = L[1 − exp(−αLA)]/(αLA) ≈ NA/α. J
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• In the absence of fiber losses, Leff = L. Back
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SPM-Induced Chirp
• Consider a single 1 bit within an RZ bit stream.
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• A temporally varying phase implies that carrier frequency differs
across the pulse from its central value ω0.
• The frequency shift δ ω is itself time-dependent:
∂ φNL Leff ∂
δ ω(t) = − =− |U(0,t)|2.
∂t LNL ∂t
• Minus sign is due to the choice exp(−iω0t).
• δ ω(t) is referred to as the frequency chirp.
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• New frequency components are generated continuously as signal II
propagates down the fiber. J
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• New frequency components broaden spectrum of the bit stream.
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SPM-Induced Chirp
• For a random bit sequence U(0,t) = ∑ bnUp(t − nTb).
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• SPM-induced phase shift can be written as
φNL(L,t) ≈ (Leff/LNL) ∑ b2k |Up(t − kTb)|2.
k
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
(a) Normalized Time, t/T0
1
Chirp, δω T0
2
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2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
(b) Normalized Time, t/T0 II
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• φNL and δ ω across the pulse at a distance Leff = LNL for Gaussian
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(m = 1) and super-Gaussian (m = 3) pulses (dashed curves). Back
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Spectral Broadening and Narrowing
• Spectrum of a bit stream becomes changes as it travels down the
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link.
• SPM-induced spectral broadening can be estimated from δ ω(t).
• Maximum value δ ωmax = m f (m)φmax/T0:
1−1/2m
1 1
f (m) = 2 1 − exp − 1 − .
2m 2m
• f (m) = 0.86 for m = 1 and tends toward 0.74 for m > 1.
• Using ∆ω0 = T0−1 with m = 1, δ ωmax = 0.86∆ω0φmax.
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• Spectral shape of at a distance L is obtained from
II
Z ∞ 2
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S(ω) = U(0,t) exp[iφNL(L,t) + i(ω − ω0)t] dt . I
−∞
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Pulse Spectra and Input Chirp
1 1
(a) (b) C = 10
C=0
Spectral Intensity 0.8 0.8 155/210
Spectral Intensity
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
−4 −2 0 2 4 −4 −2 0 2 4
Normalized Frequency Normalized Frequency
1 1
(c) C = −10 (d) C = −20
0.8 0.8
Spectral Intensity
Spectral Intensity
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0
−4 −2 0 2 4
0
−4 −2 0 2 4
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Normalized Frequency Normalized Frequency
II
• Gaussian-pulse spectra for 4 values of C when φmax = 4.5π. J
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• Spectrum broadens for C < 0 but becomes narrower for C < 0. Back
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Control of SPM
• Sign of the chirp parameter C plays a critical role.
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• A negatively chirped pulse undergoes spectral narrowing.
• This behavior can be understood by noting that SPM-induced chirp
is partially cancelled by when C is negative.
• If we use φNL(t) ≈ φmax(1 − t 2/T02) for Gaussian pulses, SPM-
induced chirp is nearly cancelled for C = −2φmax.
• SPM-induced spectral broadening should be controlled for any
system.
• As a rough design guideline, SPM effects become important only JJ
when φmax > 1. This condition satisfied if P0 < α/(γNA). II
J
• For typical values of α and γ, peak power is limited to below I
1 mW for a fiber links containing 30 amplifiers. Back
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Effect of Dispersion
• Dispersive and nonlinear effects act on bit stream simultaneously.
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• One must solve the NLS equation:
∂U iβ2 ∂ 2U
+ 2
= iγP0 p(z)|U|2U.
∂z 2 ∂t
• When p = 1 and β2 < 0, the NLS equation has solutions in the
form of solitons.
• Solitons are pulses that maintain their shape and width in spite
of dispersion.
• Another special case is that of ”rect” pulses propagating in a fiber JJ
with β2 > 0 (normal GVD). II
J
• This problem is identical to the hydrodynamic problem of
I
“breaking a dam.” Back
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Pulse Broadening Revisited
• SPM-induced chirp affects broadening of optical pulses.
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• Broadening factor can be estimated without a complete solution.
• A perturbative approach yields:
Z z
Z z1
σ p2(z) = σL2(z) + γP0 fs β2(z1) p(z2) dz2 dz1.
0 0
p0 = 6 159/210
1.2
5
Width Ratio
4
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Normalized Distance, z/LD
1.5
Normalized Gain, gLNL
0.5
0
−40 −30 −20 −10 0 10 20 30 40
Frequency (GHz)
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• Single nonlinear term |A|2A gives rise to two nonlinear terms. II
• Second term is due to XPM and produces a nonlinear phase shift J
I
that depends on the power of the other channel.
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XPM-Induced Phase Shift
• For an M-channel WDM system, we obtain M equations of the
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form
∂Aj ∂ A j iβ2 ∂ 2A j
2 2
i 2
+ Ω j β2 + = iγ |A j | + 2 ∑ |A m | A j + β2 Ω j A j.
∂z ∂t 2 ∂t 2 m6= j 2
Pin(t) = P0 + pm cos(ωmt).
j6=m i j k
0.35
D = 0.01 ps/(km−nm) 180/210
0.3
0.05
FWM Efficiency, η
0.25
0.1
0.2
1.0
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Channel spacing (GHz)
• Figure shows how ηFWM varies with ∆νch for several values of D,
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using α = 0.2 dB/km.
II
• FWM efficiency is relatively large for low-dispersion fibers. J
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• In contrast, ηFWM ≈ 0 for ∆νch > 50 GHz if D > 2 ps/(km-nm). Back
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Channel Spectra
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• Input (a) and output (c) optical spectra for eight equally spaced JJ
channels launched with 2-mW powers (link length 137 km). II
J
• Input (b) and output (d) optical spectra in the case of unequal I
channel spacings. Back
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Control of FWM
• Design WDM systems with unequal channel spacings.
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• This scheme is not practical since many WDM components
require equally spaced channels.
• Such a scheme is also spectrally inefficient.
• A practical solution offered by dispersion-management technique.
• Fibers with normal and anomalous GVD combined to form
a periodic dispersion map.
• GVD is locally high in all fiber sections but its average value
remains close to zero. JJ
II
• By 1996, the use of dispersion management became common. J
I
• All modern WDM systems make use of dispersion management.
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FWM: Good or Bad?
• FWM leads to interchannel crosstalk in WDM systems.
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• It can be avoided through dispersion management.
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II
J
• Raman shift at Gain peak: ΩR = ω p − ωs ∼ 13 THz). I
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SRS Equations
• SRS governed by two coupled nonlinear equations:
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dIs
= gR(Ω)IpIs − αsIs.
dz
dIp ωp
= − gR(Ω)IpIs − α pIp
dz ωs
• Assume pump is so intense that its depletion can be ignored.
• Using Ip(z) = I0 exp(−α pz), Is satisfies
dIs/dz = gRI0 exp(−α pz)Is − αsIs.
• Lagrangian L is found to be
γ p(z)E 2 E
β2E dC 2C dT dφ
L = 2 (1 +C ) + √
2
+ − −E .
4T 8πT 4 dz T dz dz
√
• E = πa2T is the pulse energy.
• Final step: Minimize L (z) dz with respect to four pulse
R
Chirp, C
1.5 −0.5 1.0
1.0
1.5 0.5
1 −1
µ=0
0.5 −1.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Distance, z/L Distance, z/L
D D