SUBSONIC Aircraft Performance

Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2014 | LF Banal | © Copyright | All rights Reserved
What do we mean by performance?
We will talk about static
and dynamic
performance.
We will answer questions such as:
How fast?
How high?
How far?
How long can an aircraft fly?
Coverage Airplane Performance Drag Polar
Equations of Motions
Static Performance Dynamic Performance

(zero acceleration) (finite acceleration)
Thrust Required Maximum
Thrust Available Velocity Takeoff
Power Required Landing

Power Available
Turning Flight
Maximum Velocity
Rate of Climb Gliding Flight V-n Diagram
Time to Climb
Service Ceiling
Maximum Altitude
Absolute Ceiling
Range and Endurance
A Prerequisite
Performance analysis hinges on

knowledge of the airplane drag polar.
What is a drag polar?
It is a term coined by Eiffel.
The same monsieur of Eiffel tower fame.
The same guy who designed Quiapo bridge

(a.k.a. Quezon bridge)
Quezon bridge: FEATI’s vantage point
Gustav’s Tower
What is a drag
polar?
It is a graph or an equation that

accounts for all types of drag in an
airplane and how it relates to lift.
Not including this type of drag.
What types of drag are included then? Let’s enumerate.
Bullets would come in handy for this sort of

job.
What are the different types of drag?
 Skin friction drag
 Pressure drag
 Profile drag
 Interference drag
 Parasite drag
 Induced drag
 Zero-lift drag
 Drag due to lift
 Wave drag
Drag Types
Skin-friction drag. Drag due to frictional shear stress integrated

over the surface.
Drag Types
Pressure drag due to flow separation (form drag): The drag due
to the pressure imbalance in the drag direction caused by
separated flow.
Drag Types
Profile drag. The sum of skin friction drag and form drag. (The
term profile drag is usually used in conjunction with two-
dimensional airfoils; it is sometimes called section drag.)
Drag Types
Interference drag. An additional pressure drag caused by the

mutual interaction of the flow fields around each component
of the airplane. The total drag of the combined body is usually
greater than that of the sum of its individual parts; the
difference is the interference drag.
Drag Types
Parasite drag. The term used for the profile drag for a complete
airplane. It is that portion of the total drag associated with skin
friction and pressure drag due to flow separation, integrated
over the complete airplane surface. It includes interference
drag.
Drag Types
Induced drag. A pressure drag due to the pressure

imbalance in the drag direction caused by the induced flow
(downwash) associated with the vortices created at the tips
of finite wings.
Drag Types
Zero-lift drag. (Usually used in conjunction with a complete

airplane configuration.) The parasite drag that exists when
the airplane is at its zero-lift angle of attack, that is, when
the lift of the airplane is zero.
Drag Types
Drag due to lift. (Usually used in conjunction with a complete
airplane.) That portion of the total airplane drag measured above
the zero-lift drag. It consists of the change in parasite drag when the
airplane is at an angle of attack different from the zero-lift angle,
plus the induced drag from the wings and other lifting components
of the airplane.
Drag Types
Wave drag. The pressure drag associated with transonic

and supersonic flow (or shock waves, hence the name). It
can be expressed as the sum the zero-lift wave drag and
wave drag due to lift.
Total Drag!
Total Drag
Total Drag
Skin Friction Drag Pressure Drag
Form Drag (Drag due to flow separation) Induced Drag Wave Drag
Note : Profile Drag = Skin Friction Drag + Form Drag
total drag  profile drag  induced drag

Drag Polar
A wing or airfoil have its own drag polar
2
C
C D  Cd  L
profile drag
πeAR
An airplane have its own drag polar
2
C
CD  CD,0  L
eAR zero-lift drag
Drag Polar
2
C
C D  C D ,e  L
eAR
parasite drag coefficient
-profile drag of wing induced drag coefficient
-friction and pressure drag of: lift span efficiency
tail surfaces factor
fuselage
engine nacelles
landing gear
other components exposed to the flow
-a function of angle of attack
Drag Polar 2
C
C D  C D ,e  L
πeAR
C D ,e  C D , 0  rC L
2
1
C D  C D ,0  (r  2
)C L
eAR
2
CL
CD  CD,0 
πeAR
Drag polar of a complete airplane
2
C
CD  CD,0   C D , 0  C D ,i L
eAR
induced drag
parasite drag coefficient
Oswald’s coefficient at
efficiency zero lift
factor
Drag polar of a complete airplane
2
C
CD  CD,0  L
eAR
Drag Polar
Drag Polar
Lockheed C-141A
Drag Polar
(C L  C Lmin drag ) 2
C D  C D ,min 
πeAR
Why is it called drag polar?
Equations of Motion
Equations of Motion
Equations of Motion
For level, unaccelerated flight,
If thrust line is aligned with flight path,
Equations of Motion
Level, unaccelerated flight
If thrust line is aligned
with flight path,
Thrust Required
Required for what?!
Thrust Required
Thrust required for steady level flight at given speed.
Thrust Required for Level, Unaccelerated Flight
at a given velocity
NOTE:
TR  D Thrust Required is a
function of velocity.
It has two components.
It has a minimum.
TR  D
2
1 1 1 CL
TR  D   V SC D   V S ( C Do  C Di )   V S ( C Do 
2 2 2
)
2 2 2 eAR
2
 L 
 
