CALCULUS

I
Presented by: Engr. Jim Panares

START!
 RELATION VS. FUNCTION
Relation
v Collection of ordered pairs
v Correspondence of elements of two set through some rules

Function
v A function is a relation such that one element from set X
(domain) corresponds to exactly one element from set Y (range)
 DOMAIN VS. RANGE

Domain
v the set of values that we are allowed to
plug into our function (all possible
inputs)
v Independent variable

Range
v set of values that the function
assumes (all possible outputs)
v Dependent variable
 FUNCTIONS

Vertical Line Test How do functions work? Real-life Application of

Functions:
𝑥=5 INPUT

𝑦 =𝑥+3 FUNCTION

If every vertical line you

can draw passes only
through one point, then the 𝑦=8 OUTPUT
relation is a function
 TYPES OF FUNCTIONS

Linear Function Algebraic Function Transcendental

Non-linear Function Broken Function
Function

v Graph is a
v Graph is not v Does not satisfy a
straight line v Relations and v Can be polynomial
a straight line functions often defined as equation, in
v 𝑦=𝑓 𝑥 = v Many to one show “gaps,” the root of a contrast to an
𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 v Degree is algebraic function.
“jumps,” or polynomial
anything v Trigonometric,
v One to one “blow-ups” in equation Logarithmic, and
other than 1 their graphs. Exponential
v Highest
Functions
degree is 1
OPERATIONS OF FUNCTIONS
Addition: 𝑓 + 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔(𝑥)
Multiplication: 𝑓 2 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 2 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥! − 4 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥" + 2 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥! − 4 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥" + 2
𝑓 2 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 2 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑓 + 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑓 2 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 ! !− 4 " 2 (𝑥 " +2)
𝑓 + 𝑔 𝑥 = (𝑥 ! − 4) + (𝑥 " +2) 𝑓 2 𝑔 𝑥 = (𝑥 )(𝑥 ) + (𝑥 ! )(2) + (−4)(𝑥 " ) + (−4)(2)
𝑓 + 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥! − 4 + 𝑥" + 2
𝑓 2 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 # + 2𝑥 ! − 4𝑥 " − 8
𝑓 + 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥! + 𝑥" − 2
𝑓 𝑥
𝑓 − 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔(𝑥) Division: 𝑓/𝑔 𝑥 =
𝑔(𝑥)
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥! − 4 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥" + 2 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥! − 4 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥" + 2
𝑓 − 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑓 𝑥 (𝑥 " − 2)(𝑥 " + 2)
𝑓 − 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 ! − 4 − (𝑥 " +2) 𝑓/𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓/𝑔 𝑥 =
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥" + 2
𝑓 − 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥! − 4 − 𝑥" − 2
𝑥! − 4 𝑓/𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 " − 2
! " 𝑓/𝑔 𝑥 = "
𝑓−𝑔 𝑥 =𝑥 −𝑥 −6 𝑥 +2
 COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS
Given the two functions f and g, the composite function, denoted by f ∘ g is defined by:
𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑔 𝑥 )
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥" − 3 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥$ + 6
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥" − 3
𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 = (𝑔 𝑥 )" −3
𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 = (𝑥 $ + 6 )" −3
𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 # + 12𝑥 $ + 36 − 3

𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 # + 12𝑥 $ + 33
 ODD VS. EVEN FUNCTIONS
Even Function
v A function 𝑓 is said to be an even function if for every 𝑥 in the domain of
𝑓, 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
v Symmetric with respect to 𝑦 axis

Odd Function
v A function 𝑓 is said to be an odd function if for every 𝑥 in the domain of
𝑓, 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)
v Symmetric with the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 (symmetric with respect to the origin)
ODD VS. EVEN FUNCTIONS
𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥 % − 2𝑥 & + 6𝑥 $ − 5𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 = 7𝑥 # + 5𝑥 " − 12

𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥 % − 2𝑥 & + 6𝑥 $ − 5𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 = 7𝑥 # + 5𝑥 " − 12

𝑓 −𝑥 = 4(−𝑥)% −2(−𝑥)& +6(−𝑥)$ −5(−𝑥) 𝑔 −𝑥 = 7(−𝑥)# +5(−𝑥)" −12

𝑓 −𝑥 = 4(−𝑥 % ) − 2(−𝑥 & ) + 6(−𝑥 $ ) − 5(−𝑥) 𝑔 −𝑥 = 7(𝑥 # ) + 5(𝑥 " ) − 12

𝑓 −𝑥 = −4𝑥 % + 2𝑥 & − 6𝑥 $ + 5𝑥 𝑔 −𝑥 = 7𝑥 # + 5𝑥 " − 12

𝑓 −𝑥 = −(4𝑥 % − 2𝑥 & + 6𝑥 $ − 5𝑥) 𝑔 −𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 Even Function

𝑓 −𝑥 = −𝑓(𝑥) Odd Function
 ODD VS. EVEN FUNCTIONS
Determine whether the following functions are odd or even functions:

𝑥$
ℎ 𝑥 =−
3𝑥 " − 9

𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 # + 4𝑥 " − 1

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 $ + 2𝑥 " − 𝑥
 ODD VS. EVEN FUNCTIONS
Determine whether the following functions are odd or even functions:

𝑥$
ℎ 𝑥 =−
3𝑥 " − 9
ODD FUNCTION

𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 # + 4𝑥 " − 1
EVEN FUNCTION

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 $ + 2𝑥 " − 𝑥
NEITHER ODD NOR EVEN FUNCTION
DOMAIN AND RANGE OF A FUNCTION
Find the domain and range of 𝑓 𝑥 = 20 − 𝑥

The domain of a linear function is equal to the entire set of real

numbers of 𝑥. This is because we do not have any restrictions
on the value of 𝑥. Similarly, the range of linear functions is 𝑦
also the entire set of real numbers in 𝑦.

Domain: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 or (−∞, ∞)

Range: 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 or (−∞, ∞)
𝑥
DOMAIN AND RANGE OF A FUNCTIONs
'
Find the domain and range of 𝑦 = ()$ − 5
DOMAIN AND RANGE OF A FUNCTIONs
'
Find the domain and range of 𝑦 = ()$ − 5
Domain: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅|𝑥 ≠ −3
Range: 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅|𝑦 ≠ −5
 HORIZONTAL LINE TEST
A function that is either increasing or decreasing on an interval is said to be monotonic on that
interval. A monotonic function is a one-to-one function.
 LIMITS
v The limit of a function describes how a function behaves, as the independent variable gets closer to a
certain number.
v Let 𝑓(𝑥) be any function and let 𝒂 and 𝑳 be any real numbers. If we can make 𝑓(𝑥) as close to 𝑳 as we
please by choosing 𝑥 sufficiently close to 𝒂, then we say the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 𝒂 is 𝑳.
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿
(→+
Example:
𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥 + 7
And assign some values near to 𝑥, but not equal, say 2:
X 1.7 1.8 1.99 2.05 2.1 2.2

y 13.8 14.2 14.96 15.2 15.4 15.8

lim 4𝑥 + 7 = 15
(→"
 LIMITS
Right Hand Limits
if we can make the value
𝑓 (𝑥) arbitrarily close to 𝐿
by taking 𝑥 to be
sufficiently close to the
right of 𝑎.
Left Hand Limits
if we can make the value
𝑓 (𝑥) arbitrarily close to 𝐿 by
taking 𝑥 to be sufficiently
close to the left of 𝑎.
Limits that exist
For a limit to exist, the right
hand limit must equal the
left hand limit.
 CONTINUITY
A function 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎 if the following conditions are
satisfied:

v 𝑓 𝑎 is defined
v lim 𝑓 𝑥 exists
(→+
v lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑎)
(→+

lim 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑐)

(→,
LAWS OF LIMITS
LAWS OF LIMITS
$- ( ./(()
If lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 5 and lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 3, evaluate lim :
(→$ (→$ (→$ - ( /(()

lim 3𝑓 𝑥 − lim 𝑔 𝑥
3𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔(𝑥) (→$ (→$
lim =
(→$ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑓 𝑥 2 lim 𝑔 𝑥
(→$ (→$

lim 3𝑓 𝑥 − lim 𝑔 𝑥 325−3 4

(→$ (→$
= =
lim 𝑓 𝑥 2 lim 𝑔 𝑥 523 5
(→$ (→$
 INFINITE LIMITS
v lim 𝑓 𝑥 and lim 𝑓 𝑥
(→2 (→.2

v If lim! 𝑓 𝑥 = ∞ and lim" 𝑓 𝑥 = −∞,

(→+ (→+
then the limit does not exist
 ADDITIONAL FORMULAS
1 '
lim = 0 Provided 𝑛 > 0 and is defined.
(→±2 𝑥 4 (#

1
lim" = ∞ Provided 𝑛 > 0
(→+ (𝑥 − 𝑎)4

1
lim! = ∞ Provided 𝑛 > 0 and 𝑛 is even
(→+ (𝑥 − 𝑎)4

1
lim! = −∞ Provided 𝑛 > 0 and 𝑛 is odd
(→+ (𝑥 − 𝑎)4
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
3𝑥 " + 5𝑥 + 1
lim
(→2 2 − 4𝑥 "

2𝑥 $ − 3𝑥 " + 2
lim
(→2 𝑥 $ − 𝑥 " − 100𝑥 + 1

3𝑥 " + 2𝑥 + 1
lim
(→5" 2𝑥 "

5
lim"
(→$ 𝑥−3

−3
lim!
(→! (4 − 𝑥)"
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
3𝑥 " + 5𝑥 + 1
lim
(→2 2 − 4𝑥 "
3
−
4

2𝑥 $ − 3𝑥 " + 2
lim
(→2 𝑥 $ − 𝑥 " − 100𝑥 + 1
2

3𝑥 " + 2𝑥 + 1
lim
(→5" 2𝑥 "
∞

5
lim"
(→$ 𝑥−3
∞

−3
lim!
(→! (4 − 𝑥)"
−∞
 LIMITS
Indeterminate form exists when substitution results in:
0 ∞
, , 0×∞, ∞ − ∞, 05 , 12 , ∞5
0 ∞

To solve, either perform:

Factoring
Rationalization
-(() -6(()
L’Hospital’s Rule lim /(() = lim /6(()
(→+ (→+

Some useful theorems:

784( '.,97(
lim ( = 1; lim ( = 0
(→5 (→5
LIMITS
𝑥+6
lim
(→.# 𝑥 " − 36

Through substitution:
−6 + 6 0
lim = lim
(→.# (−6)" −36 (→.# 0

Through Factoring:
𝑥+6 1
lim = lim
(→.# (𝑥 + 6)(𝑥 − 6) (→.# 𝑥 − 6
1 1 1
lim = =−
(→.# 𝑥 − 6 −6 − 6 12
LIMITS
Evaluate the following limits:

2𝑥 − 1
lim
(→' 3𝑥 + 5
1
8

𝑥−3
lim
(→: 𝑥 − 9
1
6

𝑒 "( − 1
lim
(→5 ln(1 + 𝑥)
2
LIMITS
Evaluate the following limits:

2𝑥 − 1
lim
(→' 3𝑥 + 5

𝑥−3
lim
(→: 𝑥−9

𝑒 "( − 1
lim
(→5 ln(1 + 𝑥)
 DERIVATIVE, SLOPE, RATE OF CHANGE

𝑄
The slope of the secant line is:

∆𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑃
=
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)
This is also the rate by which 𝑦 changes with respect to 𝑥 for
the interval ∆𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥 ∆𝑥

𝑥 + ∆𝑥
 DERIVATIVE, SLOPE, RATE OF CHANGE
Let 𝑃 be a fixed point. Observe the change as ∆𝑥 becomes smaller and approaches 0:

𝑄
𝑄
𝑄
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃

∆𝑥 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
DERIVATIVE, SLOPE, RATE OF CHANGE
The derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) is simply equal to:

𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 𝑓(𝑥)
= lim = lim
𝑑𝑥 ∆(→5 ∆𝑥 ∆(→5 ∆𝑥

Note: provided the limit exists 𝑃

𝑄
It is the ratio of the increment of the function to the
increment of the independent variable when the latter
increment varies and approaches zero as a limit.