 (1 / 2)  V S 
2
1
TR   V S ( C Do 
2     )
2 eAR
2
1 W 1
TR   V S C Do  (
2
)( )
2 1  V S eAR
2
2
2
1 W 1
TR   V S C Do  (
2
)( )
2 1  V S eAR
2
2
zero-lift lift-induced
thrust required thrust required
2
1 W 1
TR   V S C Do  ( )  f (V )
2
)(
2 1  V S eAR
2
2
Applying a first and a second derivative test to this function will confirm the
existence of a minimum. This minimum will exist at velocity,
1/ 2
 2 1 W
VTR ,min  
   C Do eAR S 
1/ 2
 2 1 W
VTR ,min  
   C Do eAR S 
Thrust Required: Alternative Approach
TR  D
W
Since L  W TR 
TR C D
 CL / CD
W CL
Since we have already established the existence of a minimum thrust required,

this equation implies the existence of a maximum lift-to-drag ratio.
Indeed there is a maximum
L/D ratio exhibited by every
aircraft.
You will see how this ratio is

an indicator of performance
(aerodynamic efficiency) of an
aircraft.
W W
TR  
CL / CD L / D
1
L  W   V2 SCL  q SCL
2
 C L2 
Different points D  q SCD  q S  C D , 0  
 eAR 
on TR curve At b:
correspond to Small q∞ At a:
Large q∞
Large CL (or CL2) and a to support W
different angles of D large Small CL and a
attack. D large
Thrust Required Computation
TR is thrust required to 1. Select a flight speed, V∞ and calculate CL.
fly at a given velocity W
in level, unaccelerated CL 
1
 V2 S
flight 2
2. Calculate CD.
C L2
CD  CD,0 
eAR
3. Calculate CL/CD and calculate TR.
W
TR 
 CL 
 C 
 D
Example
CP-1: A light, single-engine, propeller-driven, private airplane, approximately
modelled after the Cessna Skylane, having the following characteristics:
Wingspan = 35.8 ft
Wing area = 174 ft2
Normal gross weight = 2950 lb
Fuel capacity: 65 gal of aviation gasoline
Power plant: one-piston engine, 230 hp (SL)
Specific fuel consumption= 0.45 lb/(hp)(h)
Parasite drag coefficient CD,o = 0.025
Oswald efficiency factor, e = 0.8
Propeller efficiency = 0.8
Example
Cessna Skylane
Example
At V=200 ft/s = 136.4 mi/h
W 2950
1 CL    0.357
1 1
 V2 S (0.002377)(200) 2 (174)
2 2
b 2 (35.8) 2
AR    7.37
S 174
C L2 (0.357) 2
2 CD  CD,0   0.025   0.0319
eAR  (0.8)(7.37)
L CL 0.357
   11.2
D C D 0.0319
W 2950
3 TR    263 lb
L / D 11.2
Example
At other velocities…
1 2 3
Example
CJ-1: A jet-powered executive aircraft, approximately modelled after the
Cessna Citation 3, having the following characteristics:
Wingspan = 53.3 ft
Wing area = 318 ft2
Normal gross weight = 19,815 lb
Fuel capacity: 1119 gal of kerosene
Power plant: two turbofan engines of 3650-lb thrust each at sea level
Specific fuel consumption = 0.6 lb of fuel/(lb thrust)(h)
Oswald efficiency factor e = 0.81
Example
Cessna Citation III
Example
At V=500 ft/s = 341 mi/h
W 19815
1 CL    0.210
1 1
 V2 S (0.002377)(500) 2 (318)
2 2
b 2 (53.3) 2
AR    8.93
S 318
C L2 (0.21) 2
2 CD  CD,0   0.02   0.022
eAR  (0.81)(8.93)
L CL 0.21
   9.55
D C D 0.022
W 19815
3 TR    2075 lb
L / D 9.55
Example
At other velocities…
1 2 3
How do we compute for (L/D)max?
At TRmin we found (by differentiating TR with respect to V and 1/ 2
 2 1 W
equating to zero), VTR ,min   
   C Do eAR S 
From this formula for V at TRmin, the following relationship (which
2
has already been revealed in the graph) can be derived: C
CD,0  L
 C D ,i
eAR
Thus,
C L / C D  C D , 0eAR / 2C D , 0  eAR / 4C D , 0
and this is a maximum
because an (L/D)max is simultaneous with a TRmin.
How do we compute for (L/D)max?
At TRmin
C L2
CD,0   C D ,i
eAR
Thus,
 CL   eAR / 4C
 C 
 D  max
D,0
How do we compute for TRmin?
You can substitute

 2
1/ 2 Or you can substitute
1 W
VTR ,min  
   C Do eAR S  (C L / C D ) max  eAR / 4C D , 0
to to
1 W 2
1 W
TR   V S C Do  (
2
)( ) TR 
1  V S eAR
2  CL 
2  C 
2  D
Effects of compressibility on TR
Effects of altitude on TR
2
1 W 1
TR  V S C Do  (
2
)( )
2 1 V S eAR
2
1/ 2
2
 2 1 W
VTR ,min  
  Lower C Do eAR S 
1/ 2
 2 1 W
VTR ,min  
  Higher C Do eAR S 
W
TR ,min 
 CL 
 C 
 D  max
Note that the minimum thrust required is independent of altitude.
Thrust Available
Propeller-Piston Engine
Jet Engine
Maximum Velocity: Graphical
The intersection of the TA

and TR curve gives Vmax at a
certain altitude.
Example
Calculate the maximum velocity for the sample jet plane.
Intersection of TR
curve and maximum
TA defines maximum
flight speed of airplane.
Vmax = 975 ft/s

= 665 mi/h
Example
Some remarks. Computation of TR
curve assumed constant CD,o
At this speed, drag

divergence effects are
significant, and adds to
the CD,o
Maximum Velocity: Analytical
 CL 
2
D  T  q SC D  q S  C D , 0   Steady, level flight: T = D
 eAR 
W
CL  Steady, level flight: L = W
q S
 W 2
 W 2
Substitute into

T  q S  C D , 0  2 2 
  q SC D , 0 
 q S eAR  q SeAR drag equation
2 Turn this equation into a quadratic
W
q SC D , 0  qT 
2
 0 equation (by multiplying by q∞)
SeAR and rearranging.
Maximum Velocity: Analytical
Solving the quadratic equation and setting thrust, T, to maximum available
thrust, TA,max results in,
1
 T   W     A
W T 4C
2 2
 A       
D,0

  W  max  S   S   W  max eAR 
Vmax  
 CD,0
 
 
 
Maximum Velocity: Design Considerations
1
 T   W   W   TA  4CD , 0 
2 2
 A        
  W  max  S   S   W  max eAR 
Vmax  
 CD,0
 
 
 
• TA,max does not appear alone, but only in ratio: (TA/W)max
• S does not appear alone, but only in ratio: (W/S)
• Vmax does not depend on thrust alone or weight alone, but rather on ratios
• (TA/W)max: maximum thrust-to-weight ratio
• W/S: wing loading
Maximum Velocity: Design Considerations
1
 T   W   W   TA  4CD , 0 
2 2
 A        
  W  max  S   S   W  max eAR 
Vmax  
 CD,0
 
 
 
• Vmax also depends on density (altitude), CD,0, eAR

• Increase Vmax by
• Increase maximum thrust-to-weight ratio, (TA/W)max
• Increasing wing loading, (W/S)
• Decreasing zero-lift drag coefficient, CD,0
1
 T   W   W   T  
Example 2
  A        A   D,0
4C

2
  W  max  S   S   W  max eAR 

Vmax  
Calculate Vmax for the CP-1.  CD,0
 
 
 
Wingspan = 35.8 ft
Wing area = 174 ft2 W 2950
  16.95 lb/ft 2
Normal gross weight = 2950 lb S 174
Fuel capacity: 65 gal of aviation gasoline 4C D , 0 4(0.025)
Power plant: one-piston engine, 230 hp (SL) 
Specific fuel consumption= 0.45 lb/(hp)(h) eAR  (0.8)[(35.8) / 174]
2
Parasite drag coefficient CD,o = 0.025  5.4066 x 10-3

 C D ,0  0.002377(0.025)
 5.9425 x 10 5 slug/ft 3
1
 T   W   W   T  
Example 2
  A        A   D,0
4C

2
 TA    W  max  S   S   W  max eAR 

Calculate Vmax for the CP-1.   ? Vmax 
 CD,0 
 W  max 



 
TAV  PA  P  0.8(230)(550)  1.012 x 105 (ft  lb)/s
For max TA and PA, V∞ = Vmax
P
TA max 
Vmax
 TA  P 1 34.305
   
 W  max W Vmax Vmax
Example
Calculate Vmax for the CP-1.
1/ 2
 2 
 34.305   34.305 
Vmax  558.97       5.4066 x 10 3 
 Vmax  max  Vmax  max 
 
Solve this by trial and error.
Why is there a need for a new parameter?
Jets Engines are usually rated in Thrust

Thrust is a Force with units (N = kg m/s2)
For example, the PW4000-112 is rated at 98,000 lb of thrust
Piston-Driven Engines are usually rated in terms of Power

Power is a precise term and can be expressed as:
Energy / Time with units (kg m2/s2) / s = kg m2/s3 = Watts
Note that Energy is expressed in Joules = kg m2/s2
Force * Velocity with units (kg m/s2) * (m/s) = kg m2/s3 = Watts
Usually rated in terms of horsepower (1 hp = 550 ft lb/s = 746 W)
Power Required
PR vs. V∞ curve qualitatively
resembles TR vs. V∞ curve.
PR = TRV∞
Power Required
NOTE:
Power Required is
a function of
velocity.
It has two
components.
It has a minimum.
Power Required
PR  TRV
2
1 W 1
TR   V S C Do  (
2
)( ) V
2 1  V S eAR
2
2
2
1 W 1
PR  V S C Do  (
3
)( )
2 1 V S eAR
2
zero-lift power required lift-induced power required
zero-lift PR ~ V3 lift-induced PR ~ 1/V
Power Required, Minimum
2
1 W 1
PR  V S C Do  ( )  f (V )
3
)(
2 1 V S eAR
2
Get f’(V∞).
Equate to zero.
Solve for V∞ in f’(V∞)=0 to get VPR,min.
Substitute V∞ in f(V∞) to get PR,min.
The results are…
Power Required, Minimum
The results are…
At PRmin ,
3C D , 0  C Di
and
1
 2 1 W 
2
V , PR ,min 
  3C D , 0eAR S 

Power Required
1/ 2
 2 1 W
VTR ,min  
   C Do eAR S  1
1 4
VPR ,min    VTR ,min
3C D , 0  C Di 3
1
 2 1 W 
2
V , PR ,min 
  3C D , 0eAR S 

Power Required: Alternative Approach
W
PR  TRV  V
CL W 2W
CD PR  TRV 
CL   SC L
CD
1
L  W   V SC L
2
2
3 2
2W C D 1
2W PR  a
V    SC L 3
CL
3/ 2
  SC L CD
Power Required: Alternative Approach
3 2
2W C D
PR 
  SC L 3
2W 3 1
PR ,min 
 S  C 32 
 L 
 CD 
  max
Example
Calculate the power required curve for (a) the CP-1 at sea level and
(b) the CJ-1 at an altitude of 22,000 ft.
PR  TRV
Example
Example
At an altitude of 22,000 ft    0.001184 slug/ft
3
Thrust required is re-computed using this density.
PR  TRV
Example
How do we compute for (L3/2/D)max?
2
CL
3C D , 0  C Di 
eAR
C L  3C D , 0eAR
 