IN OTHER WORDS, it is the slope of the tangent line at given

point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)
∆𝑥 = 0
DERIVATIVE, SLOPE, RATE OF CHANGE
Find the derivative using increment method: Get the limit:
∆𝑦
𝑦 = 5𝑥 − 2 lim = lim 5
∆(→5 ∆𝑥 ∆(→5
6
𝑦 =5
Replace 𝑦 as 𝑦 + ∆𝑦 and 𝑥 as 𝑥 + ∆𝑥:

𝑦 + ∆𝑦 = 5 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 2
∆𝑦 = 5 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 2 − 𝑦

Substitute value of 𝑦:
∆𝑦 = 5 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 2 − (5𝑥 − 2)
∆𝑦 = 5𝑥 + 5∆𝑥 − 2 − 5𝑥 + 2
∆𝑦 = 5∆𝑥

Divide both sides by ∆𝑥:

∆𝑦 5∆𝑥
=
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
∆𝑦
=5
∆𝑥
DERIVATIVE, SLOPE, RATE OF CHANGE
Find the derivative using increment method:

1
𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥−1

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 $ − 3𝑥
DERIVATIVE, SLOPE, RATE OF CHANGE
Find the derivative using increment method:

1
𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥−1
−1 1
lim =−
∆(→5 (𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 − 1)"

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 $ − 3𝑥
lim 3𝑥 " + 3𝑥∆𝑥 + ∆𝑥 $ − 3 = 3𝑥 " − 3
∆(→5
 DERIVATIVES
𝑑
CONSTANT RULE: (𝑐) = 0
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
SUM AND DIFFERENCE PROPERTY: 𝑢±𝑣 = ±
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
PRODUCT RULE: 𝑢𝑣 = 𝑢 +𝑣
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑣
𝑐𝑣 = 𝑐
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Where c is a constant
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑 𝑢 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑢 𝑑𝑥
QUOTIENT RULE: =
𝑑𝑥 𝑣 𝑣"
𝑑𝑣
𝑑 𝑐 −𝑐 𝑑𝑥
= Where c is a constant
𝑑𝑥 𝑣 𝑣"
POWER RULE
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥4
𝑓′ 𝑥 = 𝑛𝑥 4.'

𝑓 𝑥 =$𝑥
transform the function into a power function:
'
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥$
1 '
𝑓′ 𝑥 = 𝑥 $.'
3
1 "
𝑓 6 ( = 𝑥 .$
3
1
𝑓′ 𝑥 = "
3𝑥 $
1
𝑓′ 𝑥 = $
3 𝑥"
CHAIN RULE
𝑑
(𝑓(𝑥))4 = 𝑛 (𝑓(𝑥))4.' 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

(𝑓(𝑥))4 = (3𝑥 $ + 5) $

𝑛=3
𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 $ + 5
𝑓′ 𝑥 = 9𝑥 "

𝑑
(𝑓(𝑥))4 = 𝑛 (𝑓(𝑥))4.' 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(3𝑥 $ + 5) $ = 3 2 3𝑥 $ + 5 $.' 2 9𝑥 "
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(3𝑥 $ + 5) $ = 27𝑥 " (3𝑥 $ + 5 )"
𝑑𝑥
 DERIVATIVES
Get the first derivative of the function 𝑓:

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 2𝑥 4𝑥 " − 1

𝑥" + 1
𝑓 𝑥 =
5𝑥 − 3
 DERIVATIVES
Get the first derivative of the function 𝑓:

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 2𝑥 4𝑥 " − 1
& '
48𝑥 " + 20𝑥 " − 4𝑥 " − 1
2 𝑥

𝑥" + 1
𝑓 𝑥 =
5𝑥 − 3
"
5𝑥 − 6𝑥 − 5
5𝑥 − 3 "
 DERIVATIVE OF TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS
𝑑
sin 𝑢 = cos 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢
𝑑
cos 𝑢 = − sin 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢
𝑑
tan 𝑢 = sec " 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢
𝑑
cot 𝑢 = − csc " 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢
𝑑
sec 𝑢 = sec 𝑢 tan 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢
𝑑
csc 𝑢 = − csc 𝑢 cot 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢
 DERIVATIVE OF INVERSE
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
𝑑 1
sin.' 𝑢 = 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢 1 − 𝑢"
𝑑 −1
cos .' 𝑢 = 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢 1 − 𝑢"
𝑑 1
tan.' 𝑢 = 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢 1 + 𝑢"
𝑑 −1
cot .' 𝑢 = 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢 1 + 𝑢"
𝑑 1
sec .' 𝑢 = 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢 𝑢 𝑢" − 1
𝑑 −1
csc .' 𝑢 = 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢 𝑢 𝑢" − 1
 DERIVATIVE OF LOGARITHMIC AND
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS
𝑑 <
𝑒 = 𝑒 < 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢

𝑑 <
𝑎 = 𝑎< ln 𝑎 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢

𝑑 1
ln 𝑢 = 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢 𝑢

𝑑 1
log + 𝑢 = 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢 𝑢 ln 𝑎
 DERIVATIVE OF HYPERBOLIC
FUNCTIONS
𝑑
sinh 𝑢 = cosh 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢
𝑑
cosh 𝑢 = sinh 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢
𝑑
tanh 𝑢 = sech" 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢
𝑑
coth 𝑢 = − csch" 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢
𝑑
sech 𝑢 = − sech 𝑢 tanh 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢
𝑑
csch 𝑢 = − csch 𝑢 coth 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢
DERIVATIVES
𝑦 = 4tan! 4𝑥 "
𝑦′ = 4 2 4tan$ (4𝑥 " ) 2 sec " (4𝑥 " ) 2 8𝑥
𝑦′ = 128𝑥tan$ (4𝑥 " )sec " (4𝑥 " )

𝑦 = arcsin 3𝑥
3
𝑦6 =
1 − 3𝑥 "
3
𝑦6 =
1 − 9𝑥 "

𝑦 = ln 𝑥 " − 2𝑥
2𝑥 − 2
𝑦′ =
𝑥 " − 2𝑥
 DERIVATIVES
Differentiate the following:

𝑦 = sin 4𝑥 sec 2𝑥

𝑦 = cos ! 𝑥 − sin! 𝑥

1
𝑦= arccot(𝑥 " + 9)
2

𝑦 = ln(sin 𝑥)
 DERIVATIVES
Differentiate the following:

𝑦 = sin 4𝑥 sec 2𝑥
4 cos 2𝑥

𝑦 = cos ! 𝑥 − sin! 𝑥
−2 sin 2𝑡

1
𝑦= arccot(𝑥 " + 9)
2
−𝑥
𝑥 + 18𝑥 " + 82
!

𝑦 = ln(sin 𝑥)
cot 𝑥
HIGHER DERIVATIVES
The derivative of y with respect to x (or the first derivative or y’), if differentiable, then its derivative is
called the second derivative (or y’’) of the original function. If y’’ is differentiable, then its derivative is
called the third derivative (or y’’’) of the original function and so on.

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥!
𝑓 6 (𝑥) = 4𝑥 $
𝑓 66 (𝑥) = 12𝑥 "
𝑓 666 𝑥 = 24𝑥
𝑓 ! 𝑥 = 24
𝑓 (&) (𝑥) = 0
 HIGHER DERIVATIVES
Determine the second derivative of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 cos 𝑥

'5
Determine the third derivative of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + ( $ − 𝑒 "( + sin 𝑥
 HIGHER DERIVATIVES
Determine the second derivative of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 cos 𝑥
−𝑥 cos 𝑥 − 2 sin 𝑥

'5
Determine the third derivative of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + ( $ − 𝑒 "( + sin 𝑥
3 600 "( − cos 𝑥
% − # − 8𝑒
8 𝑥 & 𝑥
 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION
From previous topics discussed, most functions were expressed in their explicit form. For example, the
'
equation 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 5, the variable y is explicitly written as a function of x. For the function 𝑦 = (, it is
defined implicitly by the equation 𝑥𝑦 = 1.

Implicit Form Explicit Form Derivative

1 𝑑𝑦 1
𝑥𝑦 = 1 𝑦= = −𝑥 ." = − "
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
To perform implicit differentiation:
1. Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to 𝑥
2. Collect all terms involving 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥 on the left side of the equation and move all other terms to the
right side of the equation
3. Factor 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥 out of the left side of the equation
4. Solve for 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥
IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION
𝑥 $ − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 " = 7

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
3𝑥 " − 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 1 + 2𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
3𝑥 " − 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
−𝑥 + 2𝑦 = −3𝑥 " + 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
(−𝑥 + 2𝑦) = −3𝑥 " + 𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 −3𝑥 " + 𝑦
=
𝑑𝑥 −𝑥 + 2𝑦
 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION
=>
Find =( using implicit differentiation:

3𝑦 " − cos 𝑦 = 𝑥 $

5𝑥 " − 4𝑦 " = 9
 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION
=>
Find =( using implicit differentiation:

3𝑦 " − cos 𝑦 = 𝑥 $
𝑑𝑦 3𝑥 "
=
𝑑𝑥 6𝑦 + sin 𝑦

5𝑥 " − 4𝑦 " = 9
𝑑𝑦 5𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 4𝑦
 TANGENTS AND NORMALS TO PLANE
CURVES
The derivative of a function is merely the slope of the
tangent line to the curve of the function at any point (𝑥, 𝑦).

The tangent line to the curve with equation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at

𝑃5 (𝑥5 , 𝑦5 ) is the line passing through 𝑃5 with slope 𝑓’(𝑥5 ).