3
C 2  1  3eAR 
3

3 4
 L   3C eAR 4
D , 0

 CD  4 C 
4 CD,0 3 1 
  max D,0
 
How do we compute for (L3/2/D)max?
At PRmin
3C D , 0  C Di
Thus,
3
C 2
3
  3eAR  4
 L    1 
 CD  4  C 13 
  max  D,0 
(L/D)max VS (L3/2/D)max
Locating (L/D)max in the PR curve
How do we compute for PR,min?
You can substitute

1 Or you can substitute
 2 1 W  2 3
  C 2   3eAR 
3 4
V , PR ,min
  3C D , 0eAR S   L    1 
   CD  4  C 13 
  max  D,0 
to 2 to
1 W 1
PR  V S C Do  (
3
)( )
2 1 V S eAR 2W 3 1
2 PR 
ρ S  C 3 2 
 L 
 CD 
 
Effects of altitude on PR
1
 0  2
VALT  V0  
  
1
 0  2
PR , ALT  PR ,0  
  
1
 2 1 W  2
V , PR ,min  
  3C D , 0eAR S 
 
2W 3 1
PR 
 S  C 32 
 L 
 CD 
 
Effects of altitude on PR  0 
1
2
VALT  V0  
  
1
 0  2
PR , ALT  PR ,0  
  
Effects of altitude on PR  0 
1
2
VALT  V0  
  
1
 0  2
PR , ALT  PR ,0  
  
SUMMARY
thrust required
1 W2 1
TR   V S C Do  (
2
)( )
2 1  V S eAR
2
2 power required
W 1 W 2
1
TR  PR  V S C Do  (
3
)( )
CL / CD 2 1 V S eAR
2
2W 3 1
PR 
 S  C 32 
 L 
 CD 
 
SUMMARY
At minimum thrust required At minimum power required
C D , 0  C D ,i 3C D , 0  C Di
  3C D , 0eAR 
3
 CL   eAR / 4C C 2  1  3eAR 
3 3 4
4
 C   L 
 D  max  CD  4  C D , 0 13 
D,0
  max 4C D , 0
 
1/ 2
 2 W  2
1
W 
2
1 1
VTR ,min   V , PR ,min 
   C Do eAR S   
 3C D , 0eAR S 
Understood?
Power Available
Power Available
Power Available VS Thrust Available
Effects of Altitude on Maximum Velocity
Effects of Altitude on Maximum Velocity
Minimum Velocity
It is true, Chuck Norris’ legendary kick can also cause a stall, but…
Minimum Velocity
Sometimes minimum or stall velocity
is dictated by powerplant considerations.
Rate of Climb
T  D  W sin
L  W cos
Rate of Climb
T  D  W sin 
TV  DV  WV sin 
TV  DV
 V sin 
W
R / C  V sin 
TV  DV
R/C 
W
Rate of Climb
TV  DV
R/C 
W
Power Available ~ Power Required

(for small Ѳ)
T  D  W sin 
excess power  TV  DV

excess power
R/C 
W
Rate of Climb
maximum excess power
( R / C ) max 
W
Rate of Climb VS Altitude
Example
Calculate the rate of climb vs velocity at sea level for (a) the CP-1 and
(b) the CJ-1.
At V = 150 ft/s PR = 32,600 ft-lb/s and PA = 10,120 ft-lb/s. Hence,
excess power PA  PR 10120 - 32600
(R / C)     23.3 ft/s  1398 ft/min
W 2950 2950
Example max
Example
At V = 500 ft/s PR = 1884 hp and PA = 6636 hp. Hence,
excess power PA  PR 6636 - 1884

(R / C)    550  132 ft/s  7914 ft/min
W 19815 19815
Example
max
R/Cmax: Analytical
For a piston-propeller aircraft:
 W / S Z   T 3 / 2  Z
1/ 2

R / C max     1  
3

 3  C D , 0   W  max  6 2T / W max L / D max Z 
2 2
For a jet aircraft:

 P 
R / C max    0.8776
W /S 1
 W  max   C D ,0 L / D 3max
/2
Where:
3
Z  1 1
L / D 2max T / W 2max
What is a Ceiling?
Absolute Ceiling
R/C  0
Service Ceiling
( R / C ) max  100 ft / min
Example
Calculate the absolute and service ceilings for (a) the CP-1 and (b) the CJ-1.
maximum excess power
( R / C ) max 
W
Example
Calculate the absolute and service ceilings for (a) the CP-1 and (b) the CJ-1.
(a) the CP-1 (b) the CJ-1
service ceilings = 25,000 ft service ceilings = 48,000 ft

absolute ceilings = 27,000 ft absolute ceilings = 49,000 ft
Time to Climb
dh dh
R/C  dt 
dt R/C
h2
t   dt
h1
h2
dh
t
h1
R/C
Time to Climb: Graphical
h2
dh
t
h1
R/C
Time to Climb
H0
H
dh y  mx  b
t
( R / C ) max H0
0 H  ( R / C ) max  H 0
( R / C ) max,0
( R / C ) max,0
H ( R / C ) max  (H 0  H )
Altitude, H
H0 dh
t
( R / C ) max,0 0 H 0  H H0
H0  H0 
t ln 
( R / C ) max,0  H 0  H 
Maximum Rate of Climb, (R/C)max

( R / C ) max,0
Gliding Flight
T 0
D  W sin 
L  W cos
sin  D

cos L
1
tan  
L
D
Gliding Flight
1
tan  
L
D
1
  tan 1
L
D
1
 min  tan 1
L
 
 D  max
Gliding Flight
1
  tan 1
L
D
h L
R h
tan  D
h L
Rmax   h( ) max
tan  D
Gliding Flight
To maximize range, glide at smallest  (at (L/D)max )

A modern sailplane may have a glide ratio as high as 60:1
So  = tan-1(1/60) ~ 1°
Example
Calculate the minimum glide angle and the maximum range measured
along the ground covered by the CP-1 and the CJ-1 in a power-off glide
that starts at an altitude of 10,000 ft.
10,000 ft
Example
CP-1: A light, single-engine, propeller-driven, private airplane, approximately
modelled after the Cessna Skylane, having the following characteristics:
Aspect Ratio = 7.37

L D max  eAR / 4CD ,0

  (0.8)(7.37) / 4(0.025)  13.61
Example
along the ground covered by the CP-1 in a power-off glide that starts at an
altitude of 10,000 ft.
1 1
  4.2
L D max 13.61
10,000 ft L
Rmax  h( ) max  10000(13.61)
D
 136,000 ft
Example
CJ-1: A jet-powered executive aircraft, approximately modelled after the
Cessna Citation 3, having the following characteristics:
Aspect Ratio = 8.93

L D max  eAR / 4CD,0

  (0.81)(8.93) / 4(0.02)  16.9
Example
along the ground covered by the CJ-1 in a power-off glide that starts at an
altitude of 10,000 ft.
1 1
  3.39
L D max 16.9
10,000 ft L
Rmax  h( ) max  10000(136.9)
D
 169,000 ft
Example
For the CP-1, calculate the equilibrium glide velocities at altitudes of
10,000 ft and 2,000 ft, each corresponding to the minimum glide angle.
1 At (L/D)max
L  W cos    V SC L
2
2 C L2
CD,0   C D ,i
eAR
2 cos  W C L  C D , 0eAR
V 
 CL S
C L  (0.025) (0.8)(7.37)
CL corresponding to (L/D)max C L  0.634
Example
For the CP-1, calculate the equilibrium glide velocities at altitudes of
10,000 ft and 2,000 ft, each corresponding to the minimum glide angle.
W 2950 (2 cos 4.2)(16.95)

  16.95 lb/ft 2 V 
S 174 0.0017556(0.634)
V  174.3 ft/s at h  10,000 ft
 min  4.2
(2 cos 4.2)(16.95)
V 
2 cos  W 0.0022409(0.634)
V 
 CL S V  154.3 ft/s at h  2,000 ft
Weight Equation
W  W1  W f
dW dW f

dt dt
W  W f
W – Weight of the airplane at any instant during flight.

W0 – Gross weight of the airplane, including everything: full fuel
load, payload, crew, structures, etc.
Wf – Weight of fuel: this is an instantaneous value, and it
changes as fuel is consumed during flight.
W1 –Weight of the airplane when the fuel tanks are empty.
SFC VS TSFC
lb of fuel lb of fuel
SFC  TSFC 
BHPhour  lb of thrust hour 
dW f dW f
W f dt W f dt
c  ct   
P P T T
V
ct  c
 pr
Range: Piston-Propeller
To cover longest distance use minimum pounds of fuel per mile.
SFC  
HP hour  (HP) mile V

lb of fuel SFCHP 
  ( SFC)TR
mile V
To cover longest distance fly at minimum thrust required.
W  W f
ds
V   ds  V dt
dt  dW 
ds  V   
dW f  ctT 
ct   dt  dt   dW f
T ctT  dW W
ds  V   
 ctT W
 dW f 
ds  V   
 dW  L
 ctT  V L dW
ds  V     
 ct D  W ct D W
V L dW V L W0
ds   R ln
ct D W ct D W1
R W1  pr L
W0 V
V L dW R ct  c
R   ds    ln
c D W1  pr
0
c D W
W0 t
Assumptions made: level,

R W1
V L dW unaccelerated flight with
R   ds   
ct D W constant TSFC and L/D.
0 W0
BREGUET RANGE EQUATION
Range: Piston-Propeller aerodynamics
W0  pr L structures
R ln and materials
propulsion c D W1
To maximize range:
Fly at largest propeller efficiency
Lowest possible SFC
Highest ratio of W0 to W1 (fly with the largest fuel weight)
Fly at maximum L/D (minimum TR)
Example
Estimate the maximum range for the CP-1.
 pr  L 
W0
Rmax    ln
c  D  max W1
Normal gross weight = 2950 lb
Fuel capacity: 65 gal of aviation gasoline
Specific fuel consumption= 0.45 lb/(hp)(h)
Example
Estimate the maximum range for the CP-1.
lb 1 hp 1h 7
c  0.45  2.27 x 10 ft -1
(hp)(h) 550 ft - lb/s 3600 s

L D max  eAR / 4CD,0  13.61
Since aviation gasoline weighs 5.64 lb/gal, W f  65(5.64)  367 lb
W1  2950  367  2583 lb
 pr  L  W0 0.8  2950 
Rmax    ln  7
(13.62) ln   6.38 x 10 6
ft  1207 mi
c  D  max W1 2.27 x 10  2583 
Range: Jet Aircraft
To cover longest distance use minimum pounds of fuel per mile.
TSFC  
lb of thrust hour  lb of thrust  milesV

lb of fuel (TSFC )TA


mile V
TR 1 2W 1
  S CD  1
V 2   SCL CL 2
CD
To cover longest distance fly at maximum L1/2/D.
Range: Jet Aircraft
W1 12
V L dW 2 2 CL
R   R (W0  W1 )
12 12
c D W
W0 t ct  S CD
Assumptions made: level,