From point-slope form equation of a line:

𝑦 − 𝑦5 = 𝑓′(𝑥5 )(x − 𝑥5 )

For the normal line perpendicular to the tangent line, its

slope is given as:
1
𝑚" = −
𝑚'
TANGENTS AND NORMALS TO PLANE
CURVES
Find the equations of the lines that are tangent and normal to the plane curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 $ − 𝑥 " +
3 through the point (1,3).
Differentiate: Get the slope of the normal line:
𝑦′ = 3𝑥 " − 2𝑥 1 1
𝑚" = − = − = −1
𝑚' 1
Substitute value of x:
𝑦′ = (3) 1 " − (2)(1) Substitute in the equation of a line:
𝑦 6 = 1 ← this is the slope of the line tangent to the given 𝑦 − 3 = (−1)(x − 1)
point 𝑦 − 3 = (−1)(x − 1)
𝑥+𝑦 =4
Substitute in the equation of a line:
𝑦 − 𝑦5 = 𝑓′(𝑥5 )(x − 𝑥5 )
𝑦 − 3 = (1)(x − 1)
𝑦 − 3 = (1)(x − 1)
𝑥 − 𝑦 = −2
TANGENTS AND NORMALS TO PLANE
CURVES
Find the equation of the tangent line that passes through point (1,2) to the graph of 8𝑦 $ + 𝑥 " 𝑦 −
𝑥=3
TANGENTS AND NORMALS TO PLANE
CURVES
Find the equation of the tangent line that passes through point (1,2) to the graph of 8𝑦 $ + 𝑥 " 𝑦 −
𝑥=3

=>
Clue: Perform implicit differentiation and isolate =( to get the required equation for finding the
=>
slope of the tangent line. To get the slope, substitute 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑦 = 2 in the equation for =( .
Upon getting the slope, substitute in the point slope form equation of a line.

3 197
𝑦=− 𝑥+
97 97
 INCREASING VS. DECREASING
FUNCTION

Increasing Function Decreasing Function

v Increasing if y increases as x increases v Decreasing if y decreases as x increases

v Slope of tangent line is positive, 𝑓 6 𝑥 > 0 v Slope of tangent line is negative, 𝑓 6 𝑥 < 0
CRITICAL POINTS
Determine at which interval is the function
:
𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 $ − " 𝑥 " is increasing or decreasing.

𝑓′ 𝑥 = 9𝑥 " − 9𝑥
0 = 9𝑥 " − 9𝑥
0 = 𝑥 𝑥 − 1 ; 𝑥 = 0; 𝑥 = 1

At points B, C, and D, the tangent line is Interval −∞ < 𝑥 < 0 0<𝑥<1 1<𝑥<∞
horizontal.
The slope at any of these points is 0 or Test Value -2 0.5 2
𝑓’(𝑥) = 0.
Sign of
Critical points: where 𝑓’(𝑥) = 0 or does positive negative positive
𝑓′(𝑥)
not exist.
Conclusion Increasing Decreasing Increasing
 EXTREMA OF A FUNCTION

Minima Maxima Neither Minima or Local and Absolute

Maxima Maximum and Minimum

Point where the curve

Point where the curve Simply called a
changes from increasing
changes from stationary point
to decreasing
decreasing to increasing
EXTREMA OF A FUNCTION
:
Determine a local extrema of 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 $ − " 𝑥 " .

𝑓′ 𝑥 = 9𝑥 " − 9𝑥
0 = 9𝑥 " − 9𝑥
0 = 𝑥 𝑥 − 1 ; 𝑥 = 0; 𝑥 = 1

𝑥=0 𝑥=1

Interval −∞ < 𝑥 < 0 0<𝑥<1 1<𝑥<∞

Test Value −2 0.5 2

Sign of 𝑓′(𝑥) positive negative positive

Conclusion Increasing Decreasing Increasing

EXTREMA OF A FUNCTION
'
Determine the interval at which the following function is increasing: 𝑓 𝑥 = $ 𝑥 $ + 2𝑥 " − 5𝑥 − 6

Determine all local extrema for the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 ! − 8𝑥 "

EXTREMA OF A FUNCTION
'
Determine the interval at which the following function is increasing: 𝑓 𝑥 = $ 𝑥 $ + 2𝑥 " − 5𝑥 − 6
(−∞, −5) ∪ (1, ∞)

Determine all local extrema for the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 ! − 8𝑥 "

Local minimum at 𝑥 = −2 ; 𝑓′(𝑥) changes from negative to positive
Local minimum at 𝑥 = 2 ; 𝑓′(𝑥) changes from negative to positive
Local maximum 𝑥 = 0 ; 𝑓′(𝑥) changes from positive to negative
 CONCAVITY

Concave Downward Concave Upward

v f‘ is decreasing v f‘ is increasing
v The graph of f lies below its tangent lines v The graph of f lies above its tangent lines
v f’’ is less than 0 (second derivative test) v f’’ is greater than 0 (second derivative test)

Note:
The test fails if f’’(a) is equal to zero.
 SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST
To perform the second derivative test:

1. Solve the first and second derivative of the function.

2. Identify the critical points. Recalling, these are values of x where the first derivative is zero or
does not exist.
3. Substitute the critical points into the second derivative and check.

To check if the obtained value is a minimum or a maximum:

1. Second derivative test by identifying concavity (if 𝑓’’ > 0, it is a local minimum; if 𝑓’’ < 0, it is a
local maximum)
2. determine points of change of sign of the first derivative
SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST
Determine the absolute maximum value of 𝑓(𝑥) = 9 – 𝑥 – 9/𝑥 on the interval (0, ∞)

𝑓’ 𝑥 = −1 + 9𝑥 ."

Equate 𝑓’ 𝑥 to 0:
9
−1 + 2 = 0
𝑥
𝑥" = 9
𝑥 = ±3

Referring to the interval (0, ∞) indicated in the problem, consider 𝑥 = 3 only.

𝑓’’ 𝑥 = −18𝑥 .$
𝑓’’(3) = −2/3

Since 𝑓’’(3) < 0, the function has an absolute maximum at 𝑥 = 3.

 INFLECTION POINTS
Inflection point, point of inflection, flex, or inflection is a
point on a smooth plane curve at which the curvature
changes sign. In particular, in the case of the graph of a
function, it is a point where the function changes from
being concave (concave downward) to convex (concave
upward), or vice versa.

If 𝑐, 𝑓 𝑐 is a point of inflection of the graph of 𝑓, then

either 𝑓 66 𝑐 = 0 or 𝑓′′ does not exist at 𝑥 = 𝑐.
INFLECTION POINTS
Find the inflection points of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 $ − 12𝑥 " + 10𝑥 − 12

Get the second derivative: x 3 4 5

f’’(x) -6 0 6
𝑓 6 (𝑥) = 3𝑥 " − 24𝑥 + 10
𝑓 66 (𝑥) = 6𝑥 − 24
𝑓 66 (𝑥) = 6(𝑥 − 4) 𝑓’’(𝑥) < 0 𝑓’’(𝑥) > 0

Equate second derivative to 0:

0 = 6(𝑥 − 4)
𝑥=4

Perform test by assuming values below and above 4. Substitute

test values to 2nd derivative. Remember, for it to be considered
an inflection point, sign of 𝑓 66 𝑥 must change.
INFLECTION POINTS
Determine point/s of inflection of the curve 𝑓 𝑥 = −𝑥 $ + 𝑥 " − 𝑥 + 1

Determine point/s of inflection of the curve 𝑓 𝑥 = ln(𝑥 " − 2𝑥 + 5)

Using second derivative test, determine the maxima or minima for 𝑦 = 5𝑥 $ + 2𝑥 " − 3𝑥
INFLECTION POINTS
Determine point/s of inflection of the curve 𝑓 𝑥 = −𝑥 $ + 𝑥 " − 𝑥 + 1
'
Inflection point: x = $ ; 𝑓 66 𝑥 changes from positive to negative

Determine point/s of inflection of the curve 𝑓 𝑥 = ln(𝑥 " − 2𝑥 + 5)

Inflection point: x = −1 ; 𝑓 66 𝑥 changes from negative to positive
Inflection point: x = 3 ; 𝑓 66 𝑥 changes from positive to negative

Using second derivative test, determine the maxima or minima for 𝑦 = 5𝑥 $ + 2𝑥 " − 3𝑥
'
Local minimum at 𝑥 = $ ; 𝑓′′(𝑥) is greater than 0
$
Local maximum at 𝑥 = − & ; 𝑓′′(𝑥) is less than 0
 RELATED RATES
Related rates problems involve finding a rate at which a quantity changes by relating that quantity to
other quantities whose rates of change are known. The rate of change is usually with respect to
time.

To solve these problems:

1. Determine all given quantities and required quantities

2. Make a sketch. Label all quantities.
3. Write an equation involving the variables whose rate of change are given or required.
4. Using chain rule, implicitly differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to time 𝑡.
5. After step 4, substitute into the resulting equation all known values for the variables and their
rate of change. Solve for the required.
RELATED RATES
An airplane is flying on a flight path that will take it directly over a radar tracking station. If the
distance between the airplane and the radar station is decreasing at a rate of 400 miles per hour
and the airplane is 8 miles above the station, what is the speed of the airplane when it is 10 miles
away from the radar station?

𝑥 " + 8" = 𝑠 " 𝑥 " + 8" = 𝑠 "

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑠
2𝑥 = 2𝑠 𝑥 = 10" − 8"
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑠 𝑥 = 10" − 8"
𝑑𝑥 2𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝑥 = 6 mi.
=
𝑑𝑡 2𝑥
𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑥 𝑠 𝑑𝑡
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑥
𝑚𝑖.
𝑑𝑥 (10 𝑚𝑖. ) −400 ℎ𝑟
=
𝑑𝑡 6 𝑚𝑖.
𝑑𝑥 𝑚𝑖.
= 666.67
𝑑𝑡 ℎ𝑟
INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY
A particle moves in a straight line in according to the formula: 𝑠 𝑡 = 8𝑡 " − 4𝑡 + 5, where 𝑡 is in
seconds and 𝑠 in meters. Find the equation for its velocity and acceleration. Find the distance
traveled, velocity, and acceleration after 5 seconds.
𝑑𝑠
= 𝑉 𝑡 = 16𝑡 − 4 Equation for its velocity
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉
= 𝑎 𝑡 = 16 Equation for its acceleration (it is constant)
𝑑𝑡
To get distance after 5 sec., substitute 𝑡 = 5 in 𝑠(𝑡):
𝑠 5 = 8(5)" −4 5 + 5
𝑠 5 = 185 𝑚

To get velocity after 5 sec., substitute 𝑡 = 5 in 𝑉(𝑡):

𝑉 5 = 16 5 − 4
𝑉 5 = 76 𝑚/𝑠

Since the equation for the acceleration is a constant function, after 5 sec:
𝑎 5 = 16 𝑚/𝑠 "
 OPTIMIZATION PROBLEMS
In optimization problems we are looking for the largest value or the smallest value that a function can
take.

To solve these problems:

1. Determine all given quantities and required quantities

2. Make a sketch. Label all quantities.
3. Write an equation for the quantity that is to be maximized or minimized.
4. Reduce the equation such that there is only one independent variable.
5. Determine the feasible domain of the equation.
6. Determine the maximum or minimum value using various calculus techniques.
OPTIMIZATION PROBLEMS
Find two positive numbers such that their product is equal to 10 and their sum is minimum.
Let:
Let 𝑆 6 = 0 and solve the zeroes of the first
𝑥 equals the first number
derivative (critical points):
𝑦 equals the second number
0 = 1 − 10𝑥 ."
Write the equations: 𝑥 = 10 and 𝑥 = − 10
10 = 𝑥𝑦
𝑆 = 𝑥 + 𝑦, where 𝑆 is the sum of the two numbers Select 𝑥 (positive): 𝑥 = 10
Solve for 𝑦 in the first equation: Solve for the second derivative:
10 𝑆 66 = 20𝑥 .$
𝑦=
𝑥 Since 𝑥 > 0, 𝑆 66 10 is positive (concave up).
Substitute in the second equation:
10 Thus, 𝑆 has a minimum at 𝑥 = 10.
𝑆=𝑥+ , Where 𝑥 > 0
𝑥 Solving for 𝑦:
10 10 10
Solve for the first derivative: 𝑦= = = 10
𝑆 6 = 1 − 10𝑥 ." 10 10
PROBLEMS
1. A ladder 20 feet long leans against a vertical wall. If the top slides downward at the rate of 2 fps, find
how fast the lower end is moving when it is 16 ft from the wall.