V  2W   SC L unaccelerated flight with
constant TSFC and L1/2/D.
W1 12
2 C L C D dW
R  
W0
 S ct W1 2
Range: Jet Aircraft
12
2 2 CL
R (W0  W1 )
12 12
ct  S CD
To maximize range:
Fly at minimum TSFC
Maximum fuel weight
Maximum L1/2/D
Fly at high altitudes (low density)
How is (L1/2/D)max computed?
1/ 2 1/ 2
CL CL
  f (C L ) Where K  1 / πeAR
C D , 0  KC L
2
CD
f ' (C ) 
C D,0  KC L (1 / 2)C L
2
 1 / 2
 C L (2 KC L )
1/ 2
0
L
C D,0  KC L
2 2

C D,0  KC L (1 / 2)C L
2
 1 / 2
 C L (2 KC L )  0
1/ 2
C D , 0  3KC L  3C D ,i
2
How is (L1/2/D)max computed?
C D , 0  3KC L  C L  C D , 0 3K
2
C D , 0  3C D ,i  C D ,i  (1 / 3)C D , 0
C D  C D , 0  (1 / 3)C D , 0  (4 / 3)C D , 0
 CL

1/ 2

 
 C D , 0 3K 1/ 2
 27
 
1
1/ 4


 C  3 
 D  max (4 / 3)C D , 0  256 K (C D,0 ) 
Summary
CL C D max  1 /(4 KC D , 0 ) C D , 0  C D ,i
1/ 4
 CL 1/ 2
  27 1 
    C D , 0  3C D ,i
 C   256 K (C ) 3 
 D  max  D,0 
3
C 2  1  
3 4
 L  
3 
 CD  4  KC D , 0 13  3C D , 0  C D ,i
  max  
Where K  1 / πeAR
Example
Estimate the maximum range for the CJ-1.

2 CL 
12
2
Rmax    (W01 2  W11 2 )
ct   S  C D  max
Normal gross weight = 19,815 lb

Fuel capacity: 1119 gal of kerosene
Specific fuel consumption = 0.6 lb of fuel/(lb thrust)(h)
Example
lb 1h  4 -1
ct  0.6  1.667 x 10 s
(lb)(h) 3600 s
1/ 4
 CL   27 
1/ 4
1/ 2
1  27  (0.81)(8.93) 
        23.4
 C   256 K (C ) 3  3
 D  max  D,0   256 (0.02) 
Since kerosene weighs 6.67 lb/gal, W f  1119(6.67)  7463 lb
W1  19815  7463  12352 lb
Example
2  CL 
12
2
Rmax    (W0  W1 )
12 12
ct   S  C D 
 max
2 2
Rmax  4
(23.4)(19815  12352 )
12 12
1.667 x 10 0.001184(318)
Rmax  19.2 x 10 ft  3630 miles 6
What do we mean by endurance?
Endurance: Piston-Propeller
To stay in the air for the longest time,
fly at minimum pounds of fuel per hour.
lb of fuel
SFC 
HP hour 
lb of fuel
a (SFC)(PR )
hour 
For maximum endurance, fly at minimum power required.

W0
dW 1 dW L dW
c  dt   E 
dt P cP W1
c DV W
 CL   SC L dW
W0
P  DV /  E cC
W1 D 2 W32
 dW
E W0 W0
dW
E   dt   
 CL
2   S 1 2 W11 2  W0 1 2 
32
0 W1
cP W1 c DV E
c CD
V  2W   SC L Assumptions made: level, unaccelerated flight
with constant SFC, η and L3/2/D.
 CL
W 
32
E 2   S  12
1
1 2
 W0
1 2
c CD
To maximize endurance, fly at:
Largest propeller efficiency, η
Lowest possible SFC
Largest fuel weight
Fly at maximum CL3/2/CD
Flight at sea level
Example
Estimate the maximum endurance for the CP-1.
  C L 

 
32
Emax    2   S  W1  W0
12 1 2 1 2
c  C D  max
3
C 2 3
  4
 L   1  3eAR   12.81
 CD  4  1 
  max C
 D,0 
3
1 2 1 
(12.81)2(0.002377)(174) 
0.8 1
E 7
 1/ 2 
 2583 2950 
1/ 2
2.7 x 10
E  5.19 x 10 4 s  14.4 h
Endurance: Jet Aircraft
To stay in the air for the longest time,
fly at minimum pounds of fuel per hour.
lb of fuel
TSFC 
lb of thrust hour 
lb of fuel
a (TSFC)(TA )a (TSFC)(TR )
hour 
For maximum endurance, fly at minimum thrust required.
dW 1 dW 1 C L W0
ct    dt   E ln
dt TA ctTA ct C D W1
E W1
dW Assumptions made:
E   dt    level, unaccelerated
0
cT
W0 t A
flight with constant
W1
TSFC and L/D.
1 L dW
E  
c D W
W0 t
1 C L W0
E ln
ct C D W1
To maximize endurance, fly at:
Minimum TSFC
Maximum fuel weight
Maximum L/D
Example
Estimate the maximum endurance for the CJ-1.
1  CL  W0
Emax    ln
ct  C D  max W1
1 19815
Emax  4
(16.9) ln
1.667 x 10 12352
E  4.79 x 10 s  13.3 h 4
Graphical Summary
Well done, you have endured this long!
Coverage Airplane Performance


Power Available
Turning Flight
Maximum Velocity
Time to Climb
Service Ceiling
Maximum Altitude
Absolute Ceiling
Range and Endurance
Dynamic Performance
Ground Roll (Liftoff Distance)
Preliminary (purely kinematic) considerations
dV F
F  ma  m ds  Vdt  tdt
dt m
s t
F F F t2
dV  dt s   ds '   t ' dt ' 
m 0 0
m m 2
V t 2
F F F  Vm  1 V 2 m
V   dV '   dt '  t s   
0 0
m m m  F  2 2F
Ground Roll (Liftoff Distance)
Forces in an aircraft during takeoff ground roll
Rolling resistance
mr = 0.02 relatively smooth paved surface
mr = 0.10 grass field
 
F  T  D  R  T  D  mr W  L  m
dV
dt
Coefficient of Rolling Friction
Ground Roll
Is the assumption of a constant
force reasonable?
V 2m
s
2F
F  T  D  m r W  L 
Ground Roll
Is the assumption of a constant
force reasonable?
1
L   V SC L
2
2
1  CL 
2
D   V S  C D0   
2
 
2  eAR 

16h b 2
1  16h b 
2
Ground Effect
Reduction of induced drag by a
factor Φ≤1.