2. Gravel is being dumped from a conveyor belt at a rate of 3 cubic meters per minute, and its
coarseness is such that it forms a pile in the shape of a cone whose base diameter and height are
always equal. How fast is the height of the pile increasing when the pile is 4 meters high?

3. A box is to be made of a piece of cardboard 18x12 inches by cutting equal squares out of the
corners and turning up the sides. Find the volume of the largest box that can be made in this way?

4. A man in a rowboat 6 miles from shore desires to reach a point on the shore at a distance of 10
miles from his present position. If he can walk 4 miles per hour and row 2 miles per hour, in what
direction should he row in order to reach his destination in the shortest possible time?
PROBLEMS
1. A ladder 20 feet long leans against a vertical wall. If the top slides downward at the rate of 2 fps, find
how fast the lower end is moving when it is 16 ft from the wall.
𝑓𝑡
1.5
𝑠

2. Gravel is being dumped from a conveyor belt at a rate of 3 cubic meters per minute, and its
coarseness is such that it forms a pile in the shape of a cone whose base diameter and height are
always equal. How fast is the height of the pile increasing when the pile is 4 meters high?
3 𝑚
4𝜋 𝑚𝑖𝑛.

3. A box is to be made of a piece of cardboard 18x12 inches by cutting equal squares out of the
corners and turning up the sides. Find the volume of the largest box that can be made in this way?
228.16 𝑖𝑛.$

4. A man in a rowboat 6 miles from shore desires to reach a point on the shore at a distance of 10
miles from his present position. If he can walk 4 miles per hour and row 2 miles per hour, in what
direction should he row in order to reach his destination in the shortest possible time?
30 𝑑𝑒𝑔.
 DIFFERENTIALS
In calculus, the differential represents the principal part of the change in a function y = f(x) with
respect to changes in the independent variable.
𝑑𝑦
𝑓6 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓 6 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓′(𝑥)∆𝑥
DIFFERENTIALS
Find the differential dy of 𝑦 $ + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥 $ = 6
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
3𝑦 " + 2(𝑥 + 𝑦) + 3𝑥 " = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
3𝑦 " + 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑥 " = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
3𝑦 " + 2𝑥 = −2𝑦 − 3𝑥 "
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
3𝑦 " + 2𝑥 = −2𝑦 − 3𝑥 "
𝑑𝑥

−2𝑦 − 3𝑥 " 2𝑦 + 3𝑥 "

𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥 = − " 𝑑𝑥
3𝑦 " + 2𝑥 3𝑦 + 2𝑥
DIFFERENTIALS
The differential 𝑑𝑦 is a good approximation for ∆𝑦 in that 𝑑𝑦 differs but little from ∆𝑦
when compared to a small change ∆𝑥 in the variable 𝑥.

Solve for the values of 𝑑𝑦 and ∆𝑦 if 𝑦 = 2(𝑥 + 2)$ Solve for 𝑑𝑦:
for 𝑥 = 3 and 𝑑𝑥 = ∆𝑥 = 0.001. 𝑑𝑦
=223 𝑥+2 "21
𝑑𝑥
Solve for 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥): 𝑑𝑦 = 6 𝑥 + 2 " 𝑑𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 3 = 2(3 + 2)$ = 250 𝑑𝑦 = 6 3 + 2 " 0.001
𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 = 𝑓 3.001 = 2(3.001 + 2)$ = 250.15003 𝑑𝑦 = 0.15

Solve for ∆𝑦 : In other words,

∆𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 = 250 − 250.15003 ∆𝑦 ≈ 𝑑𝑦
∆𝑦 = 0.15003
DIFFERENTIALS
Find the differential 𝑑𝑢 in the following:
𝑢 = (1 + 𝑡)!
4𝑢$ + 1
𝑓(𝑢) = "
𝑢 +5

Solve for the values of 𝑑𝑦 and ∆𝑦 if 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 $ + 2𝑥 " − 3𝑥 + 5 and 𝑥 changes from 2 to 2.10.
DIFFERENTIALS
Find the differential 𝑑𝑢 in the following:
𝑢 = (1 + 𝑡)!
2(1 + 𝑡)$
𝑑𝑢 =
𝑡

4𝑢$ + 1
𝑓(𝑢) = "
𝑢 +5
(𝑢 + 5)"
"
𝑑𝑢 = ! 𝑑𝑦
4𝑢 + 60𝑢" − 2𝑢

Solve for the values of 𝑑𝑦 and ∆𝑦 if 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 $ + 2𝑥 " − 3𝑥 + 5 and 𝑥 changes from 2 to 2.10.
𝑑𝑦 = 1.70
∆𝑦 = 1.78
PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
If the rectangular coordinates of a point on a plane curve can be expressed as function of a common
variable 𝑡 in the form 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡) and 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡), the equations 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡) and 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡) are called parametric
equations of the curve and the variable 𝑡 is called a parameter.

Eliminate the parameter 𝜃 in the parametric equations: 𝑥 = 4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 and 𝑦 = 5𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑥 = 4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 Substitute the values:

𝑥 𝑥 " 𝑦 "
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = + =1
4 4 5
𝑥" 𝑦"
𝑦 = 5𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + =1
16 25
𝑦 𝑥" 𝑦"
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
5 + = 1 2 16 2 25
16 25
25𝑥 " + 16𝑦 " = 400
Using the Pythagorean Theorem: 𝑠𝑖𝑛" 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 " 𝜃 = 1
PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
Eliminate the parameter 𝑡 in the parametric equations: 𝑥 = 𝑡 " + 1 and 𝑦 = 2 + 𝑡

𝑥 = 𝑡" + 1
𝑡 = 𝑥−1

𝑦 =2+𝑡
𝑡 =𝑦−2

Equate the two equations:

𝑦−2= 𝑥−1
(𝑦 − 2)" = 𝑥 − 1
TRACING PARAMETRIC CURVES
To trace parametric curves:

1. Determine the parametric equations and the parameter

2. Substitute some values (domain) for the parameter 𝑡
3. Using the values of the parameter 𝑡, solve each parametric
equation 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡) and 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑡).
4. Plot the resulting values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 on the rectangular coordinate
plane.
𝑥 = 4𝑡 − 𝑡 "

𝑦 = 4𝑡 " − 𝑡 $
t -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

x -5 0 3 4 3 0 -5

y 5 0 3 8 9 0 -25
 DERIVATIVE OF PARAMETRIC
EQUATIONS

First Derivative Higher Derivative

Higher derivatives of the curve are given as:
If the equation of a curve is given by the
parametric equations 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡) and 𝑦 𝑑′𝑦
𝑑′𝑦 𝑔′′(𝑡)
= 𝑔(𝑡), then the slope of the curve for each 𝑦 66 = = 𝑑𝑡 = = 𝑔" 𝑡
value of t is given as: 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑓′(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑔′(𝑡) 𝑑′′𝑦
𝑦6 = = 𝑑𝑡 = = 𝑔' 𝑡 𝑑′′𝑦 𝑔′′′(𝑡)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑓′(𝑡) 𝑦 666 = = 𝑑𝑡 = = 𝑔$ 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑓′(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

Note: 𝑓′(𝑡) ≠ 0
DERIVATIVE OF PARAMETRIC
EQUATIONS
Find the first derivative of the curve: 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 $ 𝜃 and y= 𝑠𝑖𝑛$ 𝜃
𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 $ 𝜃
𝑑𝑥
= 3𝑐𝑜𝑠 " 𝜃 2 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑥
= −3𝑐𝑜𝑠 " 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝜃
𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛$ 𝜃
𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑠𝑖𝑛" 𝜃 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑠𝑖𝑛" 𝜃 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑑𝜃

Use the formula:

𝑑𝑦
6 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 3𝑠𝑖𝑛" 𝜃 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑦 = = =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 −3𝑐𝑜𝑠 " 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝑡
6
𝑦 = −𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
DERIVATIVE OF PARAMETRIC
EQUATIONS
Eliminate the parameter 𝜃 in the parametric equations:

𝑥 = 5 cos 𝜃 and 𝑦 = 2 sin 𝜃

Find the second derivative of the curve in parametric form:

𝑥 = 1 − ln 𝑢 and 𝑦 = 𝑢 − ln 𝑢
DERIVATIVE OF PARAMETRIC
EQUATIONS
Eliminate the parameter 𝜃 in the parametric equations:

𝑥 = 5 cos 𝜃 and 𝑦 = 2 sin 𝜃

𝑥" 𝑦"
+ =1
25 4

Find the second derivative of the curve in parametric form:

𝑥 = 1 − ln 𝑢 and 𝑦 = 𝑢 − ln 𝑢
𝑢
 PARTIAL DERIVATIVES
Consider a function z with two independent variables such that 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦).

Holding 𝑦 as constant, 𝑧 becomes a function of 𝑥 alone. Its derivative can be determined by taking the
partial derivative of 𝑧 with respect to 𝑥 denoted by:

𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑓 𝜕
, , 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 , 𝑓( 𝑥, 𝑦 , 𝑓( , 𝑧(
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑥

On the other hand, if 𝑥 is held as constant, 𝑧 now becomes a a function of 𝑦 alone. Similarly, the
derivative can be determined by taking the partial derivative of 𝑧 with respect to 𝑦. It is denoted as:

𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑓 𝜕
, , 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 , 𝑓> 𝑥, 𝑦 , 𝑓> , 𝑧>
𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑦
 PARTIAL DERIVATIVES
Partial Derivatives of Higher Order:
𝜕 𝜕𝑧 𝜕"𝑧
= " = 𝑓(( (𝑥, 𝑦)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕 𝜕𝑧 𝜕"𝑧
= = 𝑓(> (𝑥, 𝑦)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥

𝜕 𝜕𝑧 𝜕"𝑧
= = 𝑓>( (𝑥, 𝑦)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦

𝜕 𝜕𝑧 𝜕"𝑧
= " = 𝑓>> (𝑥, 𝑦)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
PARTIAL DERIVATIVES
Find the first partial derivative of 𝑧 = −4𝑥 $ + 7𝑦 & Find the first partial derivative of 𝑟 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛" (3𝜃 − 5∅)
𝑧 = −4𝑥 $ + 7𝑦 &
𝑟 = (𝑡𝑎𝑛(3𝜃 − 5∅) )"
Derive 𝑧 with respect to 𝑥, holding 𝑦 as a
constant: Derive r with respect to 𝜃, holding ∅ as a constant:

𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑟
= −4 2 3𝑥 " + 0 = 2 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 3𝜃 − 5∅ ' 2 (𝑠𝑒𝑐 " 3𝜃 − 5∅ ) 2 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑧 = 6𝑡𝑎𝑛 3𝜃 − 5∅ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 " 3𝜃 − 5∅
= −12𝑥 " 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑥
Derive r with respect to ∅, holding 𝜃 as a constant:
Derive 𝑧 with respect to 𝑦, holding 𝑥 as a
constant: 𝑑𝑟
= 2 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 3𝜃 − 5∅ ' 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 " 3𝜃 − 5∅ 2 −5
𝑑∅
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
= 0 + 7 2 5𝑦 ! = −10𝑡𝑎𝑛 3𝜃 − 5∅ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 " 3𝜃 − 5∅
𝑑𝑦 𝑑∅
𝑑𝑧
= 35𝑦 !
𝑑𝑦
PARTIAL DERIVATIVES
Determine the first order partial derivatives of the following functions:

𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 2𝑥 & + 4 $ 𝑦 + 2
𝑤 = 𝑥 " 𝑦 + 10𝑦 " 𝑧
2 ( % >.!> %
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = sin 𝑒
𝑥
PARTIAL DERIVATIVES
Determine the first order partial derivatives of the following functions:

𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 2𝑥 & + 4 $ 𝑦 + 2
4
10𝑥 ! , $
3 𝑦"

𝑤 = 𝑥 " 𝑦 + 10𝑦 " 𝑧

2𝑥𝑦, 𝑥 " + 20𝑦𝑧, 10𝑦 "

2 ( % >.!> %
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = sin 𝑒
𝑥
2 ( % >.!> % 2 2 ( % >.!> % 2 ( % >.!> % "
2𝑥𝑦 sin 𝑒 − " cos 𝑒 , sin 𝑒 (𝑥 − 8𝑦)
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
HIGHER ORDER PARTIAL DERIVATIVES
Determine the second order partial derivatives of 𝑧 = 𝑥 $ + 5𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑦 $
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
= 3𝑥 " + 5𝑦 = 5𝑥 + 12𝑦 "
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕"𝑧
= 6𝑥
𝜕𝑥 "

𝜕"𝑧
= 24𝑦
𝜕𝑦 "

𝜕"𝑧
=5
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦
𝜕"𝑧
=5
𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥
PARTIAL DERIVATIVES
Determine all second order partial derivatives of the following function:

𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 8𝑥 '5 𝑦 & − 5𝑥 $ 𝑦 #
PARTIAL DERIVATIVES
Determine all second order partial derivatives of the following function:

𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 8𝑥 '5 𝑦 & − 5𝑥 $ 𝑦 #
𝜕 𝜕𝑓
= 720𝑥 ? 𝑦 & − 30𝑥𝑦 #
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑓
= = 400𝑥 : 𝑦 ! − 90𝑥 " 𝑦 &
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕𝑓
= 160𝑥 '5 𝑦 $ − 150𝑥 $ 𝑦 !
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
 CALCULUS II
Presented by: Engr. Jim Panares

START!
 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
• Branch of mathematics that deals with the theory and applications of integral

• Integral - either a numerical value equal to the area under the graph of a function for some
interval (definite integral) or a new function the derivative of which is the original function
(indefinite integral)
 ANTIDIFFERENTIATION
- Inverse operation of differentiation

If 𝐹’(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥),
then 𝐹(𝑥) is an antiderivative of 𝑓(𝑥).
Example:
If 𝐹(𝑥) = 8𝑥, then 𝐹’(𝑥) = 8.
𝐹(𝑥) is the antiderivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 8.
 ANTIDIFFERENTIATION
If both 𝐹(𝑥) and 𝐺(𝑥) are antiderivatives of 𝑓(𝑥) on a given interval, there is a constant 𝐶 such that:

𝐹(𝑥) – 𝐺(𝑥) = 𝐶

The two antiderivatives of a function can only differ by an arbitrary constant 𝐶, which is referred to as
the integration constant.
 ANTIDIFFERENTIATION
The following are all antiderivatives of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥:

𝐹 𝑥 = 𝑥2
𝐺 𝑥 = 𝑥2 + 5
𝐻 𝑥 = 𝑥2 – 8

All three functions differ by a given constant. The function 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑥2 + 𝐶 is an antiderivative of
𝑓(𝑥) for any constant, 𝐶.
 FAMILY OF ANTIDERIVATIVES
Since the functions listed below differ only by a constant,
the slope of the tangent line remains the same:

𝐹 𝑥 = 𝑥2
𝐺 𝑥 = 𝑥2 + 5
𝐻 𝑥 = 𝑥2 – 8
 INDEFINITE INTEGRAL
If 𝐹’(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥), then:

‹ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 𝑥 + 𝐶

for any real number 𝐶.

 INTEGRATION RULES
Power Rule:
𝑥 4)'
‹ 𝑎𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥 =𝑎 +𝐶
𝑛+1

Constant Multiple:
‹ 𝑘𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ‹ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Sum and Difference:

‹ 𝑓 𝑥 ± 𝑔(𝑥) dx = ‹ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ± ‹ 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 COMMON INTEGRALS
‹ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝐶

‹ 𝑎𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶

𝑥 4)'
‹ 𝑥𝑛𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
𝑛+1
 EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC
FUNCTIONS
‹ 𝑒𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥 + 𝐶

𝑎(
‹ 𝑎𝑥𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
ln 𝑎

‹ 𝑥𝑒 ( 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 ( 𝑥 − 1 + 𝐶

‹ ln 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶

𝑑𝑥
‹ = ln ln 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑥 ln 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
‹ = ln 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑥
 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
‹ sin 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 + 𝐶 ‹ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 " 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − cot 𝑥 + 𝐶

‹ cos 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝐶 ‹ sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 + 𝐶

‹ tan 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ln sec 𝑥 + 𝐶 ‹ csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − csc 𝑥 + 𝐶

1 1
‹ cot 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ln sin 𝑥 + 𝐶 ‹ 𝑠𝑖𝑛" 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 + 𝐶
2 4
1 1
‹ sec 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ln sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥 + 𝐶 ‹ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 " 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + sin 2𝑥 + 𝐶
2 4

‹ csc 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ln csc 𝑥 − cot 𝑥 + 𝐶 ‹ 𝑡𝑎𝑛" 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶

‹ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 " 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 + 𝐶 ‹ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 " 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − cot 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶

 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
𝑑𝑢 𝑢
‹ sin.' 𝑢𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢 sin.' 𝑢 + 1 − 𝑢" + 𝐶 ‹ = sin.' +𝐶
𝑎" − 𝑢" 𝑎
𝑑𝑢 1 𝑢
‹ cos .' 𝑢𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢 cos .' 𝑢 − 1 − 𝑢" + 𝐶 ‹ " = tan.' + 𝐶
𝑎 + 𝑢" 𝑎 𝑎
𝑑𝑢 1 𝑢
‹ tan.' 𝑢𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢 tan.' 𝑢 − ln 1 − 𝑢" + 𝐶 ‹ = sec .' +𝐶
𝑢 𝑢" − 𝑎" 𝑎 𝑎

‹ cot .' 𝑢𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢 cot .' 𝑢 + ln 1 + 𝑢" + 𝐶

‹ sec .' 𝑢𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢 sec .' 𝑢 − ln 𝑢 + 𝑢" − 1 + 𝐶

‹ csc .' 𝑢𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢 csc .' 𝑢 + ln 𝑢 + 𝑢" − 1 + 𝐶

HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
‹ sinh 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = cosh 𝑥 + 𝐶 ‹ csch" 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − coth 𝑥 + 𝐶

‹ cosh 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = sinh 𝑥 + 𝐶 ‹ sech 𝑥 tanh 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − sech 𝑥 + 𝐶

‹ tanh 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ln cosh 𝑥 + 𝐶 ‹ csch 𝑥 coth 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − csch 𝑥 + 𝐶

1 1
‹ coth 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ln sinh 𝑥 + 𝐶 ‹ sinh" 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = sinh 2𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶
4 2
1 1
‹ sech 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = tan.' sinh 𝑥 + 𝐶 ‹ cosh" 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = sinh 2𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝐶
4 2
𝑥
‹ csch 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ln tanh +𝐶 ‹ tanh" 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 − tanh 𝑥 + 𝐶
2

‹ sech" 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = tanh 𝑥 + 𝐶 ‹ coth" 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 − coth 𝑥 + 𝐶

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
"
1 𝑧 𝑧
‹ 1− 𝑑𝑧 ‹ 2 sec tan 𝑑𝑧
𝑧 2 2
" 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 1
1 2 1
‹ 1− 𝑑𝑧 = ‹ 1 − + 𝑑𝑧 ‹ 2 sec tan 𝑑𝑧 = 2 2 2 ‹ sec tan 2 𝑑𝑧
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧" 2 2 2 2 2
1 "
2𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
‹ 1− 𝑑𝑧 = ‹ 𝑑𝑧 − ‹ +‹ " ‹ 2 sec tan 𝑑𝑧 = 4 sec + 𝐶
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 2 2 2
"
1 𝑑𝑧
‹ 1− 𝑑𝑧 = ‹ 𝑑𝑧 − 2 ‹ + ‹ 𝑧 ." 𝑑𝑧
𝑧 𝑧
"
1 𝑧 .")'
‹ 1− 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑧 − 2 ln 𝑧 + +𝐶
𝑧 −2 + 1
"
1 𝑧 .'
‹ 1− 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑧 − 2 ln 𝑧 + +𝐶
𝑧 −1
"
1 1
‹ 1− 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑧 − 2 ln 𝑧 − +𝐶
𝑧 𝑧
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
Practice Problems. Integrate the following:

‹ csc " 3𝑡𝑑𝑡

𝑥 " 𝑑𝑥
‹ $
𝑥 +1

‹ 𝑢 + 4 2𝑢 + 1 𝑑𝑢
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
Practice Problems. Integrate the following:

‹ csc " 3𝑡𝑑𝑡

1
− cot 3𝑡 + 𝐶
3

𝑥 " 𝑑𝑥
‹ $
𝑥 +1
1
ln 𝑥 $ + 1 + 𝐶
3

‹ 𝑢 + 4 2𝑢 + 1 𝑑𝑢

2 $ 9 "
𝑢 + 𝑢 + 4𝑢 + 𝐶
3 2
 INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
U-SUBSTITUTION & CHAIN RULE

Recall the chain rule:

𝑑
𝑓 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓′ 𝑔 𝑥 𝑔′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

Reading it backwards gives:

‹ 𝑓′ 𝑔 𝑥 𝑔′(𝑥) = 𝑓 𝑔(𝑥) + 𝐶
INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
U-SUBSTITUTION & CHAIN RULE
‹ 𝑥(𝑥 " + 3)! 𝑑𝑥 " ! 1 𝑢&
‹ 𝑥(𝑥 + 3) 𝑑𝑥 = 2 +𝐶
2 5
Substitute 𝑢 = 𝑥 " + 3:
𝑢 = 𝑥" + 3
𝑥" + 3 &
𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 " !
‹ 𝑥(𝑥 + 3) 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
10
2
‹ 𝑥(𝑥 " + 3)! 𝑑𝑥 = ‹ 2 𝑥(𝑥 " + 3)! 𝑑𝑥
2
1
‹ 𝑥(𝑥 " + 3)! 𝑑𝑥 = ‹ 2𝑥(𝑥 " + 3)! 𝑑𝑥
2
1
‹ 𝑥(𝑥 " + 3)! 𝑑𝑥 = ‹ 𝑢! 𝑑𝑢
2
1 𝑢!)'
‹ 𝑥(𝑥 " + 3)! 𝑑𝑥 = 2 +𝐶
2 4+1
INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
U-SUBSTITUTION & CHAIN RULE
𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑢.%)' 𝑢.?)'
‹ ? ‹ = − +𝐶
𝑥+1 𝑥+1 ? −7 + 1 −8 + 1
𝑥𝑑𝑥 1 1
𝑢 = 𝑥+1 ‹ = − 𝑢.# + 𝑢.% + 𝐶
𝑥+1 ? 6 7
𝑥 = 𝑢– 1
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢

𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑢 − 1 𝑑𝑢 Substitute 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 1:
‹ ? =‹ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 1 .# 1 .%
𝑥+1 𝑢? ‹ = − 𝑥+1 + 𝑥+1 +𝐶
𝑥+1 ? 6 7
𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑢𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
‹ ? =‹ ? −‹ ?
𝑥+1 𝑢 𝑢
𝑥𝑑𝑥
‹ ? = ‹ 𝑢.% 𝑑𝑢 − ‹ 𝑢.? 𝑑𝑢
𝑥+1
 INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
U-SUBSTITUTION & CHAIN RULE
% 3 <
‹ 3𝑥𝑒 ( 𝑑𝑥 %
‹ 3𝑥𝑒 ( 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 +𝐶
2
𝑢 = 𝑥"
𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 Substitute 𝑢 = 𝑥 " :
% 3 %
2 ‹ 3𝑥𝑒 ( 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 ( + 𝐶
% %
‹ 3𝑥𝑒 ( 𝑑𝑥 = ‹ 2 3𝑥𝑒 ( 𝑑𝑥 2
2
% 3 %
‹ 3𝑥𝑒 ( 𝑑𝑥 = ‹ 2𝑥𝑒 ( 𝑑𝑥
2
% 3
‹ 3𝑥𝑒 ( 𝑑𝑥 = ‹ 𝑒 < 𝑑𝑢
2
INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
U-SUBSTITUTION & CHAIN RULE
Practice Problems. Integrate the following:

8𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥
‹
4𝑥 − 3

‹ 𝑦 $ 2𝑦 " + 1𝑑𝑦

𝑥 $ 𝑑𝑥
‹ " $
𝑥 +1
INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
U-SUBSTITUTION & CHAIN RULE
Practice Problems. Integrate the following:
8𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥
‹
4𝑥 − 3
1 $ 7 '
(4𝑥 − 3)" + (4𝑥 − 3)" +𝐶
3 2

‹ 𝑦 $ 2𝑦 " + 1𝑑𝑦

1 & 1 $
2𝑦 " + 1 " − 2𝑦 " + 1 " +𝐶
20 12

𝑥 $ 𝑑𝑥
‹ " $
𝑥 +1
1 1
− + +𝐶
2 𝑥" + 1 4 𝑥" + 1 "
 INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
INTEGRATION BY PARTS
Recalling the product rule of differentiation:

𝑑
𝑓 𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔6 𝑥 + 𝑓 6 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Thus,

‹ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔6 𝑥 + ‹ 𝑓 6 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔(𝑥)

Rearranging the terms:

‹ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔6 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 − ‹ 𝑓 6 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥

‹ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ‹ 𝑣𝑑𝑢
 INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
INTEGRATION BY PARTS
‹ 𝑡 " 𝑒 @ 𝑑𝑡 ‹ 𝑡𝑒 @ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡𝑒 @ − 𝑒 @ + 𝐶

𝑢 = 𝑡"
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 @ 𝑑𝑡 Substitute ∫ 𝑡𝑒 @ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡𝑒 @ − 𝑒 @ + 𝐶:
𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑡𝑑𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑒@ ‹ 𝑡 " 𝑒 @ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 " 𝑒 @ − 2 ‹ 𝑡𝑒 @ 𝑑𝑡

‹ 𝑡 " 𝑒 @ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 " 𝑒 @ − 2 ‹ 𝑡𝑒 @ 𝑑𝑡 ‹ 𝑡 " 𝑒 @ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 " 𝑒 @ − 2 𝑡𝑒 @ − 𝑒 @ + 𝐶

Evaluating ∫ 𝑡𝑒 @ 𝑑𝑡: ‹ 𝑡 " 𝑒 @ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 " 𝑒 @ − 2𝑡𝑒 @ − 2𝑒 @ + 𝐶

‹ 𝑡𝑒 @ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡𝑒 @ − ‹ 𝑒 @ 𝑑𝑡
 INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
INTEGRATION BY PARTS
‹ 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑢=𝑥
𝑑𝑣 = cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑣 = sin 𝑥

‹ 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 sin 𝑥 − ‹ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

‹ 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 + 𝐶

 INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
INTEGRATION BY PARTS
Practice Problems. Integrate the following:
𝑡
‹ 3𝑡 + 5 cos 𝑑𝑡
4

‹ 𝑥 & 𝑥 $ + 1𝑑𝑥

‹ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
INTEGRATION BY PARTS
Practice Problems. Integrate the following:
𝑡
‹ 3𝑡 + 5 cos 𝑑𝑡
4
𝑡 𝑡
4 3𝑡 + 5 sin + 48 cos +𝐶
4 4

‹ 𝑥 & 𝑥 $ + 1𝑑𝑥

2𝑥 $ $ $ 4 $ &
𝑥 +1 " − 𝑥 +1 " +𝐶
9 45

‹ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶
 INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION

If it
Use substitution: so that: and: Identity used:
contains:

𝑥 = a sin 𝜃
𝑎" − 𝑥 " A A 𝑑𝑥 = a cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑎" − 𝑥 " = a cos 𝜃 1 − sin" 𝜃 = cos " 𝜃
−" ≤ 𝜃 ≤ "

𝑥 = a tan 𝜃
𝑎" + 𝑥 " A A 𝑑𝑥 = a sec " 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑎" + 𝑥 " = a sec 𝜃 1 + tan" 𝜃 = sec " 𝜃
−" < 𝜃 < "

𝑥 = a sec 𝜃
𝑥 " − 𝑎" A A 𝑑𝑥 = a sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑥 " − 𝑎" = a tan 𝜃 sec " 𝜃 − 1 = tan" 𝜃
0 ≤ 𝜃 < " or 𝜋 ≤ 𝜃 < "
 INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION
16 − 𝑥 " 16 − 𝑥 " cos " 𝜃
‹ 𝑑𝑥 ‹ 𝑑𝑥 = ‹ " 𝑑𝜃
𝑥" 𝑥" sin 𝜃
Let 𝑥 = 4 sin 𝜃 16 − 𝑥 "
𝑥 " = 16 sin" 𝜃 ‹ 𝑑𝑥 = ‹ cot " 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑥"
𝑑𝑥 = 4 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
16 − 𝑥 "
‹ 𝑑𝑥 = ‹ csc " 𝜃 − 1 𝑑𝜃
16 − 𝑥 " 16 − 16 sin" 𝜃 𝑥 "
‹ 𝑑𝑥 = ‹ 2 4 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑥" 16 sin" 𝜃
16 − 𝑥 "
‹ 𝑑𝑥 = − cot 𝜃 − 𝜃 + 𝐶
16 − 𝑥 " 4 1 − sin" 𝜃 𝑥"
‹ 𝑑𝑥 = ‹ 2 4 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑥" 16 sin" 𝜃
16 − 𝑥 " 16 cos 𝜃 cos " 𝜃
‹ 𝑑𝑥 = ‹ 𝑑𝜃
𝑥" 16 sin" 𝜃
 INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION
𝑎𝑑𝑗 16 − 𝑥 "
16 − 𝑥" cot 𝜃 = =
‹ 𝑑𝑥 = − cot 𝜃 − 𝜃 + 𝐶 𝑜𝑝𝑝 𝑥
𝑥" 𝑥
θ = sin.'
Recall: 𝑥 = 4 sin 𝜃 4

𝑥 16 − 𝑥 " 16 − 𝑥 " .' 𝑥

sin 𝜃 = ‹ 𝑑𝑥 = − − sin +𝐶
4 𝑥" 𝑥 4

4
𝑥

16 − 𝑥 "
INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 1 tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
‹ ‹ = ‹
4𝑒 "@ − 9 4𝑒 "@ − 9 3 tan 𝜃
𝑑𝑡 1
Let 2𝑒 @= 3 sec 𝜃 ‹ = ‹ 𝑑𝜃
4𝑒 "@ − 9 3
@
2𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = 3 sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
3 sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑡 1
𝑑𝑡 = ‹ = 𝜃+𝐶
2𝑒 @ 4𝑒 "@ − 9 3
3 sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡 1 .'
2𝑒 @
3 sec 𝜃 ‹ = sec +𝐶
𝑑𝑡 = tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 4𝑒 "@ − 9 3 3

𝑑𝑡 tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
‹ =‹
4𝑒 "@ − 9 9𝑠𝑒𝑐 " 𝜃 − 9
𝑑𝑡 tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
‹ =‹
4𝑒 "@ − 9 9 𝑠𝑒𝑐 " 𝜃 − 1
INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION
Practice Problems. Integrate the following:

𝑥𝑑𝑥
‹ $
(16𝑥 " + 9)"

𝑥𝑑𝑥
‹
3 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 "

𝑑𝑥
‹
𝑥 " − 36
INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION
Practice Problems. Integrate the following:
𝑥𝑑𝑥
‹ $
(16𝑥 " + 9)"
1 4𝑤 + 16𝑤 " + 9 𝑤
ln − +𝐶
64 3 16 16𝑤 " + 9

𝑥𝑑𝑥
‹
3 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 "
𝑥+1
3 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 " − sin.' +𝐶
2

𝑑𝑥
‹
𝑥 " − 36
𝑥 + 𝑥 " − 36
ln +𝐶
6
 INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
PARTIAL FRACTIONS

Case Fraction Form of Denominator Partial Fraction Form

𝑁(𝑥) 𝐴 𝐵
1 Linear Factors +
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)(𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑) 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑
𝑁(𝑥) 𝐴 𝐵
Repeated Linear Factors +
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)" 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)"
2
𝑁(𝑥) Linear and Repeated Linear 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
+ +
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)(𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑)" Factors 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 (𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑)"
𝑁(𝑥) 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
3 Linear and Quadratic Factors + "
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑥 " + 𝑐 " 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑐 "
INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
PARTIAL FRACTIONS
𝑥−4 𝑥−4 Set 𝑥 = 2
‹ 𝑑𝑥 = ‹ 𝑑𝑥 −2 = −𝐴
𝑥 " − 5𝑥 + 6 𝑥−2 𝑥−3
𝐴=2
(.!
Consider : Set 𝑥 = 3
(." (.$
−1 = 𝐵
𝑥−4 𝐴 𝐵
= + Substitute 𝐴 and 𝐵:
𝑥−2 𝑥−3 𝑥−2 𝑥−3
𝑥−4 2 1
‹ " 𝑑𝑥 = ‹ − 𝑑𝑥
multiply by 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 − 3 : 𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 6 𝑥−2 𝑥−3
𝑥−4=𝐴 𝑥−3 +𝐵 𝑥−2
𝑥−4
‹ 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ln 𝑥 − 2 − ln 𝑥 − 3 + 𝐶
𝑥 " − 5𝑥 + 6
 INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
PARTIAL FRACTIONS
𝑥$ + 1 Set 𝑥 = 2
! $
𝑑𝑥 5 = −𝐶
𝑥−3 𝑥−2
𝐶 = −5
% %&'
Consider : Set 𝑥 = 0
%() %($ %
1 = 4𝐴 + 6𝐵 − 3𝐶
1 = 4 10 + 6𝐵 − 3 −5
𝑥$ + 1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
$
= + + $
1 = 55 − 6𝐵
𝑥−3 𝑥−2 𝑥−3 𝑥−2 𝑥−2 54 = −6𝐵
𝐵 = −9
Multiply both sides by 𝑥 − 3 𝑥 − 2 $ :
𝑥$ + 1 = 𝐴 𝑥 − 2 $ + 𝐵 𝑥 − 3 𝑥 − 2 + 𝐶 𝑥 − 3
Substitute 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶:
𝑥$ + 1 10 9 5
Set 𝑥 = 3 ! 𝑑𝑥 = ! − − 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−3 𝑥−2 $ 𝑥−3 𝑥−2 𝑥−2 $
10 = 𝐴
5
10 ln 𝑥 − 3 − 9 ln 𝑥 − 2 + +𝐶
𝑥−2
INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
PARTIAL FRACTIONS
Practice Problems. Integrate the following:

𝑥$ − 𝑥 + 2
‹ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥" − 1

𝑥 " − 2𝑥 − 1
‹ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 − 1 " 𝑥" + 1

5𝑑𝑥
‹
𝑥$ − 1
INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
PARTIAL FRACTIONS
Practice Problems. Integrate the following:
𝑥$ − 𝑥 + 2
‹ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥" − 1
𝑥"
+ ln 𝑥 − 1 − ln 𝑥 + 1 + 𝐶
2

𝑥 " − 2𝑥 − 1
‹ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 − 1 " 𝑥" + 1
1 1
ln 𝑥 − 1 + − ln 𝑥 " + 1 + tan.' 𝑥 + 𝐶
(𝑥 + 1) 2

5𝑑𝑥
‹
𝑥$ − 1
5 5 5 2𝑥 + 1
ln 𝑥 − 1 − ln 𝑥 " + 𝑥 + 1 − tan.' +𝐶
3 6 3 3
 INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
TRANSFORMATION BY TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS

‹ 𝑠𝑖𝑛B 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥𝑑𝑥

either 𝑚 or 𝑛 is a positive odd integer

Rule: retain one factor of the function (sine or cosine) with a positive odd integer power then make
use of the corresponding trigonometric identity for the remaining factor.

Trigonometric identities to be used:

𝑠𝑖𝑛" 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 " 𝑥

𝑐𝑜𝑠 " 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛" 𝑥
INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
TRANSFORMATION BY TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS
‹ sin$ 𝑥cos " 𝑥𝑑𝑥

‹ sin$ 𝑥cos " 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ‹ sin 𝑥 sin" 𝑥cos " 𝑥𝑑𝑥

‹ sin$ 𝑥cos " 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ‹ sin 𝑥 1 − cos " 𝑥 cos " 𝑥𝑑𝑥

‹ sin$ 𝑥cos " 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ‹ sin 𝑥 cos " 𝑥𝑑𝑥 − ‹ sin 𝑥cos ! 𝑥𝑑𝑥

‹ sin$ 𝑥cos " 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − ‹ cos " 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ‹ cos ! 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 1
‹ sin$ 𝑥cos " 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − cos $ 𝑥 + cos & 𝑥 + 𝐶
3 5
 INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
TRANSFORMATION BY TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS

‹ 𝑠𝑖𝑛B 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥𝑑𝑥

If both 𝑚 and 𝑛 are even positive integers, use the following identities:

1
𝑠𝑖𝑛" 𝑥 = 1 − cos 2𝑥
2
1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 " 𝑥 = 1 + cos 2𝑥
2
1
sin 2𝑥 = sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
2
 INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
TRANSFORMATION BY TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS
‹ 𝑠𝑖𝑛" 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 ! 𝑥𝑑𝑥

‹ 𝑠𝑖𝑛" 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 ! 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ‹ sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 " 𝑐𝑜𝑠 " 𝑥𝑑𝑥

"
1 1
‹ 𝑠𝑖𝑛" 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 ! 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ‹ sin 2 𝑥 2 1 + cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2
1
‹ 𝑠𝑖𝑛" 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 ! 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ‹ 𝑠𝑖𝑛" 2𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛" 2𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
8
1 1
‹ 𝑠𝑖𝑛" 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 ! 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ‹ 𝑠𝑖𝑛" 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 + ‹ 𝑠𝑖𝑛" 2𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
8 8
 INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
TRANSFORMATION BY TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS
1 1 1
‹ 𝑠𝑖𝑛" 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 ! 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ‹ 1 − cos 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ‹ 𝑠𝑖𝑛" 2𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
8 2 8
1 1 1
‹ 𝑠𝑖𝑛" 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 ! 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ‹ 𝑑𝑥 − ‹ cos 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ‹ 𝑠𝑖𝑛" 2𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
16 16 8
1 1 1
‹ 𝑠𝑖𝑛" 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 ! 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 − sin 4𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛$ 2𝑥 + C
16 64 48
 INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
TRANSFORMATION BY TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS

‹ 𝑡𝑎𝑛B 𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 𝑥𝑑𝑥

if 𝑛 is even, save a factor of sec2𝑥 and use sec2𝑥 = 1 + tan2𝑥 to express the remaining factors in
terms of 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
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‹ 𝑡𝑎𝑛" 𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐 ! 𝑥𝑑𝑥

‹ 𝑡𝑎𝑛" 𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐 ! 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ‹ 𝑡𝑎𝑛" 𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐 " 𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐 " 𝑥𝑑𝑥

‹ 𝑡𝑎𝑛" 𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐 ! 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ‹ 𝑡𝑎𝑛" 𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐 " 𝑥 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛" 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

‹ 𝑡𝑎𝑛" 𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐 ! 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ‹ 𝑡𝑎𝑛" 𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐 " 𝑥𝑑𝑥 + ‹ 𝑡𝑎𝑛! 𝑥 sec 𝑥 " 𝑥𝑑𝑥

1 1
‹ 𝑡𝑎𝑛" 𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐 ! 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛$ 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛& 𝑥 + 𝐶
3 5
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‹ 𝑡𝑎𝑛B 𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 𝑥𝑑𝑥

where 𝑚 is a positive odd integer

Rule:
Save a factor of 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 and use tan2𝑥 = sec2𝑥 – 1 to express the remaining factors in terms of
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥.
 INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
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‹ 𝑡𝑎𝑛& 𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐 $ 𝑥𝑑𝑥

‹ 𝑡𝑎𝑛& 𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐 $ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ‹ 𝑡𝑎𝑛! 𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐 " 𝑥 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

‹ 𝑡𝑎𝑛& 𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐 $ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ‹ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 " 𝑥 − 1 " 𝑠𝑒𝑐 " 𝑥 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

‹ 𝑡𝑎𝑛& 𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐 $ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ‹ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ! 𝑥 − 2𝑠𝑒𝑐 " 𝑥 + 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐 " 𝑥 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

‹ 𝑡𝑎𝑛& 𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐 $ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ‹ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 # 𝑥 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 2 ‹ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ! 𝑥 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ‹ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 " 𝑥 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 2 1
‹ 𝑡𝑎𝑛& 𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐 $ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 % 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐 & 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑒𝑐 $ 𝑥 + 𝐶
7 5 3
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Reduction formulas:

tanB.' 𝑥
‹ tanB 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − ‹ tanB." 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚−1

sec B." 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑚 − 2

‹ sec B 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = + ‹ sec B." 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚−1 𝑚−1

Note: Assume 𝑛 is a positive integer, 𝑛 ≠ 1

 INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
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The guidelines for integrals involving tangent and secant will be similar to integrals containing
cotangent and cosecant.

‹ csc ! 𝑥 cot " 𝑥𝑑𝑥

‹ csc ! 𝑥 cot " 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ‹ csc " 𝑥 csc " 𝑥cot " 𝑥𝑑𝑥

‹ csc ! 𝑥 cot " 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ‹ csc " 𝑥 1 + cot " 𝑥 cot " 𝑥𝑑𝑥

‹ csc ! 𝑥 cot " 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − ‹ −csc " 𝑥 cot " 𝑥 + cot ! 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

cot $ 𝑥 cot & 𝑥

‹ csc ! 𝑥 cot " 𝑥𝑑𝑥 =− − +C
3 5
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Other trigonometric identities:

1
cos 𝑚𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 = cos 𝑚 + 𝑛 𝑥 + cos 𝑚 − 𝑛 𝑥
2
1
sin 𝑚𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 = cos 𝑚 − 𝑛 𝑥 − cos 𝑚 + 𝑛 𝑥
2
1
sin 𝑚𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 = sin 𝑚 + 𝑛 𝑥 + sin 𝑚 − 𝑛 𝑥
2
 INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
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‹ sin 4𝑥 cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥

'
Recall sin 𝑚𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 = " sin 𝑚 + 𝑛 𝑥 + sin 𝑚 − 𝑛 𝑥 :
'
∫ sin 4𝑥 cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = " ∫ sin 4 + 3 𝑥 + sin 4 − 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
‹ sin 4𝑥 cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ‹ sin 7𝑥 + sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
1 cos 7𝑥
‹ sin 4𝑥 cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − − cos 𝑥 + 𝐶
2 7
cos 7𝑥 cos 𝑥
‹ sin 4𝑥 cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − − +𝐶
14 2
INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
TRANSFORMATION BY TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS
Practice Problems. Integrate the following:

‹ cos ! 𝑢 sin$ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢

𝑡𝑎𝑛$ 𝜃
‹ 𝑑𝜃
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃

‹ sec ! 𝑢 tan$ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES:
TRANSFORMATION BY TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS
Practice Problems. Integrate the following:

‹ cos ! 𝑢 sin$ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢

1 1
− cos & 𝑢 + cos % 𝑢 + 𝐶
5 7

𝑡𝑎𝑛$ 𝜃
‹ 𝑑𝜃
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃
2 $ '
."
sec 𝜃 + 2sec 𝜃 + 𝐶
"
3

‹ sec ! 𝑢 tan$ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢

1 1
tan! 𝑢 + tan# 𝑢 + 𝐶
4 6
 DEFINITE INTEGRAL
The definite integral of 𝑓(𝑥) between 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 is denoted by:

C
‹ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
+

Note: Read as the integral from 𝑎 to 𝑏 of 𝑓 of 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

The definite integral is a measure of area.

 DEFINITE INTEGRAL
Riemann Sum
-A Riemann sum is a sum of several terms, each of the form
𝑓(𝑥8 )∆𝑥, each representing an area below a function 𝑓(𝑥) on
some interval. The definite integral is mathematically defined to
be the limit of such a Riemann sum as the number of terms
approaches infinity.

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = lim • 𝑓(𝑐D )∆𝑥

4→2
DE'

4 C
lim • 𝑓(𝑐D )∆𝑥 = ‹ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
4→2
DE' +
 DEFINITE INTEGRAL
If 𝑓 is continuous on the interval [𝑎, 𝑏], and 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐹’(𝑥), then:

C
‹ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 𝑏 − 𝐹(𝑎)
+

C
To find ∫+ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, find 𝐹 first. Afterwards, calculate 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎).

This method of computing definite integrals provides an exact answer.