16h b 
2
1  16h b 
2
1  C
2

D   V S  C D0   
2 L
 
2  eAR 
Ground Effect
Ground Roll
Is the assumption of a
constant force
reasonable?
T is approximately constant
(especially for a jet)
The difference between the
drag and friction combined
and the thrust is also
approximately constant
F  T  D  m r W  L   constant?
Ground Roll
Assume T is constant.
Assume an average value of
T-[D+μR(W-L)].
Shevell suggests computing
this average at V=0.7VLO.
Feff  T  [ D  m r W  L ]ave
2
VLO (W g )
sLO 
2 Feff
Ground Roll
2W
VLO  1.2Vstall  1.2
  SC L ,max
1.44W 2
sLO 
g  SC L ,max {T  [ D  m R (W  L)]ave }
2
1.44W
sLO 
g  SC L ,maxT
Ground Roll
1.44W 2 1.44W 2
sLO  sLO 
g  SC L ,max {T  [ D  m R (W  L)]ave } g  SC L ,maxT
Lift-off distance:
Is very sensitive to weight; varies as W2
Depends on ambient density
May be decreased by:
Increasing wing area, S
Increasing CL,max
Increasing thrust, T
Example
Estimate the liftoff distance for the CJ-1 at sea level. Assume a paved
runway; hence, μr = 0.02. Also, during the ground roll, the angle of attack
of the airplane is restricted by the requirement that the tail not drag the
ground; therefore, assume that CL,max during ground roll is limited to 1.0.
Also, when the airplane is on the ground, the wings are 6 ft above the
ground.

16h b 
2
 0.764
1  16h b 
2
Example
2W 2(19815)
VLO  1.2Vstall  1.2  1.2  230 ft/s
  SC L ,max 0.002377(318)(1.0)
0.7VLO  160.3 ft/s

1
L   V SC L  (1 / 2)(0.002377)(160.3) 2 (318)(1.0)  9712 lb
2
2
1  C
2

D   V S  C D0   
2 L
 
2  eAR 
1  1.0 2

 (0.002377)(160.3) (318) 0.02  0.764
2
  520.7 lb
2   (0.81)(8.93) 
Example
1.44W 2
sLO 
g  SC L ,max {T  [ D  m R (W  L)]ave }
1.44(19815) 2
sLO 
32.2(0.002377)(318)(1.0){7300  [520.7  (0.02)(19815  9712)]}
sLO  3532 ft
Total Takeoff Distance
35 ft (jet-powered civilian transport)
50 ft (all other airplanes)
ground roll
Total takeoff distance as per FAR
Takeoff Segments
Balanced Field Length
A+B
Additional distance travelled =
Distance up to V1 Distance required to clear an obstacle
= Distance required for a full stop
Distance to clear obstacle
Analysis is based on pull up maneuver
sa  R sin 
Where, 2
6.96(Vstall )
R
g
h
  cos (1  ) 1
R
h is the obstacle height.
Landing Roll
0 t
F
s ds 
m 0
t ' dt ' Can we assume a constant
landing force just as we
L
Ft 2 did in takeoff
sL   performance?
m 2
2
V m
sL  
2F
Landing Roll
0 0
F  T  D  R  T  D  m r W  L   m
dV
dt
F  ( D  R)  [ D  m r W  L ]  m
dV
dt
Landing Roll
F  [ D  m r W  L ]  m
dV
dt
Assume a constant effective
force,
Feff  [ D  m r W  L ]ave
Compute this average by evaluating

the quantity at 0.7VT , where VT is
the touchdown velocity.
Landing Roll
V m 2 1.69W 2
sL   sL  
2F g  SC L ,max [ D  m R (W  L)]0.7VT
2
VT (W / g )
sL  
2[ D  m R (W  L)]0.7VT μR = 0.4 for paved surface
2W
VT  1.3Vstall  1.3
  SC L ,max
Landing Roll
1.69W 2 0
sL  
g  SC L ,max [TR  D  m R (W  L)]0.7VT
with spoilers
with reverse thrust
Example
Estimate the landing ground roll distance at sea level for the CJ-1. No thrust
reversal is used; however, spoilers are employed such that L = 0. The spoilers
increase the zero-lift, drag coefficient by 10 percent. The fuel tanks are
essentially empty, so neglect the weight of any fuel carried by the airplane.
The maximum lift coefficient, with flaps fully employed at touchdown, is 2.5.
2W 2(12353)
VT  1.3Vstall  1.3  1.3  148.6 ft/s
  SC L ,max 0.002377(318)(2.5)
0.7VT  104 ft/s
C D , 0  0.02  0.1(0.02)  0.022
Example
CL  0  L  0
1 1
D   V SC D0  90.002377)(104) 2 (318)(0.022)  89.9 lb
2
2 2
1.69W 2
sL  
g  SC L ,max ( D  m RW ) 0.7VT
1.69(12353) 2
sL    842 ft
32.2(0.002377)(318)(2.5)[89.9  0.4(12352)]
Total Landing Distance
Approach Distance
L  W cos 
D  T  W sin 
D T 1 T
sin     
W W L D W
h f  R  R cos 

Vf
2
50  h f
R sa  
0.2 g tan 
from pull up maneuver analysis
Flare Distance
s f  R sin 
Level Turn
L cos   W Turn Radius
V2
R
Fr  L2  W 2 g n2 1
L Turn Rate
n Load Factor
W d V g n 2  1
  
dt R V
Fr  W n 2  1
V2
Fr  m
R
Constraints on n and V∞
At any given velocity the maximum possible load factor for a sustained level turn is
constrained by the maximum thrust available.
1/ 2
1 
 V
2
 2    T  1 2 CD,0  
nmax      V 
 K (W / S )  W  max 2 W / S 
 
1
K
eAR
n is also constrained by CLmax
1 2 C L , max
nmax   V
2 W /S 1
cos max 
nmax
1/ 2
1 
  V
2
 T  2 CD,0  
  1
nmax  2     V 
 K (W / S )  W  max 2 W / S 
 
LT 
nmax   
D  W  max
n is also constrained by regulation. Example:
n  4.4 (utility category)
V∞ is constrained by stall.
2 W n
Vstall 
ρ S C L ,max
Minimum Turn Radius
Minimum R occurs at the right combination of n and V∞.
4 K (W / S )
(V ) Rmin 
  (T / W )
V2
R
4 KC D , 0 g n2 1
nRmin  2 
(T / W ) 2
4 K (W / S )
Rmin 
g  (T / W ) 1  4 KC D , 0 /(T / W ) 2
Maximum Turn Rate
Maximum ω occurs at the right combination of n and V∞.
1/ 4
 K 
1/ 2
 2(W / S ) 
(V )max    
 C 
    D,0  g n2 1
1/ 2 
 T /W  V
nmin   1
 KC D , 0 
 

  T / W  CD,0  
1/ 2
max  q     
W / S  2 K  K  
Pull-Up Maneuver V 2
m  L  W cos 

R
V2
m  L W
R
V2
R
g n  1
g n  1

V
Pull-Down Maneuver
Pull-Down Maneuver
V2
m  L W
R
V2
R
g n  1
g n  1

V
For large load factors
R for level turn, pull-up and pull down
V2
R
gn
ω for level turn, pull-up and pull down
gn

V
For large load factors
Minimum R for level turn, pull-up and pull down
2 W
Rmin 
  gC L ,max S
Maximum ω for level turn, pull-up and pull down
  C L ,max nmax
max  g
2(W / S )
1
V-n Diagram n
L 2

 V2 SCL
W W
1 2 C L , max
nmax   V
2 W
S
Topics Discussed Airplane Performance


Power Available
Turning Flight
Maximum Velocity
Time to Climb
Service Ceiling
Maximum Altitude
Absolute Ceiling
Range and Endurance
References
• John D. Anderson. Introduction to Flight
• John D. Anderson, Airplane Performance and Design
Thank you for
listening!
Do you see it now?
Performance is action packed!

SUBSONIC Aircraft Performance

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Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2014 | LF Banal | © Copyright | All rights Reserved

What do we mean by performance?

Static Performance Dynamic Performance

Power Required Landing

Performance analysis hinges on

It is a term coined by Eiffel.

The same monsieur of Eiffel tower fame.

The same guy who designed Quiapo bridge

It is a graph or an equation that

Not including this type of drag.

Bullets would come in handy for this sort of

Skin-friction drag. Drag due to frictional shear stress integrated

Interference drag. An additional pressure drag caused by the

Induced drag. A pressure drag due to the pressure

Zero-lift drag. (Usually used in conjunction with a complete

Wave drag. The pressure drag associated with transonic

Skin Friction Drag Pressure Drag

Note : Profile Drag = Skin Friction Drag + Form Drag

total drag  profile drag  induced drag

If thrust line is aligned with flight path,

Required for what?!

Thrust required for steady level flight at given speed.

It has two components.

Since we have already established the existence of a minimum thrust required,

You will see how this ratio is

Cessna Citation III

You can substitute

Note that the minimum thrust required is independent of altitude.

The intersection of the TA

Vmax = 975 ft/s

At this speed, drag

• Vmax also depends on density (altitude), CD,0, eAR

  W  max  S   S   W  max eAR 

Parasite drag coefficient CD,o = 0.025  5.4066 x 10-3

 TA    W  max  S   S   W  max eAR 

For max TA and PA, V∞ = Vmax

Solve this by trial and error.

Jets Engines are usually rated in Thrust

Piston-Driven Engines are usually rated in terms of Power

PR vs. V∞ curve qualitatively

resembles TR vs. V∞ curve.

The results are…

Thrust required is re-computed using this density.

You can substitute

Power Available ~ Power Required

excess power  TV  DV

excess power PA  PR 6636 - 1884

For a jet aircraft:

service ceilings = 25,000 ft service ceilings = 48,000 ft

Maximum Rate of Climb, (R/C)max

To maximize range, glide at smallest  (at (L/D)max )

Aspect Ratio = 7.37

L D max  eAR / 4CD ,0

Aspect Ratio = 8.93

L D max  eAR / 4CD,0

W 2950 (2 cos 4.2)(16.95)

W – Weight of the airplane at any instant during flight.

To cover longest distance fly at minimum thrust required.

Assumptions made: level,

BREGUET RANGE EQUATION

(hp)(h) 550 ft - lb/s 3600 s

lb of fuel (TSFC )TA

To cover longest distance fly at maximum L1/2/D.