PROPERTIES OF DEFINITE INTEGRAL
 DEFINITE INTEGRAL
'
‹ 𝑥(3𝑥 " + 1)! 𝑑𝑥
5
'
1 '
‹ 𝑥(3𝑥 " + 1)! 𝑑𝑥 = ‹ 6𝑥 2 (3𝑥 " + 1)! 𝑑𝑥
5 6 5
' '
" ! 1 (3𝑥 " + 1)&
‹ 𝑥(3𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 =
5 6 5 5
' " &
1 (3 2 1 + 1) (3 2 0" + 1)&
‹ 𝑥(3𝑥 "
+ 1)! 𝑑𝑥
= −
5 6 5 5
'
341
‹ 𝑥(3𝑥 " + 1)! 𝑑𝑥 =
5 10
 DEFINITE INTEGRAL
' )
Substituting including new limits:
! 3𝑥 $ (2𝑥 ) + 1)$ 𝑑𝑥 '
*
) 1 ) )
! 3𝑥 $ (2𝑥 ) + 1)$ 𝑑𝑥 = ! (𝑢)$ 𝑑𝑢
* 2 '
Let 𝑢 = 2𝑥 ) + 1 + )
'
𝑑𝑢 = 6𝑥 $ 𝑑𝑥 ) 1 𝑢$
! 3𝑥 $ (2𝑥 ) +1)$ 𝑑𝑥 =
* 2 5
'
$ )
) 1 ' ) 2 '
! 3𝑥 (2𝑥 + 1)$ 𝑑𝑥 = ! 2 7 3𝑥 $ (2𝑥 ) + 1)$ 𝑑𝑥 ' ) 1 + +
* 2 * ! 3𝑥 $ (2𝑥 ) + 1)$ 𝑑𝑥 = 7 3$ − 1 $
* 5
' )
Find new limits so we don’t have to substitute back after
! 3𝑥 $ (2𝑥 ) + 1)$ 𝑑𝑥 = 2.9177
integrating: *
For 𝑥 = 1:
𝑢 = 2(1)) +1
𝑢=3

For 𝑥 = 0:
𝑢 = 2(0)) +1
𝑢=1
 DEFINITE INTEGRAL
,
-
! tan. 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
*
, ,
- -
! tan. 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ! tan$ 𝑥 tan$ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
* *
, ,
- -
! tan. 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ! tan$ 𝑥 sec $ 𝑥 − 1 𝑑𝑥
* *
, ,
- -
! tan. 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ! sec $ 𝑥tan$ 𝑥 − tan$ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
* *
, , ,
- - -
! tan. 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ! sec $ 𝑥tan$ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ! tan$ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Recall reduction formula:
* * *
, , ,
- - - ! tan/ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ! tan/($ 𝑥 sec $ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ! tan/($ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
. $ $ $
! tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ! sec 𝑥tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ! sec 𝑥 − 1 𝑑𝑥
* * *
, ,
/
tan/(' 𝑥
- tan) 𝑥 - ! tan 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − ! tan/($ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
! tan. 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − tan 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑚−1
* 3 *
 DEFINITE INTEGRAL A
A
#
!
tan$ 𝑥 #
‹ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − tan 𝑥 + 𝑥
5 3 5
A $ 𝜋
# tan 6 𝜋 𝜋 tan" 0
!
‹ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − tan + − − tan 0 + 0
5 3 6 6 3
A
# 3 3 𝜋
‹ tan! 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − + −0
5 27 3 6
A
# 𝜋 8 3
‹ tan! 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −
5 6 27
DEFINITE INTEGRAL
Practice Problems. Integrate the following:

A
!
‹ tan 𝑢 sec " 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
5

!
‹ 𝑥 − 3 𝑑𝑥
."

&
% )'
‹ 𝑥𝑒 !( 𝑑𝑥
"
DEFINITE INTEGRAL
Practice Problems. Integrate the following:
A
!
‹ tan 𝑢 sec " 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
5
1
2
!
‹ 𝑥 − 3 𝑑𝑥
."
−12

&
% )'
‹ 𝑥𝑒 !( 𝑑𝑥
"
𝑒 '5' − 𝑒 '%
8
 WALLIS FORMULA
A
" 𝑚−1 𝑚−3 … 𝑛−1 𝑛−3 …
‹ 𝑠𝑖𝑛B 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃𝑑𝜃 = 2𝛼
5 𝑚+𝑛 𝑚+𝑛−2 …

𝜋
𝛼= , m and n are even
2

𝛼 = 1 , otherwise
WALLIS FORMULA
A
"
‹ 3𝑠𝑖𝑛" 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 ? 𝜃𝑑𝜃
5
&
B.' B.$ … 4.' 4.$ …
From the formula, ∫5 𝑠𝑖𝑛B 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃𝑑𝜃 =
% 2 𝛼, 𝑚 = 2, 𝑛 = 8. Since both 𝑚 and 𝑛
B)4 B)4." …
A
are even, 𝛼 = " .

A
" 2−1 8−1 8−3 8−5 8−7 𝜋
‹ 3𝑠𝑖𝑛" 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 ? 𝜃𝑑𝜃 = 3 2 2
5A 2+8 2+8−2 2+8−4 2+8−6 2+8−8 2
"
‹ 3𝑠𝑖𝑛" 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 ? 𝜃𝑑𝜃 = 0.12885
5
WALLIS FORMULA
Practice Problems. Integrate the following:
A
"
‹ 12𝑠𝑖𝑛& 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 & 𝑥𝑑𝑥
5
WALLIS FORMULA
Practice Problems. Integrate the following:
A
"
‹ 12𝑠𝑖𝑛& 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 & 𝑥𝑑𝑥
5
1
5
PLANE AREA

Using vertical strip: Using horizontal strip: By polar coordinates:

1
𝐴 = ‹ 𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝐴= ‹ 𝑟 " 𝑑𝜃
𝐴 = ‹ 𝑦𝑑𝑥 2
 PLANE AREA 𝑦
For illustration of the graph: (4,3)

𝑦' − 3𝑥 + 3 = 0
𝑦' − 3𝑥 + 3 = 0 𝑦 ' − 3𝑥 + 3 = 0 𝑥=4
𝑦' = 3(𝑥 − 1) 𝑥
Parabola has vertex (1,0)
(1,0)
To determine points of intersection, substitute 𝑥 = 4 into the
equation for the parabola:
𝑦' − 3𝑥 + 3 = 0
𝑦' − 3(4) + 3 = 0 (4, −3)
𝑦 = ±3 Multiple by 2 to consider both areas above and below the 𝑥 axis:
)

Using horizontal strip: 𝐴 = 2/ 3𝑥 − 3𝑑𝑥

) (
𝐴 = / 𝑦𝑑𝑥 1 )
𝐴 = 2 2 / 3𝑥 − 3 2 3𝑑𝑥
( 3 (
Solve for 𝑦 and substitute: * )
2 2
𝑦 = ± 3𝑥 − 3 𝐴 = 2 (3𝑥 − 3)' (
) 3 3
𝐴 = / 3𝑥 − 3𝑑𝑥 4 * *
𝐴 = (3 2 4 − 3)' −(3 2 1 − 3)'
( 9
𝐴 = 12 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
PLANE AREA
Find the area between the curves bounded by the curve 2𝑥 " + 4𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0 and the line 𝑦 = 2𝑥.
PLANE AREA
Find the area between the curves bounded by the curve 2𝑥 " + 4𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0 and the line 𝑦 = 2𝑥.

Ans.: 9 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 "

 SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION (VOLUME)

• Circular Disk: 𝑣 = 𝜋𝑟 " 𝑡 (strip is perpendicular to axis of rotation)

• Circular Ring or Washer: 𝑣 = 𝜋(𝑟9 " − 𝑟8 " )𝑡 (strip is perpendicular to axis of rotation)
• Cylindrical Shell: 𝑣 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ𝑡 (strip is parallel to axis of rotation)
SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION (VOLUME)
The area bounded by the parabola 4𝑦 = 𝑥 " , the x-axis and the line 𝑥 = 3 is revolved about the x-axis.
Find the volume generated. (1st quadrant)
Determine points of intersection by
substituting 𝑥 = 3 to 4𝑦 = 𝑥 ! : 1 𝑥%
# 𝑦
𝑣 =𝜋S
16 5 "
4𝑦 = 𝑥 !
𝑥! 1 3% 0% 9
𝑦= 𝑣 =𝜋S S
16 5
−
5 3,
4 4
(3)! 1 3% 0%
𝑦= 𝑣 =𝜋S S −
9
4 16 5 5 4𝑦 = 𝑥 "
243𝜋
𝑦= 𝑣 = 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
4 80 (1st quadrant)
Using circular disk method:
𝑣 = 𝜋𝑟 ! 𝑡
#
𝑣 = 𝜋 Q 𝑦 ! 𝑑𝑥
"
!
𝑥=3
#
𝑥!
𝑣 = 𝜋Q 𝑑𝑥
" 4
1 # $
𝑣 =𝜋S Q 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
16 "
SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION (VOLUME)
The area bounded by the parabola 4𝑦 = 𝑥 " , the x-axis and the line 𝑥 = 3 is revolved about the y-axis.
Find the volume generated.
SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION (VOLUME)
The area bounded by the parabola 4𝑦 = 𝑥 " , the x-axis and the line 𝑥 = 3 is revolved about the y-axis.
Find the volume generated.

?'A
Ans.: 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 $
?
 MULTIPLE INTEGRATION
Iterated Integral – first integrate with respect to 𝑥 from 𝑎 to 𝑏 and then integrate with respect to 𝑦 from
𝑐 to 𝑑

= C
‹ ‹ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
, +
= C = C
‹ ‹ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = ‹ ‹ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
, + , +
 MULTIPLE INTEGRATION
) $
! ! 𝑥 $ 𝑦𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
* '
) $ ) $
$
𝑦$ $
! ! 𝑥 𝑦𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = ! 𝑥 7 𝑑𝑥
* ' * 2 '
) $ ) $ $
𝑥 (2) 𝑥 $ (1)$
! ! 𝑥 $ 𝑦𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = ! − 𝑑𝑥
* ' * 2 2
) $ )
$
𝑥$ $
! ! 𝑥 𝑦𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = ! 2𝑥 − 𝑑𝑥
* ' * 2
) $ )
$
2𝑥 ) 𝑥 )
! ! 𝑥 𝑦𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = −
* ' 3 6 *
) $ )
$
2(3) (3)) 2(0)) (0))
! ! 𝑥 𝑦𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = − − −
* ' 3 6 3 6
) $
27
! ! 𝑥 $ 𝑦𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 =
* ' 2
MULTIPLE INTEGRATION
Practice Problems. Integrate the following:

! " 𝑥 𝑦
‹ ‹ − 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
' ' 𝑦 𝑥

" A
‹ ‹ 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛" 𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝑟
5 5

" "a bc (
‹ ‹ ‹ 𝑥𝑒 .> 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
' 5 5
MULTIPLE INTEGRATION
Practice Problems. Integrate the following:

! " 𝑥 𝑦
‹ ‹ − 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
' ' 𝑦 𝑥
3.12

" A
‹ ‹ 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛" 𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝑟
5 5
𝜋

" "a bc (
‹ ‹ ‹ 𝑥𝑒 .> 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
' 5 5
3
(1 − 𝑒 ."a ) 2 ln 2 −
4